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CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE Archeological Investigation 1994

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Volume 4 Part 6 Specialist Reports

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Prepared for The Sydney Cove Authority

September 1996

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This is Volume 4 of a 6 volume set of reports. This volume consists of 6 individual parts containing the specialist reports for the Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site, Archaeological Investigations 1994, the Rocks .

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These reports are presented in the following order within the six parts of Volume 4.

The bolded reports are those contained in this part of the six parts of Volume 4.

VOLUME 4 SPECIALIST REPORTS '

Glass Building Material

Ceramics

Metal

Miscellaneous Leather

Bone and Shell Coins, Tokens and Medals

Soil Analysis Parasites and Plant Remains Pollen Analysis

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Martin Camey Kevin Bames

Graham Wilson

Kate Holmes .

Nadia lacono Rebecca Bower

Dominic Steele Wayne Johnson

RoyLawrie Claire Everett Mike McPhail

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

Part 4

Part 5

Part 6

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1.1 PREAMBLE

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GODDEN MACKAY

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The Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site was excavated between May and October 1994 by Godden Mackay Pty Ltd for the Sydney Cove Authority.

The following report' is Volume 4 of the final Cumberland/Gloucester Street excavation report. Volume 4 presents the reports on the analysis and results of that analysis for the entire artefact collection and the extra specialist reports on pollen, soils and parasites.

Analysis of the artefacts from the Cumberland/Gloucester Street site was conducted from November 1994 - September 1995 and from March - May 1996.

1.2 PURPOSE

The recovery of artefacts from any archaeological site is perhaps the most recognisable and evocative action undertaken by the archaeologist. Recognisable because it is an activity most people would associate with archaeological activity and for many lay people it is in fact the objective of all archaeological work. It is evocative because for both the archaeologist and the lay person each artefact is a direct physical link with the people of the past and as such provides the personal and emotional link which is otherwise missing from study of the past.

However the collection of artefacts from an archaeological site is not designed to fill the vaults of Museums and provide curators with new problems o~ storage and accession. The archaeological effort expended in collecting, provenancing, analysing and reporting on artefacts from any site should be designed to explore questions relating to past human activity manifest in the physical record. In terms of any specific site the artefacts should be studied within the range of research questions which have directed the excavation, and which are set out in the Research Design for that project. While the physical record which is exposed may not eventually be present, or detailed enough, to answer the initial questions posed to the site, it is incumbent upon the archaeologists involved in the excavation to keep in mind broader research themes associated with the material they are handling.

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1.3 PERSONNEL

GODDEN MACKAY

The physical evidence from the site was analysed by a variety of specialists. Some of these specialists took-part in the excavation while others remained isolated from the experience of the excavation itself. Members of the post excavation analysis team who were involved in the excavation were; Graham Wilson (ceramics and clay pipes), Martin Camey (glass), Dominic Steele (bone and wood), Nadia lacono (miscellaneous), Kate Holmes (metals) and Kevin Bames (building materials).

Those who were not directly involved in the excavation include; Wayne Johnson (coins and medals), Rebecca Bower (leather), Mike McPhail (pollen), Claire Everett (parasites and plant remains) and Roy Lawrie (soil analysis).

1.4 CLIENT

The client for the project was the Sydney Cove Authority. The Project Manager was Geoff Bailey and the Project Liaison Officer was Wayne Johnson.

1.5 CONTENTS

This report contains individual reports from the specialists. Each report defines the class of analysis which limits each particular study and outlines the process of the formation of the 'type series' for each artefact class.

Each artefact report addresses the research questions which have been outlined in the initial Research Design for the project and which have been discussed at length by the project team during the work.

The formation of a type series is an integral part of the work and each report provides a list of types within its particular artefact class.

Finally each report provides a context by context list of artefacts.

1.6 LEVEL OF ANAL VSIS

The quantity of material recovered from archaeological contexts required the division of the entire collection into a number of units with varying degrees of research priority.

Contexts which were deemed critical to the understanding of the development of the site or answering the research questions were given priority 1. Units that will contribute significantly to understanding the history of the site or that answer specific chronological stratigraphic questions were designated priority 2. Units unlikely to provide information related to the site or to specific questions were priOrity 3 and un{ts created during filling and levelling operations using material from off site were priority 4. Finally any structural units were designated priority 5~

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The sheer size of the artefact collection required a rationalisation of the time allocated to ahalysis. The level of analysis proposed for contexts across the site was re-evaluated based upon the final numbers present for analysi~: .

The primary job of the artefact team was to organise the material within each artefact type to assess the size of the task presented to' them. The identification and organisation of each class took up much of the allocated time for analysis. Units were prioritized to enable some_ level of analysis to proceed on the most significant contexts in terms of the research questions.

The level of analysis varied. from context to context dependant upon the priority listing.' .

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1.7 ARTEFACT CONSERVATION AND STORAGE

. Some of the artefacts recovered during excavation were sent away for specialist conservation treatment in order to stabilise their integrity. These items included leather, numismatics, metal, textile, ceramic and wood objects. All these objects were returned to the collection, analysed and then boxed with the rest of the collection. In some cases due to size, fragility or need.to maintain their condition during long term storage (such as with the leather), some of these objects have been stored in separate boxes to the other items which make up the assemblage. All of these boxes have been clearly labelled.

The artefact assemblage was boxed for storage into standard archive boxes. The type series for each artefact class was boxed separate of the other artefacts and set aside from them. Each box has been clearly labelled with pro-forma labels. The labels include details such as the name of the archaeological site, .the range of catalogue numbers which appear on the artefact bags included in that box, the box number and the contents (that is 'glass', 'bone' etc). The boxes were arranged in an order which reflects sequential item/catalogue entry. number order of the artefacts. They were then stacked in box number order at the Howard Q'Farrell building, within its central room.

1.8 LIMITATIONS •

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The time and budgetary limitations imposed upon the artefact team meant that some promising areas of research related to the Research Design questions or other related avenues of analysis could not be followed up. Where this has occurred to a significant level the analysts have identified such questions for future research.

Some problems occurred during analysiS owing to the potential health hazards associated with 'heavy metals poisoning. It was discovered that some underfloor contexts may have been contaminated with arsenic, possibly from rat baits, and strict Workcover procedures were implemented to ensure that the health risk to the

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archaeologist .and volunteers was minimal. The post excavation site was closed while these procedures were formulated.

1.9 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A large number of people were involved in assisting with the artefact analysis for this site. Many people worked long hours in difficult conditions to help with this vital part of the project. Their efforts and assistance are gratefully acknowledged .

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Frank Sinn, Katia Davis, Ralph Hawkins, Lachlan Mairs, Beth Hise, Karen McLeod, Kaitlan AII~n, Yvonne Lindberg, Michael Barry, Leslie Sylvester, Lillian Cooper, Dennis Hackett, Bruce and Rhonda Stubbington-Mitchell, Malcolm Ross, Wendy Bishop, Neringa Lisankaite, Annette Hill, Katie Yuill, Jacqui Craig, lonas Kaltenbach, Stavros Venetsanakos, Wayne Johnson, Irma lacono, Jane Lydon, Denis Gojak, Jenny Lindbergh, Mafaldi Rossi, Jodi Benton, Kim Taylor, Sybil Walsh, Patrick Tunks, Peter Douglas, Martin Rowney, Celina Ching and Mark Staniforth.

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CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE Archaeological Investigation

Soil Sample Analysis

Roy Lawrie

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September 1996

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CONTENTS ." •

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1.0 SOILS INSPECTION OF THE CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE, SYDNEY 1

1.1 PREAMBLE 1 1.2 SITE 1: SANDY L1THOSOL PROFILE DESCRIPTION .1 1.3 SITE 3: TRUNCATED YELLOW EARTH PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS 2 1.4 SITE 4: PROFILE DEVELOPED IN SANDSTONE COLLUVIUM 3 1.5 SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 3 1.6 REFERENCES 7

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1.1 PREAMBLE

GODDEN MACKAY

The site is underlain by Hawkesbury sandstone and occupies part of a broad ridge crest and the adjacent upper slope. The depth to rock varies around the site but is mostly shallow; outcrops on the surface are common. The remnants of any undisturbed soil profiles are barely half a metre thick, and usually gravelly. Two contrasting soil types are present, firstly a sandy lithosol with a weakly developed 8 .' horizon, and secondly, a truncated yellow earth with sandstone gravel in a brightly coloured and clayey 8 horizon. The original surface soil is poorly preserved, and had been mostly removed by excavation. In other places it has been mixed with various fill materials or with other horizons from the subsoil of the original profile.

1.2 SITE 1: SANDY LlTHOSOL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

Location: at northern end, close to Cumberland Street (Trench A, RL 29.90m grid reference 207512).

Depth (cm) below top of ? undisturbed surface

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Horizon

?A1

A2

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Profile Features

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very dark grey sand with slight sandstone gravel, very slight charcoal fragments; massive and compacted; weakly porous, with clear wavy boundary to

very light grey sand, structureless, with very slight charcoal and flat sandstone gravel; clear straight boundary to

yellowish grey (10 YR 4/2 moist) sand, soft, porous; gradual boundary to

yellow grey (10 YR 5/3 moist) sand, soft, porous; clear boundary to

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GODDEN MACKAY

light yellowish gray (10 YR 6/2 moist) sand, soft, waterlogged, overlying hard weathered sandstone with an irregular upper surface (bedding plane tilted about 20°).

The profile features are intermediate in character between the Commodore and Hawkesbury series of Walker (1960). The principle profile form (Northcote, 1979) is Uc 4.24.

1.3 SITE 3: TRUNCATED YELLOW EARTH PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS

Site 3: near extreme south-east corner (Trench C), grid reference 237499, in wall of trench beside a drainage pipe; profile developed in sandstone alluvium.

Depth (cm) below top of Horizon ?undisturbed surface

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2 ?B1

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Profile features

base of sandstone wall, with thin layer of broken stone and sandy soil

light yellow brown (10 YR 5/6) loamy coarse sand (slight with sandstone gravel), hardsetting and massive, with grey vertical streaks extending downward from top (remnants of SA horizon); clear straight boundary to

yellow brown (10 YR 5/6) coarse sand with moderate to heavy content of sandstone gravel (15-30 mm); hard and massive when dry; clear irregular boundary to

slightly soft weathered sandstone, with orange weathered rind 20 mm thick.

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1.4 SITE 4: ·PROFILE DEVELOPED IN SANDSTONE COLLUVIUM •

Located near centre of site (Trench E, grid location 220539), next to big excavated ?cellar; profile developed in sandstone colluvium.

Depth (cm) below top of ?undisturbed surface

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25

38

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Horizon

mixed A+B, . +B2 (part)

B2

c

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Profile Features

greyish brown light medium clay with sand, with mixed weathered sandstone gravel (yellow clayskins on surface); slight charcoal; plant roots (up to 3 mm) common; clear straight boundary to

yellow brown and yellowish brown coarse sandy clay, with deeply weathered soft sandstone gravel. Moist when sampled; few roots; clear wavy boundary to

light grey. clayey coarse sand, waterlogged, with slightly matted plant roots just above

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The absence of an A horizon affects the determination of a principle profile form, but it is likely that the profiles represent the Hammondville series (Walker, 1960). Similar soils have been described at other inner city sites (Macquarie Place, Hyde Park, first Government House site).

1.5 SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES .

Samples for laboratory analysis were collected at four sites: from each of the major horizons of the three profiles described above, sites 1, 3 and 4 and from a black greasy humic deposit, Site 2 (unit A230), grid reference 205512.

a) pH: The soils are weakly acidic to weakly alkaline (pH 1:5 in calcium chloride ranges from 5.5 to 7.5), This is much more alkaline than similar soils from undisturbed sites, but similar to the pH seen at other historic sites with long

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periods of.human activity. The higher pH is thought to be due to the deposition of alkaline material at the surface (such as wood ash) and subsequent leaching down the profile (Lawrie and McLennan, 1987). These alkaline materials contain calcium, potassium, magnesium and sodium which also influence the level of exchangeable cations in the soil. Soils like these in farmland or bush land locations are normally moderately acidic at the surface, and become strongly acidic at depth (a pH below 4 in the subsoil is common). Their pH has been raised here by up to 3 units.

b) Salinity: The soils contain a very low to low concentration of dissolved salts (measured as the electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil/water suspension). The lowest level is at site 2, indicating that this is a well drained area. The higher salinity at site 4 is due to the higher clay content of the soil and its somewhat poorer drainage. Sodium (Na) is the dominant soluble cation, which is typical for most soils.

c) Available phosphorus (Bray P): The quantity of bio-available phosphorus (as measured by the Bray test) is high in most of these soils (range 20-271 mg/kg). Levels are comparable to those found at other archaeological sites of the historical period, but are not as high as those recorded from the privies at the first Government House (range 170-430 mg/kg). Evidence for this type of use is weak, especially considering the low carbon concentrations found here (first Government House samples had 4.5-7.5% carbon). A more likely explanation may be the deposition of phosphorus-rich material at the surface (ash, food scraps, plant material, animal dung) and the subsequent movement of phosphate downward via leaching. The elevated phosphorus concentration (see figure 1) in the B horizon of site 1 is an indication of downward movement and accumulation of phosphorus. At the other sites Bray P constitutes about 20% of the total phosphorus concentration, a high percentage by comparison with undisturbed soils and indicative of considerable additions of phosphorus.

d) Total carbon: The range in carbon concentrations in the soils is narrow, and at the low end of the range (0.18-0.39%). Levels are similar to those of undisturbed soils, and indicate that the profiles sampled are largely intact. The distribution of carbon down the profile at site 1 is typical (figure 1). Any carbon­rich material which may have been present has been stripped away with the overburden. Only the humic material of site 2 has a carbon content of any size, but even this concentration (3.85%) is low for such material ie. it consists largely of non-organic mineral matter. Its total nitrogen content is 0.19, giving a carbon: nitrogen ratio of 20; 1 - slightly greater than that found in many topsoils (usually 10:1 or 15:1). Taken together this suggests that the humic deposit is a mixture of soil with well-rotted organic matter, low in nitrogen.

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..c -0. Q)

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~ 0 Phosphorus (Bray) mg I kg

0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 0

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-- ~ A 20 -- .. 2 --- • -- \ -- • --. --.. \ -- -- • B ~~-0 ~ ~--30 ~ ---~ .- • -- I -- ~ -- - • - / - , -- -- • - • r:J . .

C 40

1.4 151.61.7181,920

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, 80 90

Figure 1 Phosphorus, carbon and calcium are three of the major elements contained in the materials dumped on the surface since European settlement. Their distribution through the shallow sandy soil at site 1 shows that each has a different mobility through the profile. The least mobile is carbon, which has a maximum concentration in the A 1 horizon. Phosphorus has moved slowly downwards, concentrating in the B horizon, where the Bray test level is now about fifty times higher than normal. Cal~ium has penetrated further, moving more than 30 cm below the original surface, into the C horizon and probably out into the groundwater.

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e) Exchangeable cations: Although these soils are physically intact, their chemical properties -have been drastically altered as a result of human activity. The greatest changes have been in the proportions of each cation, as a percentage of the total of all exchangeable cations. Similar changes have been found at other archaeological sites, and also, to a lesser degree, in Hyde Park. Exchangeable aluminium, normally the dominant cation in similar undisturbed subsoils, has virtually disappeared, its place taken by calcium. The calcium concentration has risen as a result of leaching of calcium from material dumped on the soil surface. The aluminium has shifted from the exchangeable form into insoluble mineral forms (aluminium hydroxides most likely) whose formation is favoured by the rising pH. Potassium (K) has also migrated downwards, but the resulting boost in concentration is small. There has been little change in the concentration of the other exchangeable cations, sodium and magnesium. They are either more easily leached out through the profile in solution or were present in the surface waste materials at lower concentrations. The impact of the changes on the B horizon is to raise its percentage of exchangeable calcium from around 5% to 80 or 90%, and to reduce the percentage of exchangeable aluminium from around 40% to virtually zero. These changes take time to occur. Experience from long-term agricultural trials suggests that 50 years might be needed for surface deposition to produce such effects at a depth of half a metre.

The total concentration in the subsoils of exchangeable cations has probably doubled or trebled as a result of the deposition of material on the surface containing these alkali cations. Wood ash, food scraps, stock feed and animal dung are possible sources, and can also contribute carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen.

f) Trace elements: By comparison with current surface soils, especial!y in the inner city area, the levels of most heavy metals are generally low or very low. This is the case for se, Mo, As, Hg, Zn, cr. Ni, Pb and Mn. The cadmium (Cd) content is also low, except for the humic deposit. The concentration (4.5 mg/kg) exceeds the current investigation limit for contaminated sites of 3 mg/kg, and is in the very high range for inner city soils. The reasons for this are uncertain but are probably due to the retention of cadmium by the organic matter in the humic deposit. Any cadmium deposited on the surface over the last hundred years or so may have been leached downwards, through the overburden, aided by acidic water movement.

Iron (Fe) concentrations are typical for soils developed on sandstone, and are not elevated by the presence of concretionary ironstone often present in a band below the surface. The highest concentration is in the 10-20 cm sample from site 4, which also has the highest arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and phosphorus level. Arsenic and chromium are not very mobile in soils, but their

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concentrations. in site 4 are not high enough to attribute their levels to any particular activity or land use. The iron and phosphorus contents however are well above those of the other soils and require some explanation. The profile at site 4 is more clayey than the others, and may have once had a layer of iron­indurated gravel, similar to the intact soils at Macquarie Place and Hyde Park . The iron-rich gravel lies above the B horizon and it is this part of the profile which has been disturbed at site 4. Remnants of it-probably remain,-giving the

. 10-20 cm a higher iron content. Both iron and clay minerals improve the . phosphorus retention of soils. Unlike the iron content, the high phosphorus concentration (0.121% total P and 271 mg/kg Bray P) is not inherited from the intact profile, but results from downward movement of phosphorus (originally from P-rich surface material) and subsequent retention by the iron-and-clay-rich B horizon.

1.6 REFERENCES

Walker, P.H. (1960). Soil survey of the County of Cumberland. New South Wales Dept of Agriculture, Sydney. Soil Survey Bulletin No. 2.

Lawrie, R. and McLennan, I. (1987). Changes to Soil Chemical Properties of the Site of the First Government House. Archaeometry: Further Australian Studies, Ambrose and Mummery Eds. ANU, Canberra.

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APPENDIX - CHEMICAL ANALYSIS •

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Report No: 950086

Client NS\V Agriculture BCRI PMB 10 RYDALMERE NSvV 2116

. Att'n R. Lawrie

Received 10 August 1994

BCRI ID Sample ID pH"

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E951921 Site J 0-10cm 6.38

E951922 Site 1 16-21cm 6.46

E95!923 Site I 25-30cm 6.60

E951924 Site I 35-40cm 6.39

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ECb

(dSlm)

0,.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 .

'1'11< •• ",.u/"'al'< oxp", •• d Oil all tlIr.dry soil basis, alld apply /0 the .amplu as provided. . -

Sampl.s pr<p""d by ,I(dhod Nos EPR.l0), f;PIUW1, EPR.30 I.

lolpll <>fa 1:5 w/v' sails",,~ruloll (1l0.0JM CaCl, at2S·C./.lfetluxl No EEC. lOll

1:.!.~::."tr;'·a1 ClInductivity ora 1:5 'Wtv .oil $UOp.nsioll aC 2S'C.I.II.tlwd.vo EEC-lOll

{c/I-:xtroctabl. pho1phote (nrol No l)./Method No ft,\P.l01]

(J/1lllol carbon de/ermIned by combustion fl.ecu).[.lletlwd No 1:.'1'C.l0JI

Brav P' Tot Cd -(m~/kH) \tla~lkg)

78 0.93 61 0.27

130 0.21 20 0.18

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NSW Agriculture Biological and Chemical Research Institute

Postal Address: p:\m 10 Hydalmtlrc ~SW 2116 Street Address : Cnr Victoria Rd & Pcmbcrlon St, Hydalmcre :-lSW 21 16

• Telephone: (02) 6839777 FAX: (02) 630 4475

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BaCl., Exchangeable Cations'

Al Mg Ca K Na (cmoj(.)lkg) ('m()I(.)Ik~) (cmol( .)Ik~) (emeol(.)lkl() (emol(+llkl()

< 0.01 0.42 8.45 0.26 0.05 •

0.02 0')0 .- 3.43 0 . .18 0.03

< 0.01 0.21 4.40 0,.21 0.04

< 0.01 0.18 2.84 0.23 0 .. 03

I.) f:XChanl/f.obl. cotion. ill a 0.01.11 /JaCl, leachat., dtter;ni/IL,i by ICI'AI-;S J-:xchang.czble AI t. dc/ermilled nnly j(,,/I < .';.00/. (.llethod No" RI-X. 10'1, ICI~:JO 11 ~~~() • Data 'I.'Jfn:clt!d,;"-,r:«1/ uble ,catIons.

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Dr M Abdullah Special Chemist

20 September 1994

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Report No: 95-267

Client j-

NSW Agriculture BCRI PMB 10 RYDALMERE NSW 2116

·Att'n Ray Lawrie

Received 19 October 1994

BCRI ID

E95/2383 E95/2384 E95/2385

E95/2386 E95/2387 E95/2388

BCRI ID

E95/2383 E95/2384 E95/2385

Sample ID

Site 2 humic dep Site 3 2-11cm

11-21cm

Site 4 10-20cm 28-38cm 38-41cm

Sample ID

Site 2 humic dep Site 3 2·11cm

11-21cm

pH"

6.17 7.47 7.44

6.27 5.69 5.50

Se (mg/kg)

<7 <7 <7

EC b

(dS'm)

0.24 0.10 0.10

0.15 0.14 0.13

Mo (mgllq:)

<3 <3 <3

Brav P' -(mg/k~)

112 53 84

271 70 39

As (mg/kg)

<4 <4

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. - NSW Agriculture Biological and Chemical Research Institute

Postal Address : 1'~1B 10 Hydalmerc :-:SW 2116 Street Address : Cnr Victoria Rd & Pcmberton St, Rydalmerc .~SW 2116 Telephone: (02) 6839777 FAX: (02) 630 4475

BaC!., Exchangeable Cations· Soluhle Cations(

Tot Cd Al (daglkg) (emn\( +Vkg)

3.85 XH

OAO 0.11 0.35 0.02

0.69 < 0.01 0.39 < 0.01 0.50 < 0.01

Hg Zn (mg/kg) (mg"lKg)

< :2 5.8 < 2 5.3 < 2 6.5

lvI(Y • 0

(cmul{+)/kg)

XH

0.37 0.38

1.00 0.68 0.73

Cr (mglkg)

6 8 8

Ca (cmol(+)/kg)

XH

7.05 6A7

16.1 7.47 7.75

K (cm ol( +)/k,:>

Xl{

0.36 0.20

0.51 0.39 0.43

Total Elementsl

Cd (mglkg)

4.5 0.7

< 0.6

Ni (mn/kn)

<3 <3 <3

Na Mg Ca K (cmol(+)lkg) (cmol(+)lkg) (cmol(+)lkg) (cmol(+)lkg)

l\lt Xlt x,< XR

0.07 < 0.01 0.02 0.02

0.05 < 0.01 0.03 0.01

0.31 0.01 0.05 < 0.01

0.12 0.01 0.04 0.01

0.15 0.01 0.05 < 0.01

Pb Cu Mn Alt

(mglkg) (mg/kg) (m,(lkg) (%)

25 7 11.'1 0.6:30 16 11 9.5 0.723

8 7 16.13 0.672

Page 1 of 2

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Na (cmol(+)lkg)

l'm

0.08 0.09

0.19 0.20 0.15

Fet

(%)

0.703 0.626 0.801

CEC (cmol(+)lkg)

,,1t

7.96 7.12

17.9 8.65 9.04

P (%)

0.057 0.028 0.052

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Report No: 95-267

BCRI ID Sample ID Se Mo (mglkg) (mg/kg)

E95/2386 E95/2387 E95/2388

Site 4 10-20cm 28-38cm 38-41cm

-~.-~ - ---- -------

<7 <7

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'fMStr •• ults are upre ••• d on all air-dry .0U bllSis, and apply to IM .ampl •• a. prooided.

Sample. prepared by Method No. EP1I.1O I, EP1I.201,. ],.'I'R.301.

fa} plI <J{a /:5 w/o soU .usp<l1.ion{1I O.OIM CaCl, at 25 , C. [Method No EEC. lOll

[hI Electrical conductioity ofa 1:5 w/u soU suspenllionM 2S'C, {Jfethod So EEC. lOll

lcIl::%lt(J~Utble phosphate (Bray No I). [Jlethvd No EAI'. 10 1/

ldl ToUtI ClIrbondettrmlned bycombustion (7.C4'Q). {.\Icthod So (,."l'C.1O II

<3 <3 <3

As (mW!<g)

8 <4 <4

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Hg (mg!kg) ..

." < 2 <2 <2

Zn (mglkg)

2.9 1.0 <1

Cr (mg!kg)

17 11 8

Total Elementsl

Cd (mg/kg)

< 0.6 < 0.6 < 0.6

Ni (mg!kg)

<3 <3 <3

[./ Exrhangeabl. cations in a a.OJM BaCl, I.achal .. dettrmlnea by ICPAES, Exchangeabl. AI krfelermifleJ only1{pll « .'i.04. [.lfelho<i No. 1-;I-:C. 101, ICI::JI)l1

. . • Vata correctedlor !Oluble callollS.

1fl So/ubI. cations III a 60'1. ethanolleachate, del<!rmined by,\A.S. [.\felhud N"" E-9C.IOI, ,IAS.1011

li/Totalnitrocen dettrmlMd by combustion (T.eco}..l.\/elhudNo E.."fN. /oIJ

VI !Valer .. Iuble nltrat. nitrogen [na 1:5 w I 0 ,o/I.uspens;"n, d.termined c%rimelru:ally./.lletho<i No l':NO.1O 1/

IllTotal dementI ,Ielermlned by acid digestion .and lCPA(,."S. ,.Ife/hod Nos J::.\f/).IOI, IGP.I01; ICP.301}

t ,1/& F< are notlully fV:COoered in IM aclddltJ .. t ••

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Pb (mWKlIl

12 <7 <7

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Cu Mn AIt Fet P

(mg!kg) (mglkg)' [%) (%) (%) --- -- -- --- -------------- -----------

<2 <2 <2

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11.:3 3.0 2 .. 1

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0.978 0.469 0 .. 396

.,-f"

f!~LLvCle:L Dr M Abdullah Special Chemist

12 January 1995

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2 .. 14 1.53

0.681

0 .. 121 0.030 0.017

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CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE Archaeological Investigation 1994

Examination of Cesspit and Well Samples for Parasite and Macrobotanical Remains

Claire Everett

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September 1996 •

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CONTENTS

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

2.0 SAMPLES

3.0 METHODOLOGY ,

3.1 PARASITES 3.2 MACROBOTANICAL REMAINS

4.0 RESULTS

5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

6.0 REFERENCES

7.0 END NOTES

APPENDIX 1

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This report presents the results of investigations into the parasitological and macrobotanical remains present in seven pit samples taken from the Cumberland Street archaeological site. As the field of archaeoparasitology in Australia is still in its very early stages, and techniques for the recovery of these remains are constantly being tested and refined, this report should not be seen as the definitive, "final word" on these classes of data and the information that can be gleaned from them on this s'ite. Rather it is a first step toward a better understanding of the complex processes affecting the deposition and recovery of this material in cesspit deposits and through this a better understanding of the health and lifestyles of those who contributed to the formation of these deposits. The recovery of intestinal parasite eggs is the only way in which it is possible to be certain that the contents of archaeological pit samples are faecal in origin or otherwise, and whether this faecal material derives from a human source or not. Macrobotanical remains are linked in with parasite eggs in this context, as the recovery of macrobotanical remains (chiefly seeds small enough and durable enough to have survived passage

. through the digestive tract) in conjunction with parasite eggs in a deposit leads to the fairly positive conclusion that these represent the remains of plants consumed by the people who inhabited this site.

This report discusses first the nature of the samples studied, and their context, then the methodology for the techniques used to extract both the parasite and macrobotanical remains, then the results gained from each sample "and finally a discussion of the results and their implications. .

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GODDEN MACKAY

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A total of seven samples from this site were provided for analysis. The context, date and nature of each of these samples is given below.

8168: Base fill from cesspit context B050, dated to around the 1840s, located in the rear yard of a bakery fronting onto Cumberland Street. Very dry, sandy deposit with little visible organic material. Contained . lumps of concreted material, possibly carbonates (lime), some of which broke up in water.

8386: Fill sample taken from a cesspit located in the rear yard of Number 5 Carahers Lane, dated between 1850-1900. Very organic deposit, quite damp with a quantity of plant matter and fragments of eggshells also.

A 138: Fill taken from cesspit context A 161, dated to between 1833 and 1915. Cesspit associated with set of four terraces - Nicholas Terraces - built in 1833 and demolished in 1915.

E081: Fill taken from cesspit context E077, dated to the 1850s. The cesspit is located on the same land as the Byrne House (Cribbs Lane Terraces) but is not stratigraphically associated with it. Very dry sandy deposit with no organic material visible. The physical makeup of the deposit consisted of sand, small,. glassy black fragments (probably coal) and fragments of brick. .

C064: Fill taken from the cesspit of the Cribb shop, dated to some time in the 1850s or 1860s. Very organic deposi!.

C285: Second level of well in Cribb's rear yard, sealed between 1815 and 1818. Very dark, very damp (semi-liquid) deposit, with a high number of woody fragments.

C290: Context below·C285. Similar physical characteristics to C285.

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3.1 PARASITES

GODDEN MACKAY

Although humans can play host to a large variety of parasitic passengers, the range of parasites one can generally expect to find preserved in an archaeological latrine deposit are somewhat limited. This is due in part to the life cycle of each particular parasite species. Most intestinal parasites such as tapeworms and pinworms spend the majority of their life cycles within the host's body, and thus do not produce very durable eggs or body parts, as this is unnecessary. The two major exceptions are Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) and Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) whose life cycles require fertilised eggs to spend time outside the host's body, as these parasites are transmitted through contact with infected faecal material. Because of this aspect of their life cycle, the eggs of these two parasites are necessarily more durable and more likely to survive in an archaeological context than any other type .

. Due to the microscopic size of the eggs of intestinal parasites, it is impossible to ascertain without microscopic examination whether a sample from a cess pit contains parasite eggs or not. Thus in order to ascertain whether eggs are present or not it is necessary to employ a technique which concentrates eggs in order to give the best possible chance of finding eggs in samples where their concentration may be very low. .

Various techniques have been developed and used overseas for the recovery of eggs from similar deposits, although these deposits tend to be much older and have been subject to different environmental factors. Generally these techniques can be divided into two types - flotation and sedimentation. Flotation is the technique most commonly mentioned in the literature on the subject, although as noted in Everett, these techniques are often poorly described.1 Flotation techniques, when applied to Australian material have proved so far, with a single exception, to be unsuccessful. Sedimentation, however is a technique which has proved successful in recovering parasite eggs from Australian latrine deposits, in particular some which failed to yield any evidence of eggs when flotation was used. . Sedimentation was the technique used to examine the samples from this site.

In order to examine the samples for the presence of parasite eggs, 5 gram portions were measured out and then wet sieved through mesh no greater than 150m, retaining sediments in a beaker. These sediments were then washed several times in order to remove soil particles, and a sample of the remaining sediments then

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GODDEN MACKAY

pi petted up an~ made into a slide and viewed. The advantage of employing this technique is that it concentrates the finest particles of the sample, which includes parasite eggs. There is no way, using this technique, that parasite eggs can be either destroyed or missed, as can be the case with flotation.

3.2 MACROBOTANICAL REMAINS

Most macrobotanical remains, although visible to the naked eye, are too small to be noticed and therefore retrieved during the excavation process, even if the soil is dry-sieved on site, as the mesh sizes employed are too large to retain most food seeds. If macrobotanical remains are to be recovered from these deposits it is necessary to employ laboratory, rather than field, techniques. Overseas the most popular recovery technique for macrobotanical remains on sites in general tends to be flotation. This is only successful in recovering charred or desiccated material and does not work with waterlogged material, which is the state in which most macrobotanical remains from pit samples have been preserved. In order to recover macro botanical remains from pit samples it has been found that a program of wet­sieving through a series of nested sieves is the most successful technique. Samples of the deposits from this site were sieved through a nest of 71011m and 42511m sieves respectively, using cold water to wash away soil particles, and then the retent left on the sieves was examined under a microscope at low magnification and the macrobotanical remains were extracted. The amount of sample necessary can vary, but in general it is preferable to use at least 100 grams. However the amounts of some deposits available for study in some cases were very small, so for this study the amount of soil used was reduced to 50 grams.

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. GODDEN MACKAY

The eggs of Trichuris trichiura were recovered from samples of material from B386, A138, B168 and C064 (see Figure 1). The eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides were recovered from samples from C064 and B386 (see Figure 2). These represent the first examples that the author has found so far of this parasite in Australian deposits although Macphail notes that some may have been present in samples examined for pollen from the Family Court site in Goulburn Street.

2 Why this parasite is found

in some samples and not in others is somewhat perplexing. Possible reasons for this are discussed in section five. No parasite eggs at all were recovered from the other deposits- E081, C285 and C290.

Of th~ macrobotanical remains recovered from these deposits, the easier items such as the seeds of passionfruit and grape were identified by the author while the remainder in the "too hard basket" were sent off for specialist identification by Professor Peter Martin of the School of Crop Sciences at Sydney University. The results of these investigations are as follows:

A138.

8386.

8168.

SEEDS Passionfruit Raspberry or Blackberry

SEEDS Grape Passionfruit Melon (one) Raspberry or Blackberry

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Mustard? (spherical seeds with detachable testa, present in both intact and deduced forms)

OTHER Bark fragments

SEEDS None

OTHER Bark with yellowish-green lichen overgrowth Decayed wood with pin hole borer holes, suggesting that the sample was sapwood

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C064.

C285.

C290.

GODDEN MACKAY

Charcoal in small fragments Mineral concretions, dark coloured (from soil) Small clay aggregate containing what appeared to be a bone fragment

SEEDS Grape Passionfruit Raspberry or Blackberry

OTHER Roundish mineral or ceramic grains

SEEDS None

OTHER Hardwood fragments Charcoal and partly carbonised wood fragments Sawdust (still capable of positive lignin test) Chaff fragments, from grass or cereal

SEEDS FesPuca sp. (small grass seeds)

OTHER Chaff Eagments Hardwood fragments Grit (sand sized silica grains) in abundance

A description of the techniques used to analyse and identify these items is given in Appendix 1.

From the same samples as those that yielded parasite eggs came the seeds of passionfruit, grape, and what was initially thought to be raspberry but under closer inspection have proved to be fig seeds. Also found in conjunction with these seeds was a considerable quantity of tiny wood fragments which proved upon closer inspection to be sawdust. Sample E081 yielded absolutely no macrobotanical remains at all, whilst C285 and C290, the two well samples contained a quite different assemblage of plant material, chiefly wood fragments ranging from tiny twig fragments to chunks of wood over 5 cm long. Quite characteristic also of these deposits was the quantity of straw-like material they yielded. Among this straw material were some very small grass seeds, quite similar in shape to oat seeds which are thought to be the seeds of sweet vernal, an introduced plant known to be growing in Sydney as early as 1802, and often incorporated into mouldy hay in

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• GODDEN MACKAY

order to make :it more palatable to livestock. Sample 8386 contained some very unusual seeds that were not found in any of the other deposits. Tiny and gelatinous with a distinct bluish hue, their identity is a real puzzle - the closest~Jdentification that can be reached at this stage is a very tentative one that they may be the seeds of prickly pear, apparently quite a popular fruit in the early days of the colony before it was declared a noxious weed!

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GODDEN MACKAY

These investigations have yielded quite a varied body of data that otherwise would have been lost. While it is not possible to construct a detailed picture of what the site's past inhabitants were eating and what their· state of health was it is nonetheless possible to draw some conclusions from this data that may contribute to greater knowledge on these topics. Firstly, and most importantly, it is possible to state unequivocally that the samples which yielded parasite eggs are the

_ decomposed remains of human faecal material and thus that the structures from which they were excavated have been correctly identified as cesspits. This identification may appear to be a case of stating the obvious however a number of important conclusions can thus be reached: '

1. That the seeds found in conjunction with parasite eggs in these deposits are almost certainly the remains of fruits eaten by the previous users of these cesspits, as although it is possible that food scraps were thrown into these pits, no remains of larger seeds such.as peaches or apricots have been analysed here (see 80ne and Shell report by D.Steele for discussion of these larger seeds.). Combined with other forms of evidence such as palynological and faunal material this has the potential to build quite a detailed picture of the diet of the people who contributed to the creation of these deposits. The fruit seeds recovered from these, samples are all from fruits which could either have been consumed fresh or preserved as jams or condiments. In this case it is interesting to ponder the form in which "these foods were being consumed. Jams, condiments and pickles were certainly being imported to the colony at the time (and evidence of the consumption of some sort of pickle or mustard can be seen in the mustard seeds recovered from sample 8386). Palynological investigations of some soil and pit samples from this site were conducted and provide insight into both the types of plants growing on the site and those brought onto it. Of particular interest to this study is the analysis of pollen from cesspit unit 8386 . (the only cesspit sample chosen for palynological investigation), which Macphail described as "a highly distinctive acid-insoluble extract, dominated by matted plant fibres, native grass and cereal pollen and fungal spores".3 He notes that pollen of native plants was present in small numbers, and that pollen of exotic taxa present in trace numbers included that of pea-flower and possibly haWthorn and blackberry. His investigation of the large proportion of plant fibres led to the conclusion that the users of the latrine had a "commendably fibre­and cereal-rich diet that differed little from the 1820s" (based on investigations of an 1820s latrine from the Family Law' Courts site).4 Naturally more research on privy contents from other sites will need to be conducted before any firm

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GODDEN MACKAY

conclusions 01'1 the dietary practices of Nineteenth Century Sydney residents can be made.

2. That the deposits that did not contain parasite eggs are therefore not the remains of decomposed faecal material, these deposits being C285, C290 and E081. In the case of C285 and C290 this is not at all surprising as the structure that these deposits were excavated from was identified as a well. Nonetheless it is important to note that the absence of parasites indicates that the users of the site were not using this structure as a receptacle for faecal material either before or after it went out of use as a well, and that the contents of the welt presumably drinking water, were not being contaminated by run off from overflowing cesspits, an oft-reported occurrence in the Rocks in the middle of the last century and one of the reasons behind the push to have cesspits replaced by mains sewerage systems in the final part of last century and the early decades of this one. Deposit E081 is, however, a somewhat different matter. This deposit, taken from a structure identified by the excavators as a cesspit failed to exhibit any of the physical characteristics of a "typical" cesspit deposit, namely very dark, damp material containing a large quantity of organic matter. This deposit was in contrast very dry and sandy and contained no organic material whatsoever. While it is possible that the structure from which this deposit was excavated has been misidentified as a cesspit, this is as unlikely as similar structures on this site have yielded deposits containing parasite eggs. The most likely explanation is thus that the structure that this deposit came from was indeed once a cesspit but that at some time in the past it underwent a thorough cleaning out and all the "typical" cesspit contents were removed and that the pit was filled in with this sandy material.

. 3. That some attempt was being made by the users of these cesspits to reduce the smell that no doubt emanated from them. Fragments of what appeared to be sawdust were recovered from all the cesspit samples which contained parasite eggs, but an unusually large proportion of a well sample, C285 consisted of sawdust also. The presence of sawdust among with the fruit seeds in the cesspit deposits does not indicate that sawdust also formed a component of the inhabitants' diets, (although it is certainly high in fibre!) rather that sawdust was being throw into the pits in order to absorb some of the liquid in them that was contributing to the smell. Also found in conjunction with the sawdust were small chunks of carbonates which appear to be the remains of lime, a substance also regularly thrown into cesspits in order to disinfect them and to act as a deodorising agent. This would have created a highly alkaline environment, highly favourable to the preservation of macrobotanical material, in particular seeds, which explains the excellent condition in which most of the seeds from these samples were recovered.

Preservation of seeds aside, this physical evidence of the attempt to remove some of the smell of these cesspits can contribute to discussion on the topic of whether the Rocks was a terrible slum in which to live and its inhabitants the most degraded

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GODDEN MACKAY

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of Sydney's inhabitants or whether these people were doing the best they possibly •

could to make their surroundings as pleasant as possible, including attempting to alleviate some of the smells that would have been part and parcel of early urban living in Sydney. It was not only the smell of cesspits but also the fear of the potential for the spread of disease that led early Sydneysiders to lime their privies.

4. The presence of large quantities of sawdust in well sample C285 is easily explained by examining the occupation of the user of the well. This well was located in the back yard of George Cribb's butchers shop and it is common practice, even today, for the floors of butchers' shops to be liberally sprinkled with sawdust or wood shavings to absorb blood and smells and to stop the floor from becoming slippery .. It appears that Cribb was using the well as a receptacle for the soiled sawdust, although whether this was contemporary with the well being used to draw water or not is unknown. The fact that charcoal and wood fragments were found in conjunction with the sawdust would suggest that the well had ended its working days as a garbage, rather than water, receptacle.

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Eve rett , Claire, 1994, A Tale of Two Privies: Techniques for the Recovery of Organic Remains from Australian Latrine Deposits, Unpublished BA Honours thesis, Department of Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology, University of Sydney

Limbrey, Susan, 1975, Soil Science and Archaeology, Academic Press, London •

Macphail, Michael, 1995, Palynological Analyses, Cumberland St Archaeological Site, The Rocks, Sydney Cove, Unpublished report to Godden Mackay

Pike, Allan, 1967, 'The recovery of parasite eggs from ancient cesspit and latrine deposits: an approach to the study of early parasite infections' in Brothwell & Sandison (eds.) Disease in Antiquity pp. 184-8 Pike, Allan & Martin Biddle, 1966, 'Parasite eggs in medieval Winchester', Antiquity 40: 293-6

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7.0 ENDNOTES

GOD DEN MACKAY

1 See Pike & Biddle, 1966, Pike 1967 and Limbrey. Claire Everett, 1995 A Tale of Two Privies.

2 Mike Macphail, 1995, Palynological Analyses, Cumber land Street Archaeological Site, p11.

3 Mike Macphail, 1995, Palynological Analyses, Cumber/and Street Archaeological Site, p11.

4 Mike Macphail, 1995, Palynological Analyses, Cumberland Street Archaeological Site, 115.

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APPENDIX 1·-•

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The University of Sydney

. DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCES

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2nd November, 1995 "

Ms ClaireEverett, HLA-Envirosciences pty. Ltd., P.o. Box 726, PYMBLE NSW 2073 Fax 9988-4441

Dear Ms Everett,

DepartmIDt of Crop Sciences, A20 Faculty of A~icul ture The University of Sydney New South Wales 2006 Australia

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Botanical' Examination of Archaeological Samples •

1. Introduction

The solid matter - in the six alcohol preserved samples submitted on 7th June 1995 under identifying numbers A138, B02, B168, C064, C285 and C290 was mounted wet and examined under a stereo dissecting microscope for preliminary examination and identification (as far as possible) on 13th June 1995. Samples of seed material not positively identified at this stage were air dried for more detailed examination of surface texture and sculpturing' under higher magnifications, while samples of wood- and sawdust-like materials were treated with acid phloroglucinol and examined under higher magnification to detect the presence of lignin and to reveal any structural details which may have b~en preserveq, both of these examinations taking place on 14th June, 1995. Results obtained at that stage were telephoned through to you on the aftecnoon of 14th June.

Since there was some doubt about the true identity of the somewhat kidney shaped to pastie shaped seeds provisionally identified as raspberry seeds, a further examination was made of air dried seeds of other edible berry fruits in the same family (RosaCeae) from both fresh and preserved (jam) sources. This led to the conclusion that the seeds were either raspberry or blackberry seeds and until further work is done on the typical size spectrums of the two species in their numerous varieties it will not be possible to be more specific. Finding a reliable distinction is a matter of some interest, given that raspberries are essentially a cold climate fruit and usually imported to Sydney, whereas the blackberry grows abundantly in the wild in close proximity to the city and appears to have done so since at least the. mid­nineteenth century.

Telephone: +61-2-351-2946 Facsimile: +61-2-351-4172

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2. Results

A138.

802.

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8168.

C064.

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C285.

Seeds Passionfruit Raspberry or.Blackberry

Seed~' Grape Passionfruit ... Melon (one) Raspberry or Blackberry Mustard? (spherical seed~ with detatchable testa,

present in both intact and dehulled forms)

other Bark fragments

Seeds None

Other Bark with yellowish-green lichen overgrowth Decayed wood with pin hole borer holes, suggesting

that the sample was sapwood Charcoal in small fragments Mineral concretions, dark coloured (from soil) Small clay aggregate containing what appeared to be

a bone fragment

Seeds Grape Passionfruit Raspberry or Blackberry

Other Roundish mineral or ceramic grains

Seeds None

Other Hardwood fragments Charcoal and partly carbonised wood fragments Sawdust (still capable of positive lignin test) Chaffy matter fragments, from grass or cereal

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C290. Seeds Festuca sp. (small grass seeds)

other Chaff Fragments

\ Hardwood fragments Grit (sand sized silica grains) in abundance

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Trusting that this information will be of interest,

Yours sincerely,

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Prof. P.M. Martin Urban Horticulture

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CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE Archaeological Investigation 1994

Palynological Analyses

Michael Macphail

September 1996

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CONTENTS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND 1.2 PALYNOLOGICAL VALUES 1.3 OBJECTIVES 1.4 DATABASE

2.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

3.0 TOPOGRAPHIC SETTING

3.1 GENERAL

4.0 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING

4.1 GENERAL

5.0 SAMPLES AND DATING

5.1 LITHOLOGY 5.2 CONTAMINATION

6.0 RESULTS

6.1 GENERAL 6.2 PRE-1810 6.31810-1820 6.4 1820-1830 6.5 1840 - 1890S

GODDEN MACKAY

6.6 UNDATED SAMPLE PS;E01 UNIT E139

7.0 DISCUSSION

7.1 GENERAL . 7.2 SURVIVAL OF NATIVE TREES 7.3 SURVIVAL OF NATIVE SHRUBS 7.4 INTRODUCTION OF NON-FOOD EXOTIC PLANTS 7.5 INTRODUCTION OF FOOD PLANTS 7.6 SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

8.0 REFERENCES

APPENDIX A

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PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF IDENTIFIED FOSSIL POLLEN AND SPORES APPENDIXA1 NATIVE TAXA • APPENDIX A2 EXOTIC TAXA

APPENDIX B

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1.1 . BACKGROUND

GODDEN MACKAY

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This report presents the results of a pollen analysis of late Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century soils and cultural deposits uncovered during excavation of the Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site, the Rocks, western side of Sydney Cove (Figure 1.2) ..

The area was one of the first to undergo intensive urbanisation - a process that began shortly after European settlement when convict huts were established "without any kind of regularity whatsoever" (Harris, 1791) on what was otherwise was "nothing more than a bare mass of white sandstone rising in successive layers (like steps of stairs) from the bottom to the top of the ridge" (Cunningham, 1827).

By 1810 (Figure 1.1) developments on the ridge included a Military Hospital, a quarry, several windmills and a fort (Fort Phillip): a gaol occupied portion of the lower slopes adjoining (modern) George St. North. By 1830 these public institutions existed in close proximity to more substantial private estates such as Cumberland House (Figure 1.3) and an agglomeration of working class homes, taverns and brothels.

Whatever the social respectability of higher areas in the 1840s, the Rocks as a whole had degenerated into slumland by the 1870s (Figure 1.4). It was redeveloped after the 1901 Bubonic Plague scare (Figures 1.5-1.7).

1.2 PALYNOLOGICAL VALUES

The Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site is unique amongst the Colonial Period archaeological sites investigated by palynology:

1. Arguably, the site is the last remaining area in the Sydney CBD where a sUbstantial sequence of cultural deposits is virtually complete from before 1810 to 1900. Other archaeological sites record either only a narrow period, e.g. the Early Colonial .Macquarie Place and Merriman St. sites, (Macphail, 1989, 1994b) or the' section is discontinuous as for the Water Police Court site (Macphail et al., 1988; Higginbotham et al., 1988).

2. Unlike these and other sites around Darling Harbour (Macphail, 1990b, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994a), the density of housing from ca. 1805 narrows the pathways (natural and human) by which pollen and spores were deposited on

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GODDEN MACKAY

the site. Previously studied sites of similar (Iow) socio-economic status are either located on the margins of Colonial Sydney or are much younger.

3. Historical data provide an independent, precise chronology for dating the fossil pollen and spore assemblages. This allows the demise (or persistence) of palynologically distinctive species within the pre-European flora and introduction of exotic plants to be dated with unusual precision.

1.3 OBJECTIVES

Objectives of the study are:

• To reconstruct the flora and vegetation at the time European settlement.

• To determine the nature of plantings during the earliest Colonial Period - a phase when the documentary evidence suggests subsistence horticulture was practised on the Rocks (Figure 4.1)

• To trace the survival of native plant species in what had become the most densely settled area of Sydney by the 1820s.

• To assess how well introduced plants mirror life-styles as the Rocks changed from a pre-industrial to industrial society.

1.4 DATABASE

Twelve samples submitted by Graham Wilson were processed for fossil spores, pollen and other acid-resistant plant microfossils.

Palynomorphs were identified using an extensive herbarium of modern and exotic pollen types prepared by the author. Representative specimens of native and exotic taxa are in Appendix A. Unidentified types are documented in Appendix B. Most, if not all, of these will represent exotic species.

Soil descriptions are based on laboratory observations of the samples. A formal descriptions of the "natural" soil profile in Unit A254 (Sample PS:A01) was not available at the tin:te of writing.

Documents consulted are listed in Section 8.0.

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Figure 1.1

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The densely populated hillslope ofthe Rocks, 1810.

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Figure 1.2 Cumberland Street Archaeological Site February 1995.

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Fig. 2a:

1830 AD

Figure 1.3 From colonial estate to inner city slum in 50 years. Street 1830

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Cumberland House, Cumberland

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Figure 1.4 From colonial estate to inner city slum in 50 years. Cumberland House, Cumberland Street 1880.

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Figure 1.5 Looking across Sydney Cove to the Rocks, 1858, The crowded conditions and rowdy behaviour of the area elicited unfavourable comment from observers of the time.

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Figure 1.6 The Rocks in 1901. Gloucester Street looking north. The small, single storey cottages on the left probably date from the 1820-1830s.

, . , .. -'''' ,

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:'; ~-~ • '. JIIIIIIi;.!; .... ';"'-':';" _ ... ,."" '-T.' : ~ ~......' " '.'~~~C",~ .• ....,-~r ..... ....... ~,.., ,p. .. ~",\t·

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... • u • -.U"'f~_... •• - .:r." -"-'.... ,....~.... ~ .-'v ',c1-jJ ....... '... .,.,.... .... .fr ~ ..... ~ ..... ..,. .......",. :~ .... 1 _":;- .,. • ~.

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Figure 1.7 The Rocks in 1901. Cumberland Street looking south towards St. Phillips Church. At this time the street was a major commercial centre.

7

GODDEN MACKAY

•

The Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site is a benchmark in the application of palynology to the study of Australian Colonial Period archaeological sites, both in terms of the extent and sensitivity of the fossil record.

Of particular importance are the relatively continuous record of events from before 1810 up to the 1890s and good independent age control. These allow a direct

. comparison of the palynological reconstructions and documentary evidence, e.g. Clune (1967), Brodsky (1967), Connah (1988) and Marriot (1988), and clarify uncertainties at previously studied sites in the central Sydney district (Macphail, 1988-1994).

Pre-1810 samples confirm documentary evidence for a domestic economy centred around vegetable gardens and small 'orchards in the Rocks. Organic matter was imported to allow sUbsistence farming on what were intrinsically shallow, infertile soils. Privet may have been to hedge in these gardens .

• Fossil pollen of the Garden Pea and Bean are the first records for Australia. These vegetables and fruit trees continued to be gro~n up to ca. 1860, a period when the Rocks was arguably the most densely settled/industrial district in Australia.

The (Iow) sodo-economic status of inhabitants in mirrored in the relative paucity of cereal pollen, a taxon whose relative abundance in a given area is believed to be directly related to horse populations .

•

Based on an 1865+ cess-pit sample, the cereal and fibre-rich diet (and gut parasites?) had changed little between ca. 1820 and 1860.

Pre-1810 samples hint that the pre-European vegetation of the Rocks was a she­oak and "blood-wood" woodland with an understorey of shrubs rather than grasses and confirm the spread of agricultural weed species into this landscape in earliest Colonial times.

In spite of intensive clearances, grazing and pollution, some native shrubs including Leptospermum, Monotoca and Persoonia and herbs such as Anguil/aria and Gonocarpus survived in the Rocks in to the 1860s.

These coexisted with an increasing diverse exotic flora ranging from small trees to herbs able to exist within small yards and rocky crevices.

There is little pollen evidence to show what plants (if any) survived on the site after 1880.

•

8 .'

•

3.1 GENERAL

GODDEN MACKAY

Prior to European settlement, the Rocks area was a steep-sided but relatively, low sandstone ridge forming the western side of Sydney Cove. Earliest maps confirm that this promontory and the slopes leading up to Bunkers and FI~gstaff Hill comprised lightly wooded structural benches of horizontally bedded Hawkesbury Sandstone (Figure 4.3),

Based on vegetation surviving on similar rock types in the Sydney area (Benson & H owe 11 , 1990), the pre-European vegetation is likely to have been a dry open woodland of Eucalyptus pilularis, E. gummifera, E. piperata and Angophora costata. The cabbage-tree palm Livingstona australis grew along the Tank Stream. The nearest she-oaks (Allocasuarina spp.) appear to have been in swampy terrain at the head of Darling Harbour. A shrub species, A. distyla, may have grown locally. Extensive areas of native 'bush', which included all of the above species, remained largely undisturbed on the northern side of the Harbour up to the Twentieth Century.

•

•

•

9

•

, , ,

•

11

4.1 GENERAL

GODDEN MACKAY

. The site occurs at ca. 50m elevation in an area now bounded by Cumberland and Gloucester Streets and the Cahill Expressway.. Early- Middle Colonial Period maps confirm that these streets were in existence by 1836 (Figure 4.4). Many of the small connecting laneways and footpaths, crossing the site, e.g. Cribbs Lane, have disappeared under Twentieth Century developments .

•

The first identifiable occupant was Ann (H)armsden, living at what became the corner of Gloucester Street and Cribbs Lane from 1795-1823. How sUbstantial her dwelling was is unknown but an advertisement lists a house, perhaps like hers, for sale "on the Rocks" (authors italics):

A Capital and substantial Dwelling House, with Attic story, kitchen and wash house and good garden, containing three Lemon Trees, two Orange ditto, a number of early Newington Peach-trees, and a capital well, constantly supplied with excellent water (Sydney Gazette, 15 May 1803) ..

Most of the southern half of the site in 1811, was acquired by a butcher (George Cribbs) who progressively built a butchers shop, a hotel and tenanted housing. Allotments on the northern side were owner-occupied.

Although the area per se was fully occupied by ca. 1820, most of the allotments are likely to have reserved some open space for a kitchen garden. A painting in 1839 by Charles Rodius shows an extensive open 'ride' fronting Cumberland Street. (Figure 4.2) .

•

10

•

•

•

•

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-------------------------------------------,

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Figure 4.1 The summit ridge overlooking the Rocks, 1821. The View, looking eastwards over Sydney Cove, shows an idealised picture of domestic activities such as washing, gardening and stacking firewood; In contrast, convicts are quarrying stone on waste ground across the fenceHne •

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•

5.1 LITHOLOGY

GOD DEN MACKAY

•

The archaeological context, interpreted age and lithology of each sample is listed in Table 5.1. '

Table 5.1:

ACN

PS:A01 [A254]

PS:A02 [A230]

PS:A03 [A231]

PS:B04 [B298]

PS:B07 [B268]

PS:B08 [B386]

PS:B10 [B049]

PS:C01 [C285]

PS:C02 [C350]

PS:D01 [D054]

PS:E01 [E139]

PS:H01 [H002]

•

Lithology

Context and Date

Natural soil pre-1810

Filled in ditch 1810-1820

Yard surface 1820-1830

Kitchen yard 1820-1830

Bakery yard 1840-1860?

Cess pit 1865+

Sub-floor 1880-1890s

Filled in well 1810-1820

Yard surface pre-1810

Early surface pre-1820

, Filled in well Date unknown

Filled in well 1850s

"

Lithology

Dark grey silty coarse sand loam with sandstone inclusions.

Dark grey sandy silt loam· with small calcareous inclusions.

Light yellow-brown silt loam.

Light yellow-grey silty sand loam

. with finely dispersed charcoal.

Medium yellow-brown silt loam with coarse sand and charcoal.

• mmor

Dark brown sandy organic mud with egg shell, charcoal, plant remains including wood, roots and carbonates.

Medium brown silt loam with minor wood, charcoal and carbonates.

Dark brown silty sand loam with plant remains and ?concrete.

Dark grey organic mud with plant remains and bone fragments.

Medium yellow-brown sand loam.

Dark brown organic-rich sand loam with plant remains and carbonates.

Black silty plastic clay, greasy, slightly sulphurous smell.

15

5.2 CONTAMINATION

GODDEN MACKAY

In view of the shallow depths to bedrock, it is probable that most samples will have been affected by· ground water seepage since deposition - a factor that is probably responsible for the preservation of organic material, including spores and pollens. To what extent the samples have been preserved from other forms of external disturbance is unknown. Exotic pollen types occur in the two pre-181 0 samples .

•

16

• •

•

6.1 GENERAL

GODDEN MACKAY

•

•

•

All samples yielded abundant amounts of amounts of charcoal, humified plant material (including fungal remains) and variable numbers of poor to well-preserved spores and pollen (Figures. 6.1 & 6.2) .

Relative abundance values (Table 2) are expressed as a percentage of the total pollen and spore count. Exotic and probable exotic taxa are indicated by an asterisk.

To facilitate interpretation, the samples are discussed in chronostratigraphic sequence: pre-1810 [Table 6.2.1], 1810-1820 [Table 6.3.1], 1820-1830 [Table 6.4.1] and post 1840 [Table 6.5.1]. The undated well sample [PS:E01 Unit E139 is discussed separately [Table 6.6.1]. Ecological preferences for native taxa are given in Table 6.2.1 only. '

6.2 PRE-1810 • •

Both palynofloras are dominated by "bloodwood" eucalypts (a type which includes Angophora costata and Eucalyptus gummifera) and she-oak (Allocasuarina). Pollen of native grasses are relatively rare «7%), consistent with shallow soils and an undisturbed forest canopy.

The native shrub element includes genera whose pollen have not been consistently recorded at any previous archaeological site. Examples are Monotoca, previously recorded in above trace values only at the Merriman St. site at the head of Darling Harbour (Macphail, 1994b), Leptospermum, Pimelea and at least four Proteaceae (two Banksia spp., Persoonia, Conospermum,).

6.2.1 Sample PS:A01 Unit A254

The sample appears to represent' a sclerophyll woodland or forest in which a diverse range of shrubs, not grasses, were the dominant ground cover.

Although the soil is considered to be "undisturbed" (R. Lawrie, pers. comm.). the sample does includes two definite and one probable exotic pollen, a "Medic" (Medicago) and "Wire weed" (Polygonum aviculare), and a Dandelion (Asteraceae: Liguliflorae). It is possible but unlikely that the last represents a native species

17

•

, • ,

GODDEN MACKAY

rather than the very widespread and common European Dandelion Taraxacum officinale.

Accordingly it is also uncertain whether the soil predates European settlement, represents the earliest period of the Colony, or is polymict, ego a mixture of pre­and post-settlement material. If the last, then the fossil pollen and spores could represent distant stands or be relict from an earlier period, rather than being shed by contemporary trees growing on the site. "Selaginella" (Selaginella uliginosa) , sedges (Cyperaceae) and wire rushes (Restionaceae) confirm that the soils were damp at some time prior to burial.

6.2.2 Sample PS:C02 Unit C350

Unlike PS:A01, "blood-wood" eucalypt pollen in this sample is a mixture of individual grains and aggregates of mostly mature grains. The latter almost certainly represent an in situ or local source, not long distance transport. Alternative explanations are that one or more trees of Angophora costata and/or Eucalyptus gummifera were growing in the yard or (preferred) the pollen comes from flowering branches brought in as fuel or for building purposes (see also sample PS:B04).

Otherwise the sample is Characterised by the very high diversity of pollen types. Most are from native species typical of grassy areas, e.g. lilies such as Anguillaria and Dianella. Some woody species are unlikely to have grown locally, notably the "Blackwood" Acacia melanoxylon-type, euphorbs (Croton), "Cheese-tree" (Glochidion) , "Blue-berry Ash" (Elaeocarpaceae) and Gyrostemonaceae.

The palynoflora includes a range of definite exotic plants, ranging from trees and shrubs such as "Privet" (Ugustrum) and a Citrus (Citrus) to Cereals (Poaceae >50u), "Clovers" (Trifolium), agricultural weeds such as "Khaki-weed" (Altemanthera) and "Chick-weed" (Stellaria) , and the first known fossil record in Australia of the Garden Pea (Pisum).

The closest fit for the Citrus pollen is "Lemon" and it is possible that the Rosaceae pollen type also represents a fruit tree such as the Apple (Malus) rather than thorny scramblers such as the Blackberry (Rubus).

Assuming that the. sample has not been contaminated, the combined evidence point to a kitchen garden in which the food species were growing on an organic soil brought in from elsewhere, probably a wet gully.

If correct the sample is of considerable importance since it confirms

(1) documentary evidence for a subsistence horticultural life-style on the Rocks and

18

GODDEN MACKAY

(2) the early introduction of 'quick set' species such as "Privet" for hedging purposes and,

(3) the early spread of agricultural weeds such as Clovers, Dandelions and "Khaki-weed". "

Table 6.2.1 pre-1810 Relative abundance data

FOSSIL TAXON A01 CO2 ECOLOGY

TREES & SHRUBS Acacia melanoxylon-type 0 0 DSF Allocasuarina 18% " 22 DSF Banksia marginata-type + 0 DSF Banksia serrata-type • + 0 DSF *Citrus - 0 int. Conospermum 0 - DSF Croton + RF Dilwynia - + DSF Dodonaea triquetra + + DSF Epacridaceae T -type + 0 DSF Elaeocarpaceae-type - 0 WSF Eucalyptus gummifera-type 67% 59 DSF Glochidion - + RF Goodeniaceae + + DSF Grevillea 0 DSF Gyrostemonaceae 0 RF, DSF Leptospermum + + DSF *Ligustrum - + -int.

Melaleuca-type • 0 DSF -Monotoca 0 1 DSF Myrtaceae indet. - + DSF Persoonia + + DSF Pimelea + + DSF Polygalaceae + - DSF Symphionema + wet

SHRUBS & HERBS *Asteraceae (Tub.uliflorae HS) 0 + int. Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae LS) 0 DSF

Chenopodiaceae- - + rud. Amaranthaceae *Rosaceaeindet. - + int.

19

L.....-_______ --'-_________________________________ _______

Table 6.2.1 (continued)

FOSSIL TAXON

HERBS * A/ternanthera Anguillaria

Apiaceae * Asteraceae (Liguliflorae) Brassicaceae Cyperaceae Dianella revo/uta-type Gonocarpus Liliaceae indet. *Medicago *Pisum Plantago *Poaceae (>50u) Poaceae «50u) Po/ygonum avicu/are Restionaceae *Stellaria *Trifolium

FERNS & FERN ALLIES Cu/cita dubia Se/aginella uliginosa Microsorium Schizea Trilete Spores Zygnemales Unidentified pollen

POLLEN SUM POLLEN CONCENTRATION (103

)

REWORKED PERMO-TRIASSIC

GODDEN MACKAY

A01

+ + + 1

3 + +

+ 3 +

+

0 +

3 0

322 39

o

CO2

0 0 + + 4 + + 3 +

0 + 2 7 0 + 0 +

0 0 2

399 371

ECOLOGY

int. DSF DSF int. rud. wet DSF DSF DSF int. int.

DSF int.

DSF int. wet int. int.

wet wet wet wet

wet? wet

Relative abundance calculated as a percentage of the total spore and pollen count. + equals percentages less than 1 % 0 equals recorded outside pollen sum. DSF = sclerophyll woodland and forest; RF = rainforest and margins; int. = exotic; wet =damp soils e.g. in wet heath and swamp margins.

20

•

•

•

•

6.3 1810-1820

GODDEN MACKAY

,

As with the pre-1810 samples, palynofloras in this age class are dominated by "bloodwood" eucalypts and she-oak although values in two samples are low due to high values of certain herbs - native grasses (Poaceae <50u) in sample PS:C01 and Brassicaceae (=Cruciferae)in sample PS:D01.

, '

Documentary evidence makes it highly unlikely that either she-oaks and eucalypts survived on the site or in vacant land elsewhere in the Rocks by ca. 1820. Accordingly, the pollen counts will represent either long distance transport from distant uncleared forest, or from flowering branches brought onto the site for firewood etc. Clumps of immature eucalypt pollen in samples PS:A02 and PS:D01 are consistent with the latter.

Native grasses are 'opportunist' plants and the increase in relative pollen abundance implies a local source .

. Pollen of native shrubs and herbs are present in low to trace amounts ... Since most are poor dispersers of pollen it is reasonable to assume that the local flora included low numbers of Anguillaria, Baumea, Banksia spp., Dodonaea triquetra, Epacridaceae, Leptospermum, Monotoca, Persoonia and Symphionema.

6.3.1 Sample PS:A02 Unit A230

The palynoflora, from organic silt infilling a ditch differs from those recovered from the other two 1810-1820s in that only two exotic taxa are recorded, both in trace values - a dandelion and Prunus. Either the ditch is relatively old (pre-181 O?) or for some reason the palynoflora is unrepresentative of the period. '

A liverwort (Cingu/atisporites bifurcatus) and the wirerush were present but values are too low to show the ditch was permanently wet.

6.3.2 Sample PS:C01 Unit C285

The sample yielded the first known fossil pollen record of the "garden bean" (Phaseo/us) in Australia plus multiple grains of "Bedstraw" (Ga/ium).

Otherwise the sample is distinguished by abundant native grasses (30%) and low but significant pollen values for herbs and climbers such as Apiaceae (=Umbelliferae), Clematis, "Bed-straw" (Galium) , "Plantain" (Plantago), "Dock" (Rumex) and Clovers. ,

Several highly distinctive types (Appendix B) remain unidentified. Cupressaceae and Podocarpus pollen may represent early plantings on the Domain since neither conifer was part of the native flora around Sydney Cove .

•

21

GODDEN MACKAY

The polymict nature of the acid-insoluble matrix, in particular a distinctive fibre cell otherwise found only in sample PS:B08 (Figure 6.2), implies that well was finally used as a cess-pit.

6.3.3 Sample PS:001 Unit 0054

Unlike previous samples, the diversity of palynomorphs is low although these included large numbers (29%) of Brassicaceae, a family that includes native and introduced weed species as well as culinary species including Cabbage, Mustard, Radish, Turnip and Water-cress

At present it is impossible to distinguish between edible and non-edible Brassicaceae although to date the only other Early Colonial Period site to yield similar values of Brassicaceae were probable gardens surrounding a 1790s convict hut at Parramatta (Macphail, 1990a).

Table 6.3.1 pre-1810

FOSSIL TAXON

TREES & SHRUBS Acacia Allocasuarina Araecaceae Banksia marginata-type Banksia serrata-type *Cupressaceae Dodonaea ericifo/ia-type Dodonaea triquetra Epacridaceae T -type Eucalyptus gummifera-type Fabaceaeindent. Goodeniaceae Leptospermum Monotoca Myrtaceae indet. Persoonia Pimelea Podocarpus . *Prunus Symphionema

SHRUBS & HERBS *Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae HS) Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae LS)

Relative abundance data

A02 C01

0 17 20 + + + +

+ + + + 58 30 +

0 + + 1 +

+ +

+ +

+ -

+ +

22

001

-9 -

-

48

1 + 0

+

-+

•

•

.

Table 6.3.1 (continued)

FOSSIL TAXON

Chenopodiaeeae-Amaranthaeeae Clematis-type

HERBS Anguillaria Apiaeeae * Asteraeeae (Liguliflorae) Baumea-type Brassieaeeae Cyperaeeae Galium Gonocarpus *Phaesolus Plantago *Poaeeae (>50u) Poaeeae «50u) Restionaeeae Rumex ef Polygonum aviculare Stellaria *Trifolium

FERNS & FERN ALLIES Culcita dubia Schizea Trilete spores Cingulatissporites bifurcatus Desmidaceae Unidentified pollen

POLLEN SUM POLLEN CONCENTRATION (103

)

REWORKED . PERMO-TRIASSIC • •

GODDEN MAeKAY

A02

+

-

+

+

+ + -4 --+ 9 + -1

-

+ 3 +

3

337 76

-. .

C01

+

+

+ + + 4 -+ 1 o 1 2 30 -4 1

1

+ . -

+

2

324 21

•

,

ECOLOGY

1

-

+ + 29

•

+

+ 7

-+

3

3

328 11

-

Relative abundance calculated as a percentage of the total spore and pollen count. + equals percentages less than 1 % 0 equals recorded outside pollen sum .

•

.23

•

6.4 1820-1830

GOD DEN MACKAY

.

The two samples within this age bracket are distinguished by low to very low concentrations of corroded spores and pollen. The only common-abundant pollen types are she-oak, "blood-wood" eucalypts and native grasses. Cereals are present in slightly higher (2-3%) numbers than previously but numbers are much lower than are recorded at sites where milling or stabling of horses' is known to have occurred, e.g. Macphail, 1992, 1994b).

Neither assemblage gives any evidence of formal cultivation within the immediate locality - consistent with an almost totally built environment.

6.4.1 Sample PS:A03 Unit A231

The palynoflora is Characterised by abundant native grasses (31 %). Only three native shrub genera were recorded: Leptospennum, Monotoca and Symphionema. Cereals, Polygonum aviculare and Taraxacum are the only probable/definite exotics present. The assemblage appears to represent a 'waste ground' flora.

6.4.2 Sample PS:804 Unit 8298

In contrast to the previous sample, a significant proportion of the "blood-wood" eucalypt count consisted of masses of mature pollen: similarly for Leptospermum.

Given that the depositional environment was a kitchen yard, the pollen aggregates almost certainly were derived from brushwood used for fuel.

Whether the same explanation applies in the case of the relatively large number of native shrubs represented by trace amounts of pollen is unclear (see Discussion). pteris spores may well have come from a cultivated fern (Figure 7.2).

Table 6.4.1 1820-1830 Relative abundance data

FOSSIL TAXON A03 804

TREES & SHRUBS Acacia - + Allocasuarina

• 12 22

Araecaceae 0 Banksia marginata-type - + Banksia serrata-type + Eucalyptus gummifera-type 40 64 Leptospermum + 1 Monotoca 2 1

24

•

,

•

Table 6.4.1 (continued)

FOSSIL TAXON

Myrtaceae indet. Persoonia Pimelea Symphionema

SHRUBS & HERBS Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae LS) Chenopodiaceae-

. Amaranthaceae Clematis-type

HERBS Anguil/aria * Asteraceae (Liguliflorae) Brassicaceae Gonocarpus Plantago *Poaceae (>50u) Poaceae «50u) Rumex Polygonum aviculare cf Polygonum aviculare

FERNS & FERN ALLIES Culcita dubia Schizea Trilete spores Cingulatissporites bifurcatus Pteris Zygnemales Unidentified pollen

POLLEN SUM POLLEN CONCENTRATION (103

) •

REWORKED • PERMO-TRIASSIC

GODDEN MACKAY

A03

+

+ +

1 2

1 1 1 1 + 2

31

0 -

+

4 + -o 11

180 6

-

, ."

804

-0 --

+ +

0

-+ + 3 --5 +

0

'0

1

o

3

346 15

Relative abundance calculated as a percentage of the total spore and pollen count. + equals percentages less than 1 %, 0 equals recorded outside pollen sum .

•

25

-

6.5 1840 - 1890S

GODDEN MACKAY

She-oak and "blood-wood" eucalypts remain prominent in the four palynofloras. Relative abundance values and concentrations are strongly influenced by depositional environment.

6.5.1 Sample P8:807 Unit 8268

The sample, from the surface of a bakery yard dated to between 1840-1860, yielded large numbers of "blood-wood" eucalypt pollen, including numerous aggregates of mature and immature grains. As with samples PS:C02 and PS:B04, the preferred explanation is that the source was fuel.

The diversity of both native shrubs and herbs is similar to the pre-1810 sample PS:C02: Acacia, Anguillaria, Dodonaea ericifolia-type, D. triquetra, Epacridaceae, Leptospermum, Monotoca, native grasses (16%), Persoonia, Pimelea and sedges. Banksia is not recorded but there seems no reason to doubt that the other native species continued to survive in low numbers on or near the site.

These taxa co-existed with an equally diverse range of exotic and probable exotic species, including agricultural weeds such as Clovers, Crucifers (2%), Chick-weed, Dandelion (2%), and Wire-weed. All imply waste ground or ash heaps (see Figure 7.3).

Exotic woody taxa include shrub such as privet and, for the first time on the site, ornamental small trees such as Celtis and an Anacardiaceae (possibly the "Pepper Tree" Schinus). Other probable exotics growing near the site were the "Castor-oil Plant" (Rhus) and a palm (Arecaceae). Pollen of northern hemisphere pines (Pin us) are likely to reflect plantings around First Government House or on the Domain.

6.5.2 Sample PS:H01 Unit H002

The sample, from sediment infilling a well in the 1850s yielded relatively low numbers of fossil spores and pollen. Pollen of the major native trees are rare (total 26%) relative to native grasses (36%) and chenopods (13%). Pollen of native shrubs, including Banksia serrata-type, Dodonaea triquetra, Leptospermum Monotoca and the :'Native Pear" (Xylomelum) are present in trace numbers along with Anguillaria, Clematis and "bracken" (Pteridium esculentum).

Since (a) these are associated with unusually high values of agricultural weeds such as Polygonum aviculare (3%) and (b) fine charcoal dominates the acid­insoluble matrix, it seems likely that an old ash heap was used to fill in the well.

26

•

•

GODDEN MACKAY

Nevertheless the palynoflora also provides evidence for the cultivation of at least two food plants close to the well - the "garden bean" (Phaseolus) and a Rosaceae (13%) which closely resembles the "Apple" (Malus). A probable grain of Lantana pollen is present, consistent with a Middle Colonial period date.

6.5.3 Sample PS:808 Unit 8386

The sample, from a cess-pit dated as no older than 1865, yielded a highly distinctive acid-insoluble extract, dominated by matted plant fibres, native grass (26%) and cereal pollen (29%) and fungal spores (Figure 6.3).

The assemblage includes large numbers (38%) of an unidentified ?egg case of a possible gut parasite (Figures 6.4-6.6), previously only recorded in an 1820s cesspit from the Family Court archaeological site, Goulburn St. (Macphail, 1990b). Pollen of native species are relatively uncommon but, as previously,· include Anguillaria, Epacridaceae, Leptospermum, Monotoca and Persoonia.

Exotic taxa present in trace numbers include Pinus, an "Amaryllis" (Amaryllidaceae), Anarcardiaceae (cf G/uta), Clover, Dandelion, Oleander, an unidentified Prunus and pea-flower (Papilionaceae) and two members of the Rosaceae (possibly the "Hawthorn" Grategeus and "Blackberry" Rubus). How . many of these reflect the diet of the times is unclear.

6.5.4 Sample PS:810 Unit 8049

This sample, from below a 1880-1890s floor, yielded negligible numbers of spores and pollen although the number (12) of genera recorded, including Pinus, Geltis, cereal and clover, is extremely high relative to the yield. .

Most are wind-pollinated except for the native shrub element (Leptospermum, Monotoca and Persoonia) .. This, combined with the low recovery, implies that the subfloor cavity was effectively sealed off from contact with the outside atmosphere once the floor was laid. •

Table 6.5.1 1840-18905 Relative abundance data

FOSSIL TAXON 807 H01 808 810#

TREES & SHRUBS •

Acacia • + .

Allocasuarina 15 7 8 + Arecaceae 0 -* Anarcardiaceae + 1 0 Banksia serrata-type + * Ge/tis 1 + Dodonaea ericifolia-type + -

27

TABLE 6.5.1 (CONT.)

FOSSIL TAXON

Dodonaea triquetra Epacridaceae T -type Eucalyptus gummifera-type Fabaceaeindet. Lantana-type Leptospermum Ligustrum * Malus-type Monotoca Myrtaceae indet. Oleander Persoonia Pimelea *Pinus *Prunus Rubus-type Xylomelum

SHRUBS & HERBS * Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae HS) Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae LS) Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae Clematis-type

HERBS Anguillaria Amaryllidaceae-type Apiaceae * Asteraceae (Liguliflorae) Brassicaceae Cyperaceae Gonocarpus Liliaceaeindet. *Phaesolus •

Plantago Polygonum aviculare Poaceae «50u) *Poaceae (>50u) Rhus-type cf Polygonum aviculare Stellaria

GODDEN MACKAY

B07

+ + 54

+ 0 13 + +

+ 0 +

+ + 0

0

2 2 + 2 +

+ 0 + 16 + + 0

28

H01 B08 B10#

+ 19 14 +

0 0 + +

-

0 + + + + + 0 0 + 0 0

0 -

+ +

13 + +

+

+ 0 0

+ + + + + 3

3

0

3 + 29 + 36 26 +

-

•

,

11

GODDEN MACKAY

H01 808 810#

Table 6.5.1 (continued)

FOSSIL TAXON

*Trifolium

807

1 + +

FERNS & FERN ALLIES Culcita dubia + Grammitis 0 Monolete spores 0 pteridium esculentum + Schizea + Trilete Spores 1 -Cingulatissporites bifurcatus + 0 Unidentified pollen 2 - 1

POLLEN SUM POLLEN CONCENTRATION

351 25

283 24'

147 6

27 1

(103)

REWORKED . PERMO- o TRIASSIC Relative abundance calculated as a percentage of the total spore and pollen count. + equals percentages less than 1 % 0 equals recorded outside pollen sum

6.6 UNDATED SAMPLE PS:E01 UNIT E139

This sample from a wellinfill is dominated by "Blood-wood" eucalypts (52%), native grasses (18%) and Allocasuarina ( 14%) with trace amounts of Amperea, Banksia cf serrata, Monotoca, Persoonia and exotics including Cereals, Clover, Dandelions, an unidentified Malvaceae and Privet.

Like sample PS:A03, the palynoflora appears to have its source in plants occupying waste ground. The presence of Pinus and possibly the palm Calamus indicate the infill is younger than 1840-1850.

Table 6.6.1 1820-1830

FOSSIL TAXON

TREES & SHRUB.S· Allocasuarina Araecaceae Banksia serrata-type Eucalyptus gummifera-type Ugustrum Monotoca

•

Relative abundance data

A03

29

14 + + 52 + +

Table 6.6.1 (continued)

FOSSIL TAXON

Malvaceae Myrtaceae indet. Persoonia *Pinus

SHRUBS & HERBS Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae LS) Chenopodiaceae­Amaranthaceae

HERBS Anguillaria Amperea Apiaceae *Asteraceae (Liguliflorae) Brassicaceae Cyperaceae Gonocarpus Polygonum aviculare *Poaceae (>50u) Poaceae «50u) cf Polygonum aviculare

FERNS & FERN ALLIES

Culcita dubia Schizea Trilete spores Cingulatissporites bifurcatus Unidentified pollen

POLLEN SUM POLLEN CONCENTRATION (103

)

REWORKED . " PERMOTRIASSIC

GODDEN MACKAY

A03

+ + + +

+ +

+ + + + 2 + 1 + + 18 +

+ + 1 + 3

364 10

Relative abundance calculated as a percentage of the total spore and pollen count. + equals percentages less than 1 %, 0 equals recorded outside pollen sum.

30

"

..

•

•

•

l' ~ 1: - - ~~ - ..... - -.-. ~, - ,O'~ ........,

.:'~" '.~ ...... ~. . . • \,. "', Ch, r ... ,t., .7_"'" . ..~ ..

GODDEN MACKAY

Figure 6.1 Pre-1810 Yard. Arrow points to Garden Pea pollen •

Figure 6.2 1860s cess-pit. Note fibres and Cereal pollen.

31

~~ .

~. • • .. t ... , ..

• 4!....L.." • . - .

•

•

,-

--.- ... -

, ,-,."... - \~"'.------'~~-;-"""'-"""f-~-~~~-... ~.,;-. .,.~-.• ---< _. --~--."!'"r.-'-:,-~-''''-·~-------l':""-"- .;~~ ~-

I , , ,{ , I "'" ,'-

. , < (

I ,

l

.. , ---

• • 1

·l ,

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i, .' r , I .'

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-. .

.'

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•

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<,

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--:: --

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-~-"'-~~-----

;

,

. ,

, l

. ,

"

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, ,

,. ,

•

, ,

• •

• •

- ..

, , ,

. • , , , i . , i

".

· "

~ -' . · ' ,- -~-

Figure 6.3 This unidentified diporate fungal spore appears to be characteristic of Colonial Period cess-pit deposits.

"

· ,

•

• "

1 .. - R' _

, , , 1

•

, . · •

• !

I I •

:1 , , I

" •

\

"

•

~\ .. -" ..... -. .-- ~~

"

•

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· .., ,,- ---- ~ ..... ~ .. ~ * '- \'

; ,F\".

, ,;"

, • • , E

.:L • . . , . • '. in,' , , . N~-

, • <

•

Figure 6.4 This unidentified palynomorph is presumed to be the egg case of an unidentified gut parasite. To date it has only been recorded in Colonial Period cess-pits.

32

"

..

• •

... - ;:- .. --........................ --.. "T .... ~ .............................. ,. .................... ,. .. ~ .................. ., .............................. ,. ............ ,. ............ - ....... ,. .. ., ..

• •

, ,. ,

,.

,

.,

. , ,--.-~--,~" .. --." -- ----.... _. ~- '.-..-,

' ....

, .-' -

. . -~-

i ~_

-'!<- ,

,

,

j I

. ,

;.

, . 1

\ , I

• ,

,

•

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.r

• •

. . ~-

" "~ ". I '. I J .• ~'~~'"'-" .... '" .... .;t .. ··.;! ... ,·''"· ..... , ... ;.· .. ;. .... .; ........ ,,;".,.;.--.. ;.:~~, ............ ,._.,,,,,., • .; ..... :. ................. :. ................. -.................... '" .................... "'._ ... ____ •• ," ........ ~ .. _' .•

Figure 6.5 Unidentified ?e99 case, Sample PS:B08

•

,

, • •

.. ; : l

,

•

.,

- ~

•

•

•

,

•

, .

• ..

, ,-} ,

. \

'.

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l'

•

, t.

. I

•

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t-,

, , l <.

~.-.,.~ "----~- ~ ...... - -:-"':~' 't,. ;

~v,

",-

• Figure 6.6 Unidentified ?e99 case, Sample PS:B08.

33

~. , , •

,

, ... '.- .~'" · '. \ .-· .

•

• , . •

• , .

.

i. \

r I

J

"

.j' "

. I

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:"'r '-, ;' ,

•

· .

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!

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•

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7 ~.~ __

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~~ S_, ~

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,

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

---------------~-~-----------,

•

•

7.1 GENERAL

GODDEN MACKAY

,

The~ Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site pollen data are of high intrinsic value in reconstructing life-styles on the Rocks and allow hypotheses developed from earlier studies to be tested:

7.2 SURVIVAL OF NATIVE TREES ,

A number of palynofloras come from sites that have been within a high density residential or industrial area since the 1820s. Others have been effectively sealed from contact with atmospherically transported pollen (the cess-pit PS:B08 and subfloor PS:B10 samples).

A comparison of these with pre-1820 assemblages confirms the long-held suspicion that high pollen values of she-oak, eucalypt do not always imply locally

•

growing trees.

The most compelling evidence for a local source (which may include flowering branches brought onto a site for firewood) are pollen aggregates which are too heavy to be dispersed by atmospheric processes. "Blood-wood" eucalypt pollen in samples PS:B04 and PS:B07 almost certainly fall into the brushwood fuel category.

The absence of aggregates of she-oak pollen in the Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site samples suggests that this pollen type was long distance transported from forest at the head of Darling Harbour and other remote stands.

The conclusion is supported by the increase in she-oak values at sites close to Allocasuarina swamp forest on relatively fertile soils at the head of Darling Harbour, e.g. Mary Ann St., Ultimo (Macphail, 1994a). Unlike the Rocks area, the Ultimo Peninsula remained vacant land up to the 1870s, although photographic evidence imply the area was equally devoid of native trees .

7.3 SURVIVAL OF NATIVE SHRUBS

Unless organic matter in the post 1810 samples include some of pre-settlement age, the persistent occurrence of pollen of Banksia, Leptospermum, Monotoca and Persoonia imply these shrubs survived in the Rocks up to 1890. The two most likely habitats are on rock escarpments (Figure 7.2) or in abandonea gardens .

•

34

GODDEN MACKAY

Neither scenario would have been predicted given the duration and intensity of the European impact.

For example, three Monotoca species grow within the Sydney floral.region (Beadle et al. 1982). All are low shrubs: M. ledifolia, confined to the Woronora Plateau and Blue Mountains; M. el/iptica confined to sand sheets and dunes, with the nearest known stand occurring in remnant heath at Centennial Park (Benson & Howell, 1990); and M. scoparia, common in heath and dry .sclerophyll forest on Hawkesbury Sandstone. Only the last is likely to have been part of the pre­settlement flora in the Rocks (D. Benson, pers. Comm.).

To date Monotoca pollen has only been recorded in trace numbers «1%) at archaeological sites around Darling Harbour except for the Merriman Street site on Millers Point where values of 12-13% are recorded in earliest Colonial Period deposits.

This is compelling evidence that the shrub grew on Millers Point (see Macphail, 1994b) but left begging the question how long native shrubs could have survived the impact of European settlement on Sydney Cove - characterised by (a) extensive physical clearance of steep slopes and probable loss of the thin sand soils, (b) pollution arising from the discharge of sewage (see Fitzgerald, 1987); and (c) browsing by free-ranging goats and cattle from dairies established along North George St. before 1820 (Figure 7.1).

The Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site data provide an answer to this question and suggest that the survival of Monotoca into the Middle to late Nineteenth Century was by no means unique.

It is possible that pollen of 'showy' native shrubs such as Symphionema ( found only in the post-1810 samples) come from flowers picked as decoration as was almost certainly the case on the 1860s Haymarket site (Macphail, 1991).

7.4 INTRODUCTION OF NON-FOOD EXOTIC PLANTS

Macphail (1992, 1994b) has proposed that a definite sequence exists regarding the introduction of exotic species into the Sydney region during the early Colonial period. The appearance of exotic taxa in the Rocks area confirms this sequence in general terms:

a: Dandelions and wire-weed were widely established by 1810. Unlike previously studied sites, Privet was introduced before Ca. 1810, possibly for hedging around small vegetable gardens and orchards (see below).

35

•

•

•

,

GODDEN MACKAY

b. Agricultural weeds appear at the same time, presumably from seed sown accidentally along with crops. These rapidly became naturalised on waste and open ground. In spite of high residential densities, yards within the Rocks appear to have provided suitable habitats by the 1820s, in particular yards where ash and other nutrient-rich waste could accumUlate (Figure 7.3). .,' "

c. The number of unidentified pollen types increased towards the present, consistent. with an. increasingly cosmopolitan society. For example Sydney's Chinese community had formed their own "Chinatown" in the Rocks by the 1860s (Shore, 1981). .

Exotic conifers and non-local natives such as tree-ferns were widely planted as wind-breaks and ornamentals during the early-middle Nineteenth Century, in particular around the Domain: Pinus and Podocarpus are likely to be derived from these plantings: Celtis and probably the "Pepper-tree" appear to have been planted on or near the Cumberland Street site in the 1840s. Unidentified trees and a Norfolk Pine (Araucaria heterophylla) are visible in a 1901 photograph of Cumberland Street (Figure 7.5). Pollen of· the latter is distinctive but was not recorded in any sample.

7.5 INTRODUCTION OF FOOD PLANTS

An extensive literature exists on the establishment of agriculture on Sydney Cove prior to the development of 'broad acre' farming in the Parramatta district by 1790.

Detection of these earliest Colonial Period gardens via fossil pollen has however remained elusive, either because of an unfavourable location of the excavation or ' because cultivation had destroyed whatever pollen was produced by the food plants (see Macphail, 1988).

One site at Parramatta preserved Citrus pollen from Lemon tree(s) planted around an 1840-1850s dam (Macphail, 1993). Otherwise the main non-documentary evidence has been found at sites where milling of Cereals has taken place, e.g. Little Pier Street (Macphail, 1992).

The samples have radically altered this situation in two respects .

• (1) Sample PS:C02 confirms the planting of the Garden Pea and at least two

probable fruit trees (Lemon, Apple?) in the Rocks area before 1810.

(2) Vegetable species such as the Garden Bean and probably also Apples were still being grown in the area between 1840-1850 and possibly into the 1860s.

36

GODDEN MACKAY

7.6 SOCIO·ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS

The pollen data confirm documentary evidence for a form of subsistence farming, despite the small size of the allotments and provide hints as to the socio-economic status of the inhabitants before and after ca. 1820.

Soils formed on sandstone are thin, infertile, and drought-prone, imposing severe limits on productivity. Sample PS:C02 confirms the traditional practice of 'building up' soils by importing organic matter was quickly adapted to Australian conditions. "Bed-straw" in sample PS:C01 may have been, as the name suggests, grown for, or derived from, bedding.

To what extent the kitchen gardens and orchards fulfilled dietary requirements is unknown. What is clear is that (in palynological terms) inhabitants using the post 1865 latrine (Sample PS: B08) had a commendably fibre- and cereal-rich diet that differed little from the 1820s (Macphail, 1990b). The presence of ?egg cases of the same possible gut parasite may indicate little or no improvement in health over the 40 year period.

Previous studies have shown that pollen of cereal species such as oats and wheat first become prominent (>2-5%) relative to native grasses (Poaceae pollen < 50 microns diameter) within the Sydney townscape after ca.1830. The explanation (Macphail, 1992) is that this is due to an expansion in of horse-based transport systems, leading to an expansion of plants self-sown from spilled fodder and manure.

Except for the cess-pit (PS:B08), cereal pollen is rare in the Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site samples, indicating a relative dearth of stock in the area. This observation fits well with the residential 'topography' (steep narrow streets, limited open land for grazing) and low socio-economic standing of most of the inhabitants after ca. 1840.

Previous studies have shown that ground-ferns such as Cu/cita, fern allies (Se/aginel/a) and liverworts (Cingu/atisporites bifurcates Rudo/phisporis rudo/phl) tend to occupy perennially moist soils, e.g. under cliff and roof drip lines or where ash has temporarily raised the soil fertility. Relative abundance values of these taxa at Cumberland/Gloucester Streets site are very low in comparison to sites around Darling Harbour and at Parramatta.

Since agricultural weeds demonstrate that pockets of fertile 'soil' did exist in the Rocks, it seems probable that surface water was drained efficiently from housing developments however depressed or high density living conditions became. "Rising damp" was not a problem as regards the external environs (cf Fitzgerald, 1987).

37

•

- .~ ... ,

I

-, . ,

I , .... - ~ !,

• ~

• . '

•

. ,

• • • ~

• ,

• • •

GODDEN MACKAY

• •

• •

.\ ",. -., •

Figure.7.1 Goats browsing on Observatory Hill, ca, 1840

• •

•

38

• .'

•

•

•

~------~~---------------------- -- - ----------------- ---

~ & 1 '. . ...... -.. -..... : .. -.-~ - ...... ---

'\ ... . I _.,

'1 . . L •

, . .

• I

I

-

GODDEN MACKAY

. . . -.~

.J , . '"

.~

d. . '", . . ~

Figure 7.2 Rear of number 41 Cumberland Street, 1901. Note a "Stag-horn" and other ferns around the moribund tree.

Figure 7.3 Rear of Carahers Building, Cumberland Street, 1901. Note the accumulations of rubbish in the back yard.

39

•

•

•

GODDEN MACKAY

,

Figure 7.4 Rear of numbers 23-27 Cumberland Street, 1901. Note Norfolk pine and other trees and rubbish in yards.

Figure 7.5 SurvIval of shrubs below a small sandstone ledge, Pyrmont Peninsula 1880 •

40

•

•

GODDEN MACKAY

•

Aplin, G. & Storey, J. (1984). Waterfront Sydney: 1860-1920. Alien & Unwin, Sydney.

,

Beadle, N.C.W., Evans, 0.0., Carolin, RC. & Tindale, M.D. (1986). Flora of Sydney (Third Edition). Reed, Sydney.

• • •

Benson, D. & Howell, J. (1990). Taken for Granted:' the Bushland of Sydney and . .

its Suburbs. Kangaroo Press/Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Brodsky, I. (1965). Heart of the Rocks of Old Sydney, Continental Printing Co Ltd, Hong Kong.

Clune, F. (1967). Serenade to Sydney: Sqme Historical Landmarks. Angus & Robertson, Sydney.

Connah, G. (1988). Of the Hut I Builded: the Archaeology of Australia's History. Cambridge University Press/Australian Bicentennial Authority.

Cunningham, P. (1827). Two Years in New South Wales. Vol. 1. [cited in Brodsky, I. 1965].

De Vries-Evans, S. (1983). Historic Sydney as Seen by its Early Artists. Angus & Robertson,Sydney. '

Fitzgerald, S. (1987). Rising Damp: Sydney 1870-1890. Oxford University Press/Nordica Printing, Hong Kong.

•

Groom, B. & Wickman, W. (1982). Sydney - the 1850s: the Lost Collections, Eyewitness Accounts and Early Photographs of Sydney. University of Sydney/Commercial Banking Company of Sydney Ltd .

•

Higginbotham, E., Macphail, M.K. & B. Davey. The soil and pollen analysis of part of the gardens . .of First Government House, Sydney. Australian Historical Archaeology 6: 4~-56.

Macphail, M.K. 1989 Palynological analysis of Early Colonial Period samples from Macquarie Place, Sydney Cove. Consultant Archaeological Services Pty Ltd Report (unpubl.)

• -•

41

•

•

•

· ...... _-----------

GODDEN MACKAY

Macphail, ELK. (1990a). Palynological analysis of two soil profiles and other samples associated with the archaeological excavation of Early Colonial Period remains at the corner of Smith and George Sts., Parramatta. Consultant Archaeological Services Pty Ltd Report (unpubl.)

Macphail, M.K. (1990b). Palynological analysis of two soil profiles and other samples associated with the archaeological excavation of Early Colonial Period remains at the corner of Castlereagh and Goulburn Sts., Sydney. ,Palaeontological report, Consultant Archaeological Services (unpublished).

Macphail, M.K. (1991) Palynological analysis of samples related to the Middle to Late Colonial Period occupation of the Paddy's Market site, Darling Harbour. Godden Mackay pty Ltd Heritage Consultants Report (unpubl.)

Macphail, M.K. (1992). Palynological analyses, Little Pier St. archaeological site, Darling Harbour. Palaeontological report, Godden Mackay Pty Ltd 28 May (unpublished).

Macphail, M.K. (1993). Palynological analyses, Aird St. Archaeological site, Parramatta. Consultant Archaeological Services Pty Ltd Report (unpubl.)

Macphail, M.K. (1994a). Palynological analyses, Mary Ann St. Archaeological Site, Ultimo. Palaeontological report, Godden Mackay Pty Ltd 25 January (unpublished)

Macphail, M.K. (1994b). Palynological analyses, Merriman St. Archaeological Site, Millers Point. Palaeontological report.

Macphail, M.K., Higginbotham & B.G. Davey. (1988a). An Early Colonial Period garden landscape at Sydney Cove: pollen and soil evidence from the Phillip St. Water Police Court site. Search 19: 141-146.

Marriott, E.W. (1988). The Memoirs of Obed West: a Portrait of Early Sydney. Barcom Press, Bowral.

Shore, H. (1981). From the Quay: a pictorial history of Sydney Harbour from the 1870s to 1920. New South Wales University Press, Sydney, 192pp .

•

-42

•

•

•

APPENDIX A •

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF IDENTIFIED FOSSIL POLLEN AND PRESERVED AT CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE.

,

Scale Bars • • . .

•

x 788

,

• x1250

•

•

• •

SPORES ,-- .. -• •

•

•• (

•

•

•

•

•

•

APPENDIXA1

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8 •

Figure 9

Figure 10

Figure 11

Figure 12

Figure 13

Figure 14

Figure 15

Figure 16

Figure 17

Figure 18

Figure 19

•

•

NATIVE TAXA • •

Aggregate of "Blood-wood" eucalypt pollen, Sample PS:C02, x788

•

"Blood-wood" eucalypt, Sample PS:C02, x1250 •

"Geebung" [Persoonia], Sample PS:C02, x1250

"Native Honeysuckle" [Banksia serrata-type], Sample PS:C02, x1250

( "Banksia" [Banksia marginata-type], Sample PS:B04, x1250

"Rainbow fern" [Culcita dubia], Sample PS:E01, x788

"Grevillea" [Grevillea], Sample PS:C02, x788

•

et "Blood-wood" eucalypt, Sample PS:DOI, x1250

< •

Epacridaceae tetrad, Sample PS:C02, x788

"Blackwood" [Acacia melanoxylon-type], Sample PS:C02, x1250

Native lily [Anguillaria], Sample PS:C02, x1250 •

"Wire-rush" [Restionaceae], Sample PS:C02, x1250

Monotoca, Sample PS:E01, x1250 , •

Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae) High Spine, Sample PS:H01, •

x1250

Symphionema, Sample PS:C02, x1250

"Cheese-wood" [GI ochidion], Sample PS:C02, x1250

Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae) Low Spine type A, Sample PS:C02, x1250 .

Gyrostemonaceae, Sample PS:C02, x1250

Goodeniaceae, Sample PS:C01, x1250 •

•

Figure 20

Figure 21

Figure 22

Figure 23

Figure 24

,

•

Asteraceae (Tubuliflorae) Low Spine type B. Sample PS:C02, x1250

Pimelea, Sample PS:c02, x788

Sedge [Baumea-type], Sample PS:D01, x1250

Ranunculaceae, Sample PS:H01, x1250

Native lily [Dianella revoluta], Sample PS:C02, x1250

•

•

APPENDIXA2

Figure 25

Figure 26

Figure 27

Figure 28

Figure 29

Figure 30

Figure 31

Figure 32

Figure 33

Figure 34

Figure 35

Figure 36

Figure 37

Figure 38

Figure 39

Figure 40

Figure 41

Figure 42

Figure 43

•

•

•

EXOTIC TAXA

[cf Lemon Citrus], Sample PS:c02, x1250

"Garden Pea" [Pisum], Sample PS:C02, x1250 ' •

"Garden bean" [Phaseolus], Sample PS:H01, x788

"Bed-straw" [Galium], Sample PS:C01, x1250

"Privet" [Ugustrum], Sample PS:C02, x1250

Rosaceae cf "Apple" [Talus], Sample PS:H01, x1250

"Chick-weed" [Stellaria], Sample PS:C02, x1250

Cereal [Poaceae >50u], Sample PS:B08, x788

"Clover" [Trifolium], Sample PS:C01, x1250

"Medic" [Medicago], Sample PS:C02, x1250

"Khaki-weed" [Alternanthera], Sample PS:C02, x1250 •

"Crucifer" [Brassicaceae], Sample PS:B08, x1250

"Celtis" [Celtis], Sample PS:B07, x1250 •

"Pine" [Pinus radiata-type], Sample PS:E01, x788

•

cf Gluta [Anarcardiaceae], Sample PS:B08, x1250

•

cf "Pepper-tree" [Schinus-type], Sample PS:B08, x1250

"Dandelion" [Asteraceae (Uguliflorae)], Sample PS:E01, x1250

. "Oleander" [Oleander], Sample PS:B08, x1250

"Pteris" [Pteris]. Sample PS:B04, x788

•

•

•

•

r.

•

•

APPENDIX B

PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF UNIDENTIFIED FOSSIL POLLEN AND SPORES PRESERVED AT CUMBERLAND/GLOUCESTER STREETS SITE

•

•

•

•

•

•

Figure 44

Figure 45

Figure 46

Figure 47

Figure 48

Figur~ 49

•

•

•

.

aff Polygonum aviculare ["Wire-weed"], Sample PS:B07, x1250

cf Cissus [Sterculiaceae] .... Sample PS:C02, x788

cf Polygonum aviculare ["Wire-weed"], Sample PS:B07, x1250

cf "Clover" [Trifolium], Sample PS:B08, x1250

cf Calystegia [Convolvulaceae], Sample PS:C01, x1250

inapertuate reticulate pollen, Sample PS:D01, x1250

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