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The general aim of this Unit is to develop skills of scientific inquiry, investigation, analytical
thinking, independent working, and knowledge and understanding of researching chemistry.
The Unit covers the key areas of gravimetric analysis, volumetric analysis, practical skills and
techniques and stoichiometric calculations.
You have already come across these areas of analytical chemistry during S4 and S5. At
Advanced Higher level you will develop these in much greater depth.
It is essential when working through the experiments and calculations in this booklet to make
good use of the “Researching Chemistry reference booklet”.
When you have completed the experiments and
questions in this booklet you should have detailed
knowledge of the techniques shown in the table below.
There is a Researching Chemistry Unit assessment on these skills and the calculations
involved. Also there will be questions in the examination paper relating to these techniques,
including the calculations. Additionally the skills and techniques will be invaluable to you
when you undertake your Chemical Investigation.
Technique Description
a Weighing by difference and gravimetric analysis
b Preparing a standard solution
c Using a control
d Carrying out a complexometric titration
e Carrying out a back titration
f Using a colorimeter and carrying out dilution to prepare a calibration graph
g Distilling
h Refluxing
i Using vacuum filtration
j Recrystallising
k Determining % yield experimentally
l Using thin-layer chromatography
m Using melting point apparatus and mixed melting point determination
n Using a separating funnel and solvent extraction
Stoichiometry is the study of quantitative relationships involved in chemical reactions. The
ability to balance and interpret equations enabling calculations to be carried out involving any
of the skills/techniques you will learn is an important part of chemistry at this level.
Prior to getting started on Advanced Higher level problems we will revisit some questions
encountered at higher level.
1. Calculate the number of moles of the named chemical in each of the following.
a. 1.32g of ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
b. 200cm3 of 3 mol l-1 sodium hydroxide, NaOH
2. 250 cm3 of a solution of magnesium chloride, MgCl2, is known to contain 0.5 moles of
chloride ions. What mass of magnesium does the solution contain?
3. In an experiment to prepare aspirin, 10 g of 2 – hydroxybenzoic acid, HOC6H4COOH,
was treated with excess ethanoyl chloride. The equation for the reaction is
CH3COCl + HOC6H4COOH CH3COOC6H4COOH + HCl
Calculate the mass of aspirin formed in this reaction.
4. Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in urea CO(NH2)2
5. Titanium is manufactured by heating titanium(IV) chloride with sodium.
TiCl4 + 4Na Ti + 4NaCl
If this reaction is only 75% efficient, calculate the mass of sodium is required to
produce 100 kg of titanium?
6. 1.20g of magnesium was used to make hydrated magnesium sulfate crystals,
MgSO4.7H2O
The mass of crystals produced was 9.84 g. Calculate the percentage yield.
7. Zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid according to the equation.
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
1.625 g of zinc is mixed with 250 cm3 of 2mol l-1 hydrochloric acid. Calculate which
reactant is in excess
8. 25.0 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, was titrated with 0.040 mol l-1 acidified
potassium permanganate. The end - point was reached when 16.7 cm3 of the
permanganate solution had been added.
5H2O2 + 2MnO4- + 6H+ 2Mn2+ + 5O2 + 8H2O
Calculate the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide in moles per litre.
9. Seaweeds are a rich source of iodine in the form of iodide ions. The mass of iodine
in seaweed can be found using the procedure outlined below.
50.00 g of seaweed is dried in an oven and ground into a fine powder. Hydrogen
peroxide solution is then added to oxidise the iodide ions to iodine molecules.
Using starch solution as an indicator, the iodine solution is then titrated with sodium
thiosulfate solution to find the mass of iodine in the sample. The balanced equation
for the reaction is shown.
2Na2S2O3(aq) + I2(aq) 2NaI(aq) + Na2S4O6(aq)
In this analysis of seaweed, 14.9 cm3 of 0.00500 mol l–1 sodium thiosulfate solution was
required to reach the end-point.
Calculate the mass of iodine present in one gram of the seaweed sample.
Preparation of a primary standard solution of 0.1 mol l–1 oxalic acid.
A standard solution is one of accurately known concentration and can be prepared
directly from a primary standard which, in this case, is hydrated oxalic acid,
(COOH)2.2H2O (GFM = 126.1 g).
To prepare 250 cm3 of 0.1 mol l–1 oxalic acid solution, the mass of hydrated oxalic
acid required must be calculated.
Requirements
balance (accurate to 0.01 g), oxalic acid AnalaR, (COOH)2.2H2O, weighing bottle,
deionised water, 250 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 standard flask, wash bottle, dropper, glass
stirring rod, filter funnel
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off
immediately. Oxalic acid is harmful if ingested and irritates the eyes and skin. Wear
gloves.
Calculation
Calculate the mass of oxalic acid needed to produce 250 cm3 of 0.1 mol l-1 oxalic acid
solution.
Procedure
1. Transfer approximately 3.2 g of oxalic acid crystals to the weighing bottle and
weigh accurately.
2. Pour the oxalic acid crystals into a clean beaker containing about 50 cm3 of
deionised water and reweigh accurately the weighing bottle and any remaining
crystals.
3. Stir the solution until all the oxalic acid dissolves and then transfer it to a
250 cm3 standard flask.
4. Rinse the beaker several times with deionised water and add all the rinsings to
the flask.
5. Make up the solution to the graduation mark with deionised water.
6. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are
completely mixed. Retain the solution for the next experiment.
Initial Mass of weighing bottle + oxalic acid = __________
Final mass of weighing bottle + oxalic acid = __________
Mass of oxalic acid = __________
a. Use the exact mass of oxalic acid transferred to the beaker in step 2 to
calculate the concentration of the oxalic acid solution you prepared.
b. What is a standard solution?
c. (i) One requirement of a primary standard is that it should have a high gram
formula mass.
What is the reason for this?
(ii) State two other requirements a primary standard must have.
(iii) Why is sodium hydroxide NOT a primary standard?
Standardisation of approximately 0.1 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide.
Sodium hydroxide is not a primary standard and so a standard solution of it cannot
be prepared directly from the solid. However, a solution of approximate
concentration can be prepared and its exact concentration determined by titrating it
against an acid of accurately known concentration using a suitable indicator.
In this experiment, a sodium hydroxide solution is standardised against the 0.1 mol l–1
oxalic acid solution prepared in Experiment 1.
The stoichiometric equation for the titration reaction is:
(COOH)2 + 2NaOH 2H2O + (COONa)2
Requirements
10 cm3 pipette standardised oxalic acid solution (approx. 0.1 mol l –1)
50 cm3 burette sodium hydroxide solution (approx. 0.1 mol l–1)
100 cm3 beakers, phenolphthalein indicator, 100 cm3 conical flasks, deionised water,
wash bottle, pipette filler, white tile, filter funnel.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off
immediately.
0.1 mol l–1 oxalic acid irritates the eyes and skin.
0.1 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide is corrosive to the eyes and skin.
Phenolphthalein indicator solution is highly flammable and irritating to the eyes
because of its ethanol content.
Procedure
1. Rinse the 10 cm3 pipette with a little of the oxalic acid solution and pipette
10 cm3 of it into a conical flask.
2. Add two or three drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the oxalic acid solution in
the flask.
3. Rinse the 50 cm3 burette, including the tip, with the sodium hydroxide solution
and fill it with the same solution.
4. Titrate the oxalic acid solution with the sodium hydroxide solution from the
burette until the end-point is reached. This is indicated by the appearance of a
pink colour.
5. Repeat the titrations until two concordant results are obtained, (+/- 0.1 cm3).
6. Retain the standardised sodium hydroxide solution for the next experiment.
a. Use the stoichiometric equation and your mean titre volume to calculate the
concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution.
b. In a titration we try to find the “equivalence point”. In reality we can only
determine the “end-point”.
Explain the difference between the equivalence point and the end-point in a
titration.
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
c. In any titration there are uncertainties associated with the apparatus used.
For this titration, assuming CLASS B equipment, calculate
(i) the percentage uncertainty in the volume of the oxalic acid you pipetted
into the conical flask.
(ii) the percentage uncertainty in your mean titre volume. {Do not forget
about the uncertainty in the end-point}
d. It is good practice to carry out a titration until concordant titre values are
obtained. Explain why this procedure does not make titration results more
accurate.
e. Andy and Brenda were carrying out a titration. Brenda pipetted 25 cm3 of the
solution being analysed into a conical flask. Andy noticed that the conical flask
was wet as he had not properly dried it after cleaning it with some deionised
water. He told Brenda she must discard the solution, clean the flask and then
make sure it was completely dry before proceeding. Brenda said it did not matter
that the flask was wet and carried on with the titration.
Explain whether you agree with Brenda or Andy.
The next few pages will look at how to tackle calculations based on chemical analysis.
This type of question is very popular in the exam.
Three types of titration
Acid/base
In these reactions the hydrogen ions of the acid react with the hydroxide ions of the base.
Stoichiometry ---- Every H+ needs one OH- from the base.
H+ + OH- H2O
Therefore
one mole of HCl will react with one mole of NaOH
one mole of H2SO4 will react with two moles of NaOH
In an organic acid it is only the functional group hydrogen atoms that are acidic. (COOH)
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, only has ONE acidic hydrogen. Oxalic acid, HOOCCOOH, has
TWO.
Carbonates will neutralise TWO H+
CO32- + 2H+ H2CO3
Primary Standards ---- Include Sodium carbonate, potassium hydrogen phthalate and
oxalic acid.
Note that most HYDROXIDES are NOT primary standards.
Indicators ---- Include Phenolphthalein and methyl orange.
REDOX
Oxidation and reduction – remember OXIDISING agents are LOW LEFT and REDUCING
agents are HIGH RIGHT in the electrochemical series in the data booklet.
Strong oxidising agents are permanganate, MnO4-, dichromate, Cr2O7
2-
Reducing agent frequently used is the thiosulphate ion, S2O32-
Stoichiometry ---- To find the stoichiometry – simply cross multiply the electrons
in the ion-electron equations.
E.g. Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O
The stoichiometry is 5Fe2+ : MnO4-
Primary Standards ---- Potassium iodate, potassium dichromate.
Indicators ---- Very common REDOX titration is reaction of iodine (I2) with sodium
thiosulphate ,(S2O32-)
The indicator used in this titration is STARCH
Be careful - IODINE turns black with starch but IODIDE does not.
I2 + 2e- 2I-
COMPLEXOMETRIC
The reaction of ethylenediaminetetraacetic aicd, EDTA, with divalent metal ions like Ni2+,
Ca2+, Mg2+ to form an octahedral complex with a coordination number of six.
Stoichiometry ---- EDTA reacts in a 1:1 ratio with these ions
Indicators ---- These vary with the metal – Murexide and Eriochrome black T are examples.
EDTA titrations are pH sensitive. Buffer solutions are often added to control the pH.
{You will find out more about EDTA in the transition metals notes}
1. Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7, is a primary standard and is often used in acid
conditions in redox titrations.
This oxidising agent can be used to determine the mass of iron in an iron tablet.
An iron tablet weighing 0.940 g was dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid made up to
250 cm3 with water. 25.0 cm3 of this solution was titrated with 0.00160 mol l-1
K2Cr2O7 requiring 32.5 cm3 of the K2Cr2O7.
The equation for the reaction is
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O
Calculate the percentage mass of Fe2+ in the tablet.
2. 0.236g of impure benzoic (C6H5COOH) acid required 19.25 cm3 of 0.10 mol l-1 sodium
hydroxide for complete neutralisation.
Calculate
a. The number moles of sodium hydroxide used in titration.
b. The mass of benzoic acid which neutralised the sodium hydroxide.
c. The % purity of the benzoic acid.
3. To make a standard calcium ion solution 0.25 g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, was
dissolved in a little dilute hydrochloric acid and made up to 250 cm3 in a standard
flask.
a. Calculate the concentration of the calcium ion in this solution.
b. 20 cm3 of the standard calcium solution were pipetted into a conical flask. A few
drops of calcium ion indicator and a pH 10 buffer were added. EDTA was added
from a burette and the end point was reached at a volume of 25.70 cm3.
Calculate the concentration of the EDTA.
Ca
calcium EDTA complex
Determination of the ethanoic acid content of white vinegar
Vinegar is a dilute solution of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. The aim of this experiment is to
determine the concentration of ethanoic acid in a given sample of white vinegar by titration
against the sodium hydroxide solution standardised in Experiment 2.
The stoichiometric equation for the titration reaction is:
CH3COOH + NaOH H2O + CH3COONa
ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide water sodium ethanoate
Requirements
50 cm3 burette, white vinegar, 25 cm3 pipette,
standardised sodium hydroxide solution (approx. 0.1 mol l–1), 100 cm3 beakers,
100 cm3 conical flasks, phenolphthalein indicator,250 cm3 standard flask, deionised water,
wash bottle, pipette filler, dropper, white tile, filter funnel.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off immediately.
Vinegar irritates the eyes and skin. 0.1 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide is corrosive to the eyes and
skin. Phenolphthalein indicator solution is highly flammable and irritating to the eyes
because of its ethanol content.
Procedure
1. Rinse the 25 cm3 pipette with a little of the vinegar.
2. Dilute the sample of vinegar by pipetting 25 cm3 of it into a clean 250 cm3 standard
flask and making it up to the graduation mark with deionised water.
3. Stopper the standard flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are
thoroughly mixed.
4. Rinse the 25 cm3 pipette with a little of the diluted vinegar(or use a second pipette)
and pipette 25 cm3 of it into a conical flask.
5. Add two or three drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the diluted vinegar in the
conical flask.
6. Rinse the 50 cm3 burette, including the tip, with the sodium hydroxide solution and fill
it with the same solution.
7. Titrate the diluted vinegar solution with the sodium hydroxide solution from the
burette until the end-point is reached. This is indicated by the appearance of a pink
colour. Repeat the titrations until two concordant results are obtained.
a. Use the stoichiometric equation and your mean titre volume to calculate the
concentration of ethanoic acid in the undiluted vinegar.
b. Refer to the vinegar bottle and note the volume. Use this information and your answer
to question (a) above to calculate the mass of ethanoic acid in the vinegar when the
bottle is full.
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
Determination of nickel in a nickel(II) salt using EDTA
The molecule ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) has the following structure.
alternatively
It is often written as H4Y where Y represent all the molecule except the four COOH
hydrogen atoms.
In alkaline conditions the molecule forms the Y4- ion. This ion reacts in a one to one
stoichiometric ratio with a range of divalent metal ions (Mg2+, Ni2+ etc).
The EDTA ion “wraps around” the metal ion forming a metal-edta octahedral complex which
is represented by the structures shown.
Since EDTA forms stable complexes with most metal ions, it
is widely used to determine metals in what are known as
complexometric titrations.
The reaction of nickel(II) ions with EDTA can be represented as
Y4– + Ni2+ NiY2–
The end-point of an EDTA complexometric titration can be detected by means of a metal
ion indicator – an organic dye which changes colour when it binds with metal ions. For it to
be suitable in an EDTA titration, the indicator must bind less strongly with metal ions
than does EDTA. Murexide is one such indicator.
Requirements
50 cm3 burette standardised 0.10 mol l–1 EDTA solution
10 cm3 pipette hydrated nickel(II) sulfate (NiSO4.6H2O)
100 cm3 standard flask, 1 mol l–1 ammonium chloride, 250 cm3 conical flasks
murexide indicator, weighing bottle, 0.88 aqueous ammonia, balance (accurate to 0.01 g),
deionised water, 100 cm3 beakers, 25 cm3 measuring cylinder, wash bottle, pipette filler,
white tile, filter funnel, glass stirring rod.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off immediately.
Hydrated nickel(II) sulfate is harmful by ingestion and inhalation. Wear gloves.
EDTA is only toxic if ingested in large quantities.
0.88 aqueous ammonia is toxic if inhaled in high concentrations or if swallowed. The solution
and vapour irritate the eyes. The solution burns the skin. Wear goggles and gloves and
handle it in a fume cupboard. 1 mol l–1 ammonium chloride is harmful and irritates the eyes.
Murexide is harmful by ingestion and if inhaled as a dust.
Procedure
1. Transfer approximately 2.6 g of hydrated nickel(II) sulfate to a weighing bottle and
weigh the bottle and contents.
2. Add about 25 cm3 of deionised water to a 100 cm3 beaker and transfer the bulk of the
nickel salt to the water.
3. Reweigh the bottle with any remaining salt.
4. Stir the mixture until the solid dissolves and transfer the resulting solution to a
100 cm3 standard flask.
5. Rinse the beaker several times with a little deionised water and add the rinsings to the
standard flask.
6. Make up the solution to the graduation mark with deionised water. Stopper the flask
and invert it several times to ensure the contents are thoroughly mixed.
7. Rinse the burette, including the tip, with 0.10 mol l–1 EDTA and fill it with the same
solution.
8. Rinse the 10 cm3 pipette with a little of the nickel salt solution and pipette 10 cm3 of
it into a conical flask. Dilute the solution to about 50 cm3 with deionised water.
9. Add murexide indicator (approximately 0.05 g) to the diluted nickel salt solution
together with approximately 5 cm3 of ammonium chloride solution.
10. Titrate the mixture with the EDTA solution and after the addition of about 8 cm3
make the solution alkaline by adding approximately 5 cm3 of 0.88 aqueous ammonia
(concentrated ammonia solution).
11. Continue the titration to the end-point, which is shown by the first appearance of a
blue-violet colour. Detection of the end-point can be difficult so keep this titrated
solution to help you detect end-points in subsequent titrations.
12. Repeat the titrations until two concordant results are obtained.
Initial Mass of weighing bottle + nickel salt = __________
Final mass of weighing bottle + nickel salt = __________
Mass of nickel salt = __________
The aim of this experiment is to determine by EDTA titration the percentage nickel in
hydrated nickel(II) sulfate, NiSO4.6H2O and to compare it with the theoretical value.
The following theory will remind you how to calculate the theoretical % of an element in a
compound.
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
a. Calculate the theoretical percentage by mass of nickel in NiSO4.6H2O
b. Calculate the percentage by mass of nickel in the sample of hydrated nickel(II) sulfate
using the stoichiometric equation and your experimental results.
c. Account for the difference in your answers to (a) and (b).
d. The end-point of this titration was observed due to the metal ion indicator murexide
(symbol Mu) causing a colour change.
The equations below occur at various stages during the titration
Ni2+(aq) + Mu(aq) NiMu2+(aq) (murexide added at the start)
(initial colour -blue)
Ni2+(aq) + EDTA4-(aq) NiEDTA2-(aq) (adding EDTA to nickel solution )
NiMu2+(aq) + EDTA4-(aq) NiEDTA2-(aq) + Mu(aq) (at the end-point )
(final colour- blue/violet)
Use the information in the equations and the fact that to be suitable in an EDTA
titration, the indicator must bind less strongly with metal ions than does EDTA
to explain how the indicator works.
e. Explain why it is critical not to add too much indictor in an EDTA titration .
It is good practice, especially when using an unfamiliar procedure, to carry out a
control experiment. The purpose of a control is to validate the technique.
A control experiment consists of carrying out the analysis with a pure sample of the
analyte of known mass or concentration.
For example in the analysis of an aspirin tablet the control would involve carrying
out the determination of aspirin using a pure sample of the compound. If the mass
of aspirin you determine matches the mass you started with then this establishes
the validity of the procedure and the results.
Other examples of controls are shown in the table.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an important component of our diet. Although it occurs
naturally in many fruits and vegetables, many people take vitamin C tablets to
supplement their intake. The vitamin C content of a tablet can be determined by
carrying out a redox titration with a standard solution of iodine using starch
solution as indicator:
The equation for the reaction is shown below:
C
C
HO
HO C
O
CH
CH
OH
CH2OH
O + I2
C
C
O
O C
O
CH
CH
OH
CH2OH
O + 2H+ + 2I
vitamin C(ascorbic acid)
Substance analysed Control
Vitamin C in fruit juice Pure vitamin C
Iron in Iron tablets Pure iron compound. E.g. Iron sulfate
Caffeine in tea Pure caffeine
Copper in brass Mixture of pure copper and pure zinc
Requirements
250 cm3 standard flask, 1 g effervescent vitamin C tablet, 100 cm3 conical flasks,
sample of pure ascorbic acid, 25 cm3 pipette, standardised 0.025 mol l–1 iodine solution,
50 cm3 burette, starch solution, weighing bottle,deionised water,
balance (accurate to 0.01 g), pipette filler, filter funnel, 100 cm3 beakers, dropper,
white tile, wash bottle.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off immediately.
0.025 mol l–1 iodine solution irritates the eyes and causes severe internal irritation if
swallowed. Wear gloves and treat any spills on the skin with sodium thiosulfate solution.
Control experiment using pure ascorbic acid
1. Add about 1.0 g of pure ascorbic acid to the weighing bottle and weigh the
bottle and contents.
2. Transfer the pure ascorbic acid to a beaker and reweigh the weighing bottle
3. Add some deionised water (approximately 50 cm3) to the beaker and stir the
mixture until the ascorbic acid dissolves.
4. Transfer the solution to a 250 cm3 standard flask.
5. Rinse the beaker with a little deionised water and add the rinsings to the
standard flask. Repeat this procedure several times and add the rinsings to the
flask. Make up the solution to the graduation mark with deionised water.
6. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are
completely mixed.
7. Rinse the burette, including the tip, with 0.025 mol l–1 iodine solution and fill it
with the same solution.
8. Rinse the 25 cm3 pipette with the ascorbic acid solution and pipette
25 cm3 of it into a 100 cm3 conical flask.
9. Add a few drops of starch indicator to the solution and titrate to the end-
point, which is indicated by the colour changing to blue.
10. Repeat the titrations until two concordant results are obtained.
Determination of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in a commercial tablet
1. Add a 1 g effervescent vitamin C tablet to a beaker.
2. Repeat steps 2 to 10 of the above procedure.
Control
Initial Mass of weighing bottle + vitamin C = __________
Final mass of weighing bottle + vitamin C = __________
Mass of vitamin C = __________
Tablet
Mass of vitamin C tablet (tared balance) = __________
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
a. Use your concordant result, the concentration of iodine and the gram formula mass of
vitamin C to calculate the mass of vitamin in the initial control sample.
Compare this result with the mass of vitamin C weighed out and account for any
difference.
b. Calculate the mass of vitamin C in the tablet and compare the result with the
manufacturer’s specification.
c. (i) Does the control result conform this as a valid technique? Explain
c. (ii) The percentage efficiency of the technique can be calculated as follows
% Efficiency = {experimental mass/actual mass} x 100
Use the results of your control experiment to determine the % efficiency of
the technique and use this figure to decide if the result for the tablet is
acceptable.
d. Starch is used as an indicator in this titration even although iodine could be considered
self-indicating.
(i) What does self-indicating mean?
(ii) Why does an iodine titration require the addition of starch?
(iii) Why must the starch solution be freshly prepared?
Sometimes it is not possible to use standard titration methods. For example the reaction
between determined substance and titrant can be too slow, or there can be a problem with
end point determination or the substance may not be soluble.
In such situations we can often use a technique called back titration. In back titration we
use two reagents - one, that reacts with the original sample (lets call it A), and second (lets
call it B), that reacts with the first reagent. How do we proceed? We add precisely
measured excess amount of reagent A to the sample and once the reaction ends we titrate
excess reagent A left with reagent B. Knowing the initial amount of reagent A and amount
that was left after the reaction (from titration) we can easily calculate how much reagent A
reacted with the sample and from this we can obtain data about the sample.
A sample of magnesium carbonate was analysed for purity using a back titration.
Brenda added 0.25g of impure magnesium carbonate to 40 cm3 of 0.16mol l-1 HCl.
8.1 cm3 of 0.11 mol l-1 NaOH was required to neutralise the excess HCl.
The equations for the reactions are
MgCO3 + 2HCl MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O Eqn 1
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O Eqn 2
Calculate the percentage purity of the magnesium carbonate.
Calculate initial moles of HCl CxV = 0.16 x 40/1000 = 0.0064 mol
Calculate moles of NaOH used in titration CxV = 0.11 x 8.1/1000 = 0.000891 mol
Use Eqn 2 to find the excess moles of HCl {HCl:NaOH = 1:1} = 0.000891 mol
Subtract excess moles of HCl from the initial moles of HCl to give moles of HCl which
reacted with the magnesium carbonate 0.0064 - 0.000891 = 0.005509 mol
Use Eqn 1 to find moles of MgCO3 reacted {2HCl: MgCO3 = 2:1}
0.005509/2 = 0.002755 mol
Use n x gfm(MgCO3) for mass of MgCO3 reacted 0.002755 x 84.3 = 0.232 g
Divide the mass of pure MgCO3 with that of the original mass and multiply by 100 to find
the percentage purity of MgCO3 0.232/0.25 x 100 = 92.8%
Determination of aspirin
Aspirin has the following structural formula:
Since it is insoluble in water, aspirin has to be determined by a back titration technique.
This involves treating a sample of accurately known mass with a definite amount of sodium
hydroxide, ie the volume and concentration of the alkali must be accurately known. The
alkali first catalyses the hydrolysis of the aspirin to ethanoic and salicylic acids and then
neutralises these acids. The overall equation for the reaction is:
An excess of alkali has to be used and the amount remaining after reaction is determined by
titrating it against a standard solution of sulfuric acid. This titration is the back titration.
Requirements
250 cm3 standard flasks, aspirin tablets, conical flasks, (100 cm3 and 250 cm3)
25 cm3 pipette, standardised 0.050 mol l–1 sulfuric acid, 50 cm3 burette,
standardised 1.0 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide, weighing bottle, phenolphthalein,
balance (accurate to 0.1 g), deionised water, hot plate (or Bunsen burner and tripod),
50 cm3 measuring cylinder, 100 cm3 beakers, pipette filler, filter funnel, white tile,
wash bottle, dropper.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off immediately.
0.50 mol l–1 sulfuric acid irritates the eyes and skin.
1.0 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide is corrosive to the eyes and skin. Gloves and goggles should be
worn.
Phenolphthalein indicator solution is highly flammable and irritating to the eyes because of
its ethanol content.
Aspirin irritates the eyes and skin.
Procedure
1. Place the conical flask on the balance. Tare the balance. Add aspirin to
the flask (around 1.5 g)
2. Rinse the 25 cm3 pipette with 1.0 mol l–1 sodium hydroxide and pipette
25 cm3 of this solution into the flask containing the aspirin tablets.
3. To the mixture in the flask, add approximately 25 cm3 of deionised water.
4. Place the flask on the hot plate and simmer the mixture very gently for
about 30 minutes.
5. Allow the reaction mixture to cool before transferring it to the
250 cm3 standard flask.
6. Rinse the conical flask with a little deionised water and add the rinsings
to the standard flask. Repeat this procedure several times and add the
rinsings to the flask. Make up the solution to the graduation mark with
deionised water.
7. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are
completely mixed.
8. Rinse the burette, including the tip, with 0.050 mol l–1 sulfuric acid and
fill it with the same solution.
9. Rinse the 25 cm3 pipette with the ‘standard flask’ solution and pipette 25
cm3 of it into a 100 cm3 conical flask.
10. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the solution and titrate
to the end-point.
11. Repeat the titrations until two concordant results are obtained.
Number of aspirin tablets used __________________
a. Use your concordant result and the gram formula mass of aspirin to calculate the mass
of aspirin per tablet. Compare this result with the mass of aspirin quoted by the
manufacturer and from this calculate the % efficiency of the technique.
Titration Trial 1 2 3 4
Burette
readings/cm3
Initial
Final
Titre volume/cm3
Mean titre volume/cm3
1. Titration with solutions of potassium bromate (KBrO3) can be used to determine the
concentration of arsenic (III) ions.
The balanced equation is:
3H3AsO3 + BrO3- Br- + 3H3AsO4
What is the concentration of As(III) in a solution if 22.35 cm3 of 0.100 mol l -1 KBrO3
is needed to titrate 50.00 cm3 of the As(III) solution?
2. Alcohol(ethanol) levels in blood can be determined by a redox titration with potassium
dichromate according to the balanced equation:
C2H5OH(aq) + 2Cr2O72-(aq) + 16H+(aq) 2CO2(g) + 4Cr3+(aq) + 11H2O(l)
a. What is the blood alcohol level in mol l-1 if 8.76 ml of 0.050 mol l-1 K2Cr2O7 is required
for titration of a 10.026 cm3 sample of blood?
b. Suggest why an indicator is not required for this titration.
3. To determine the concentration of chloride ions in seawater it is titrated with
silver(I) nitrate solution.
25 cm3 of raw seawater was diluted to 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask.
A 25 cm3 sample of the diluted seawater was pipetted into a conical flask and a few
drops of potassium chromate(VI) indicator solution was added.
On titration with 0.100 mol l-1 silver nitrate solution, 13.8 cm3 was required to
react with the chloride ions in the diluted sample.
The equation for this reaction is
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Ag+Cl- (s)
a. Silver(I) nitrate is a primary standard. What is meant by “primary standard”?
b. What type of reaction is this?
c. Suggest the name of a chemical which could be used in a control experiment.
d. Calculate the concentration of chloride ions in the undiluted seawater.
4. Brass is an alloy consisting mainly of copper and zinc. To determine the percentage of
copper in a sample of brass, 2.63 g of the brass was dissolved in concentrated nitric
acid and the solution diluted to 250 cm3 in a standard flask. Excess potassium iodide
solution was added to 25.0 cm3 of this solution, iodine being produced according to the
equation:
2Cu2+(aq) + 4I–(aq) 2CuI(s) + I2(aq)
The iodine formed was titrated with 0.10 mol l–1 sodium thiosulfate solution,
Na2S2O3(aq), the volume required for complete reaction being 24.8 cm3.
I2(aq) + 2S2O32–(aq) 2I–(aq) + S4O6
2–(aq)
colourless colourless
a. How could the end-point for the titration be made more obvious?
b. Explain why the potassium iodide solution could be measured out in a measuring
cylinder instead of a pipette.
b. How many moles of sodium thiosulfate were required in the titration?
c. Calculate the percentage by mass of copper in the sample of brass.
5. In an experiment to determine the percentage by mass of ammonium sulfate,
(NH4)2SO4, in a fertiliser, 3.80 g of the fertiliser was dissolved in water and made up
to 250 cm3 in a standard flask..
To 25.0 cm3 portions of this solution, an excess of methanal was added.
4NH4+(aq) + 6HCHO(aq) C6H12N4(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 6H2O(l)
The H+(aq) ions produced were titrated with 0.100 mol l-1 sodium hydroxide solution.
The average volume required to neutralise these H+(aq) ions was 28.0 cm3.
a. Why was the methanal added in excess to the fertiliser solution?
b. Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen ions produced by the methanal in the
25 cm3 of fertiliser solution.
c. Calculate then number of moles of ammonium ions in the 250 cm3 standard flask.
d. Calculate the number of moles of ammonium sulfate in the 250 cm3 standard flask.
e. Calculate the percentage of ammonium sulfate in the fertiliser.
6. Some bleaches use hypochlorite ions (OCl-) as the bleaching agent. The concentration
of the hypochlorite can be found by adding a diluted sample of the bleach to an excess
of ethanoic acid and potassium iodide. This releases iodine, the concentration of which
can be determined using a standard thiosulfate solution with starch indicator.
OCl-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2I-(aq) I2(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) 2I-(aq) + S4O6
2-(aq)
25.0 cm3 of bleach was diluted to 250 cm3 in a standard flask. 10.0 cm3 samples of
diluted bleach were pipetted into conical flasks containing an excess of ethanoic acid
and potassium iodide. Each sample was titrated against sodium thiosulfate solution
(concentration 0.075 mol l-1). The results are shown in the table below.
a. Why was the titration carried out three times?
b. Why was ethanoic acid added to the bleach/iodide mixture?
c. Calculate the concentration of hypochlorite ions in the undiluted bleach.
Burette reading 1 2 3
Initial/cm3 0.00 14.00 28.00
Final/cm3 13.70 27.55 41.45
Titration
Gravimetric analysis means the analysis of chemicals by weighing. Calculations based on
gravimetric analysis are generally easier than volumetric analysis and almost always involve
calculating a number of moles from an experimentally determined mass.
There are two major types of gravimetric analysis one involves heating a weighed mass of
reactant and weighing one of the solid products.
Copper(II) sulfate can exist in a white anhydrous form, CuSO4,
and the more common blue hydrated form CuSO4.X H20
The value of X (the number of moles of water molecules) can be
determined by heating the hydrated form to remove the
water molecules.
6.24 g of hydrated copper(II) sulfate was
heated until the blue colour was totally replaced
by white. The product was heated to constant
mass. The final mass of 3.99 g. Calculate the
value of X in the formula CuSO4.X H20
The final mass is less than the original mass. This is due to the molecules of water being
removed from the hydrated compound
Mass of water = 6.24 – 3.99 = 2.25 g
We now determine the number of moles of copper(II) sulphate and water in the hydrated
compound
CuSO4 H2O
Mass 3.99 2.25
GFM 159.6 18
Moles 0.025 0.125
Dividing both numbers by the smallest (0.025) will give the
simplest whole number mole ratio
0/025/0.025 = 1 0.125/0.025 = 5
So the value of X is 5 and the formula of the compound is CuSO4.5 H20
mass
n GFM
The second method in gravimetric analysis is PRECIPITATION. The analyte is dissolved in
water and converted into an insoluble product by the addition of a suitable reagent. The
resulting precipitate is then filtered, washed, dried and finally weighed.
A sample of sodium sulphite, Na2SO3, contains sodium sulphate, Na2SO4, as the only
impurity.
6.35 g of the sample was dissolved in deionised water and an excess of barium chloride was
added. Both barium sulfite, BaSO3, and barium sulfate, BaSO4 precipitated but on addition
of hydrochloric acid the barium sulfite dissolved. The precipitate of barium sulfate was
filtered, washed and dried. The mass was found to be 1.67 g
Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Calculate the % mass of barium sulfite in the sample
Moles of barium sulfate = mass/gfm = 1.67/233 = 0.00717
Moles of sodium sulfate = 0.00717 (1:1 ratio in equation)
Mass of sodium sulfate = n x gfm = 0.00717 x 142 = 1.02 g
Mass of sodium sulfite = 6.35 – 1.02 = 5.33 g
% sodium sulfite = 5.33/6.35 x 100 = 83.9%
Remember that solubility data is available in the data booklet. Precipitates are insoluble
compounds and a check of the data book should help identify them.
Two common precipitation reactions are
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Ag+Cl- (s)
and
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) Ba2+SO4
2-(s)
Gravimetric determination of nickel using dimethylglyoxime
Gravimetric analysis can be used to determine the nickel content of a nickel(II) salt.
This can be achieved by reacting the nickel(II) ions with dimethylglyoxime
(butanedione dioxime) in the presence of a slight excess of ammonia:
The complex, nickel(II) dimethylglyoximate, is filtered from the reaction mixture,
dried and weighed.
Requirements
500 cm3 beaker hydrated nickel(II) chloride (NiCl2.6H2O),sintered glass crucible ,
2 mol l–1 ammonia, Buchner flask and adapter, 0.1 mol l–1 dimethylglyoxime in ethanol,
water pump, 2 mol l–1 hydrochloric acid, desiccators,
balance (preferably accurate to 0.001 g), weighing bottle, hot plate, steam bath,
measuring cylinders (10 cm3 and 100 cm3), thermometer, stirring rod, dropper,oven
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off
immediately.
Hydrated nickel(II) chloride is harmful by inhalation and by ingestion.
Wear gloves.
Dimethylglyoxime in ethanol is irritating to the eyes and is highly flammable.
2 mol l–1 ammonia irritates the eyes.
Procedure
1. Transfer approximately 0.5 g of hydrated nickel(II) chloride to a weighing bottle and
weigh the bottle and contents.
2. Add about 20 cm3 of deionised water to a 500 cm3 beaker and transfer the bulk of the
nickel salt to the water.
3. Reweigh the bottle with any remaining salt.
4. Stir the mixture until the solid dissolves and add about 20 cm3 of 2 mol l–1 hydrochloric
acid. Dilute the mixture with deionised water to about 200 cm3.
5. Heat the solution to 70–80°C on a hot plate and add approximately 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol l–1
dimethylglyoxime in ethanol.
6. Add 2 mol l–1 ammonia solution dropwise and with constant stirring until a permanent
red precipitate is obtained. Add a further 5 cm3 of the ammonia solution to provide a
slight excess. In all, you should have added about 30 cm3 of ammonia solution.
7. Heat the beaker and contents on a steam bath for about 30 minutes and when the
precipitate has settled test the clear liquid for complete precipitation by adding a few
drops of the dimethylglyoxime and ammonia solutions. (If more red precipitate appears
then add about 5 cm3 of 0.1 mol l–1 dimethylglyoxime solution followed by about 3 cm3
of 2 mol l–1 ammonia solution.)
8. Remove the beaker from the steam bath and allow it to cool to room temperature.
9. Dry the sintered glass crucible in an oven at 120°C, allow it to cool in a desiccator and
then weigh it.
10. Set up the filtration apparatus: sintered glass crucible, Buchner flask and adapter.
Filter off the precipitate at the water pump and wash the precipitate with a several
portions of deionised water.
11. Dry the crucible and precipitate in the oven at 120°C for about 1 hour and then
transfer them to a desiccator.
12. Once they have cooled to room temperature, reweigh the crucible and contents.
13. Heat the crucible and contents to constant mass, ie reheat for about 15
minutes in the oven at 120°C, cool in the desiccator and reweigh until two
successive readings are within 0.01 g of each other as the balance available is
only accurate to 0.01 g.
Formula of hydrated nickel(II) chloride _________________________
Initial Mass of weighing bottle + nickel chloride = __________
Final mass of weighing bottle + nickel chloride = __________
Mass of nickel chloride = __________
Mass of empty crucible = __________
1st mass of crucible and precipitate = __________
2nd mass of crucible and precipitate = __________
3rd mass of crucible and precipitate = __________
4th mass of crucible and precipitate = __________
a. Every measured result has an uncertainty associated with it. Read the pages in your
reference booklet which discuss combining uncertainties and then calculate the
uncertainties in the mass of nickel chloride and the mass of the precipitate. Your
answer should be in the form ------ {Mass +/- uncertainty)
b. In step 7 of the procedure why is dimethylglyoxime added to the clear liquid?
c. What does heating to constant mass mean?
d. Why is a desiccator used in this experiment?
e. Calculate the theoretical percentage by mass of nickel in NiCl2.6H2O
f. Use the results of your experiment to calculate the percentage by mass of nickel in
the sample of the hydrated nickel(II) chloride. Do your results match the theoretical
value.
1. Before 1947, ‘silver’ coins were made from an alloy of silver,copper and nickel. To
determine the metal composition, a coin weighing 10.00 g was dissolved in nitric
acid and the resulting solution diluted to 1000 cm3 in a standard flask.
A 100 cm3 portion was treated in the following way.
Hydrochloric acid (0.20 mol l–1) was added to this solution until precipitation of
silver(I) chloride was complete. The precipitate was recovered by filtration. It
was washed and dried and found to weigh 0.60 g.
.
a. (i) Calculate the percentage by mass of silver in the coin.
(ii) How could you tell when precipitation was complete?
b. The filtrate was treated to reduce the copper(II) ions to copper(I) ions. Ammonium
thiocyanate solution was added to precipitate the copper as copper(I) thiocyanate:
Cu+(aq) + CNS–(aq) CuCNS(s)
After filtration, drying and weighing, the precipitate was found to weigh 0.31 g.
Calculate the percentage by mass of copper in the coin.
2. Crystals of hydrated sodium carbonate left exposed to the atmosphere gradually
lose some of their water of crystallisation. The formula of the crystals may be given
by Na2CO3. xH2O, where x has a numerical value between 0 and 10.
16.0 g of the crystals was dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm3 of solution in a
standard flask. To determine the value of x in the formula, 25 cm3 of the sodium
carbonate solution was titrated with 1.0 mol l–1 hydrochloric acid. 15.0 cm3 of the acid
was required for neutralisation.
{Hint: Carbonate ions react with hydrochloric acid in a 1:2 ratio}
a. Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in 16.0 g of the crystals.
b. Find the value of x in the formula Na2CO3.xH2O.
3. A 5.02 g sample of a silver alloy was analysed as follows. The sample was completely
dissolved in excess dilute nitric acid and then treated with an excess of sodium
chloride solution, causing a white precipitate of silver(I) chloride.
The precipitate had a mass of 2.37 g.
Calculate the percentage mass of silver in the alloy.
The visible light we observe is a only small part of the electromagnetic spectrum. (We will
discuss this in course notes – (refer to the sections on electronic structure and transition
metals in the inorganic unit).
The wavelengths of light visible to the human eye range from around 400 nm (blue light) to
700 nm (red light). Note that nm indicate nanometres – 1 nm = 1 x 10-9 metres.
A coloured solution will absorb some, but not all, of the white light that shines on it.
The light that is not absorbed will pass through the
solution (we say the light is transmitted) and combine
to give the colours we see.
For example, if a solution absorbs the
blue part of white light then the light
that is transmitted appears yellow.
Conversely, if yellow light is absorbed
then the solution will have a blue colour.
We say that blue and yellow are each
other’s complementary colour: each is
the colour that white light becomes when
the other is removed.
Complementary colours are shown diagonally
opposite each other in the colour wheel. 475 nm
Wavelengths are approximate.
510 nm
650 nm
While the colour of a solution depends on the colour of
light it absorbs, the intensity of its colour depends on
the concentration of the solution: the more
concentrated the solution, the darker its colour,
ie the more light it absorbs. We can get some
idea of the amount of light a coloured solution
absorbs by using a colorimeter
Colorimetric determination of manganese in steel
Colorimetry is an analytical technique used to determine the concentrations of coloured
substances in solution. It relies on the fact that a coloured substance absorbs light of a
colour complementary to its own and the amount of light it absorbs (absorbance) is
proportional to its concentration.
Colorimetry is particularly suited to the determination of manganese in steel because the
manganese can be converted into permanganate ions, which are coloured.
The conversion is achieved in two stages. Using nitric acid, the managanese is first oxidised
to manganese(II) ions, which are then oxidised to permanganate ions by the more powerful
oxidising agent, potassium periodate.
Requirements
standard flasks (50 cm3 and 100 cm3), steel paper clips, 50 cm3 burette, colorimeter,
standardised 0.0010 mol l–1 acidified potassium permanganate, 2 mol l–1 nitric acid,
optically matched cuvettes, 85% phosphoric acid,balance (accurate to 0.001 g),
acidified potassium periodate, glass beakers (50 cm3 and 250 cm3),
(5 g potassium periodate per 100 cm3, Bunsen burner, heating mat and tripod,
2 mol l–1 nitric acid), measuring cylinders (50 cm3 and 10 cm3),
potassium persulfate, clock glass, propanone, filter funnel, deionised water, tweezers,
anti-bumping granules, wash bottle, dropper, wire cutters.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on your skin wash it off immediately.
The acidified 0.0010 mol l–1 potassium permanganate is harmful if ingested and irritates the
eyes and skin. Wear gloves. nBoth 2 mol l–1 nitric acid and its vapour are corrosive and toxic,
causing severe burns to the eyes, digestive and respiratory systems. Wear gloves.
85% phosphoric acid is corrosive: it burns and irritates the eyes and skin. It is a systemic
irritant if inhaled and if swallowed causes serious internal injury. Wear gloves.
Acidified potassium periodate solution is harmful if swallowed and is an irritant to the eyes,
skin and respiratory system. It is also corrosive. Wear gloves.
Potassium persulfate is harmful if swallowed or inhaled as a dust. It irritates the eyes, skin
and respiratory system, causing dermatitis and possible allergic reactions. Wear gloves.
Propanone is volatile and highly flammable, and is harmful if swallowed. The vapour irritates
the eyes, skin and lungs, and is narcotic in high concentrations. Wear gloves.
Procedure
Part A – Calibration graph
Rinse the burette, including the tip, with 0.0010 mol l–1 acidified potassium permanganate
and fill it with the same solution.
1. Run 2 cm3 of the permanganate solution into a 50 cm3 standard flask and make up to
the graduation mark with deionised water.
2. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are completely
mixed.
3. Rinse a cuvette with some of the solution and fill it.
4. Rinse and fill a second cuvette with deionised water
5. Zero the colorimeter (fitted with a green filter) with the deionised water.
6. Measure the absorbance of the coloured solution in the cuvette.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 with 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 cm3 of the permanganate stock solution
in the burette.
Part B – Conversion of manganese to permanganate
1. Degrease a steel paper clip by swirling it with a little propanone in a beaker. Using
tweezers remove the paper clip and leave it to dry for a minute or so on a paper towel.
2. Cut the paper clip into small pieces.
3. Place a weighing boat on the balance and then tare the balance. Weigh accurately
about 0.2 g of the paper clip pieces and transfer them to a 250 cm3 glass beaker.
4. Add approximately 40 cm3 of 2 mol l–1 nitric acid to the beaker and cover it with a
clock glass.
5. Heat the mixture cautiously, in a fume cupboard, until the reaction starts. Continue
heating gently to maintain the reaction, but remove the source of heat if the reaction
becomes too vigorous.
6. Once the steel has reacted, allow the solution to cool a little. Add a couple of anti-
bumping granules and then boil the solution until no more brown fumes are given off.
7. Once this solution has cooled considerably – no more than ‘hand hot’ – add about 5 cm3
of 85% phosphoric acid, approximately 0.2 g of potassium persulfate and a couple of
fresh anti-bumping granules. Boil the mixture for about 5 minutes.
8. To this solution, add approximately 15 cm3 of acidified potassium periodate solution
plus a couple of fresh anti-bumping granules and then gently boil the mixture. The
solution will start to turn pink. Continue gently boiling until the intensity of the pink
colour remains constant. This should take about 5 minutes.
9. Allow the pink solution to cool to room temperature and then transfer it to a 100 cm3
standard flask, leaving the anti-bumping granules in the beaker.
10. Rinse the beaker several times with a little deionised water and add the rinsings (but
not the anti-bumping granules) to the flask.
11. Make up the solution to the graduation mark with deionised water.
12. Stopper the flask and invert it several times to ensure the contents are completely
mixed.
13. Using a colorimeter fitted with the appropriate green filter, measure the absorbance
of the solution.
Mass of paper clips (tared balance) = _________________
Absorbance of paper clip solution = ____________________
a. Why is colorimetry a suitable technique to measure the mass of manganese in a paper
clip?
b. What was the wavelength of the filter used in the colorimeter.
c. Why was this filter chosen for use in the analysis?
Volume of 0.001 mol l-1
permanganate solution/cm3
Concentration of permanganate
solution/mol l-1
Absorbance
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
d. Why was the colorimeter zeroed with deionised water before any of the permanganate
solutions were analysed?
d. Prepare a calibration graph of using the results of the standard permanganate
solutions (You may wish to use Microsoft excel to do this)
e. Find the concentration of permanganate in the paper clip solution. If you used excel,
obtain the equation of the line and use this to find the concentration of the solution.
If you drew the graph manually draw line on the graph to indicate how you arrived at
the concentration value. Note, it is very important your graph is of a suitable size and
scale.
f. The formula of the permanganate ion is MnO4-. The ratio of manganese to
permanganate is therefore 1:1.
Use this information and your result from part (e) to calculate the mass of manganese
in the paperclip and hence the % mass of manganese in the paperclip.
1. An experiment was carried out to determine the % manganese in a sample of stainless
steel. A series of standard permanganate solutions were prepared from a stock
solution of 0.001 mol l-1 solution of permanganate and used to produce the
calibration graph shown below.
a. One of the standard solutions used to prepare the calibration graph had a
concentration of 1 x 10-4 mol l-1. Describe, giving appropriate volumes and apparatus,
how this solution could be prepared from the 0.001 mol l-1 solution of permanganate.
b. The results of the experiment are shown below.
Mass of steel used = 0.19 g
Absorbance of permanganate solution = 0.25
Total volume of permanganate solution = 100 cm3
Use the graph and the results to calculate the percentage, by mass, of manganese in
the sample of stainless steel.
2. Margaret analysed a sample of 100 cm3 of contaminated water for its copper content.
Suitable chemicals were added to the water to produce a blue coloured copper
compound, and the intensity of the colour was measured using a colorimeter. A series
of 5 solutions with known copper concentrations were prepared in a similar way and the
colorimeter reading produced by each was recorded as shown in the table below.
a. The solutions appeared blue because they were absorbing part of the visible region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Which colours of the spectrum were being absorbed?
b. Suggest the most appropriate coloured filter for use in the colorimeter and explain
your choice.
Concentration of copper/
milligrams per litre (mg l-1)
Absorbance
0 0.00
50 0.12
100 0.27
150 0.40
200 0.53
c. Draw a calibration graph of the colorimeter results.
d. The colorimeter reading for the contaminated water sample was 0.35. Calculate the
number of moles of copper in the water sample.
3. The diagram shows white light passing through a cyan coloured solution.
a. The steps shown below outline how the concentration of the cyan solution could be
determined by colorimetry. Put the steps in the correct order.
b. Explain why the absorbance graph shown below is NOT that of the cyan coloured
solution.
Practical organic chemistry is primarily concerned with synthesising (making) organic
compounds and the purpose of a ‘synthesis’ is to prepare a pure sample of a specified
compound. Essentially, there are five steps involved:
preparation – the appropriate reaction is carried out and a crude sample of the
desired product is prepared
isolation – the crude sample of the product is separated from the reaction mixture
purification – the crude product is purified
identification – the identity of the pure compound is confirmed
calculation of the percentage yield.
The next two experiments will explore these steps in detail. You will need to refer to the
reference booklet regularly to help with the questions in this section of the booklet.
Preparation of aspirin
Introduction
Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) is an analgesic (pain-killing), anti-inflammatory and antipyretic
(fever-reducing) drug. It is an ester and can be prepared by the condensation reaction
between 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid) and ethanoic anhydride:
In this experiment you will prepare aspirin then separate it from the reaction mixture using
vacuum filtration. The aspirin will be purified by recrystallisation. The purity of the
prepared aspirin will be checked by measuring its melting point and by thin-layer
chromatography.
Requirements
50 cm3 conical flask, 2-hydroxybenzoic acid, 100 cm3 conical flasks, 85% phosphoric acid,
measuring cylinders (10 cm3 and 50 cm3), ethanoic anhydride,250 cm3 glass beakers,
ethanol, thermometers, anti-bumping granules, dropper, deionised water, glass stirring rod,
ice, balance (accurate to 0.01 g), hot plate, iodine, Buchner funnel and flask,
dichloromethane, water pump, ethyl ethanoate, filter papers, clock glass, oven,
capillary tubes, melting point apparatus, chromatography chamber,TLC plate, test-tubes,
UV lamp, pure aspirin.
Hazcon
Wear eye protection and if any chemical splashes on the skin, wash it off immediately.
2-Hydroxybenzoic acid is harmful by ingestion, causing nausea, vomiting etc. It is also a
severe skin and eye irritant. Wear gloves. Ethanoic anhydride is corrosive. The liquid
irritates and burns the eyes and skin severely while the vapour irritates the respiratory
system and may cause bronchial and lung injury. It is also flammable. Wear gloves and
handle in a fume cupboard. 85% phosphoric acid is corrosive: it burns and irritates the skin
and eyes. It is a systemic irritant if inhaled and if swallowed causes serious internal injury.
Wear gloves. Aspirin irritates the eyes and skin. Ethanol is volatile, highly flammable,
irritating to the eyes and intoxicating if inhaled or ingested. Dichloromethane irritates the
eyes and skin and is at its most harmful if inhaled. Wear gloves. Ethyl ethanoate is irritating
to the eyes, volatile and can irritate the respiratory system. It is highly flammable. Wear
gloves.
Procedure – aspirin preparation and separation.
1. Weigh a 50 cm3 conical flask and to it add about 5 g of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid.
Reweigh the flask and its contents.
2. In a fume cupboard, add 10 cm3 of ethanoic anhydride from a measuring
cylinder to the 2-hydroxybenzoic acid. During the addition, swirl the contents
of the flask to ensure thorough mixing.
3. Add five drops of 85% phosphoric acid to the mixture, again with swirling.
4. Place the flask on a hot plate (in the fume cupboard) and heat the mixture to
about 85°C. Keep it at this temperature for about 10 minutes and constantly
stir the mixture.
5. Cool the mixture in an ice/water bath and then pour it into approximately
150 cm3 of cold water contained in a 250 cm3 beaker.
6. Filter off the precipitate at the water pump and wash it thoroughly with
several portions of cold water.
7. Transfer the crude product to about 15 cm3 of ethanol in a 100 cm3 conical
flask. Add a couple of anti-bumping granules and heat the mixture gently on a
hot plate until it dissolves.
8. Pour this solution into a 100 cm3 conical flask containing about 40 cm3 of water.
If an oil forms, reheat the mixture on a hot plate to dissolve it. If the oil
persists, add a few drops of ethanol and reheat the mixture.
9. Set aside the mixture and allow it to cool to room temperature.
10. Filter off the crystals of aspirin at the water pump and wash them with a small
volume of cold water. Allow air to be drawn through the crystals for a few
minutes in order to partially dry them.
11. Weigh a clock glass and transfer the crystals to it. Dry the crystals in an oven
at about 100°C and then reweigh the clock glass and crystals.
Procedure – identification and purity
1. Determine the melting point of the aspirin product.
2. Take a TLC plate and using a pencil lightly draw a line across the plate about 1
cm from the bottom. Mark two well-spaced points on the line.
3. Place small amounts (about a third of a spatulaful) of your aspirin product and a
pure sample of aspirin in two separate test-tubes.
4. Add about 1 cm3 of solvent (a 50:50 mixture of ethanol and dichloromethane) to
each of the test-tubes to dissolve the aspirin samples.
5. Use capillary tubes to spot each of the two samples onto the TLC plate. Allow
to dry and repeat two or three more times.
6. After the spots have dried, place the TLC plate into the chromatography
chamber, making sure that the pencil line is above the level of the solvent
(ethyl ethanoate). Close the chamber and wait until the solvent front has risen
to within a few millimetres of the top of the plate.
7. Remove the plate from the chamber, immediately marking the position of the
solvent front, and allow it to dry.
8. Place the TLC plate in a beaker containing a few iodine crystals and cover the
beaker with a clock glass. Once any brownish spots appear, remove the plate and
lightly mark the observed spots with a pencil. Alternatively, observe the dried
TLC plate under UV light and lightly mark with a pencil any spots observed.
9. Calculate the Rf values of the spots. This will give you some indication of the
purity of the aspirin you have prepared.
Mass of conical flask = ___________________________________
Mass of conical flask and 2-hydroxybenzoic acid = ______________
Mass of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid ___________________________
Mass of clock glass = ____________________________________
Mass of clock glass and aspirin = ____________________________
Mass of aspirin _______________________________________
a. Calculate the number of moles of 2-hydroxybenzoic acid used in the
experiment.
b. Use the value calculated in (a) to find the theoretical mass of aspirin which
should be produced.
c. Calculate the % yield of aspirin and give reasons why it is not 100%
Theoretical melting point of aspirin = ______________________
Melting point of prepared aspirin = ________________________
Draw a diagram of the developed TLC plate and calculate the Rf values of any spots. Your
diagram should show how the Rf values were determined
a. Using the results of the TLC and melting point comment on the purity of your
product.
Preparation of cyclohexene from cyclohexanol
Introduction
Cyclohexene can be prepared by dehydrating cyclohexanol using concentrated phosporic
acid. The product can be separated from the reaction mixture by distillation, and after
purification it can be weighed and the percentage yield determined.
Procedure
See animation of this experiment
1. Calculate the percentage assuming 20.00 g of cyclohexanol produced 4.10 g of
cyclohexene.
2. List the chemicals that are present in the separating funnel
and explain why a separating funnel is being used.
3. What test could be used to show the product is unsaturated.
A list of “learning outcomes” for the topic is shown below. When the topic is
complete you should review each learning outcome.
You are expected to consult your teacher if you have any
issues with the learning outcomes.
State that a standard solution is a solution of known concentration
Know how to weigh chemicals by the weighing by difference method.
State that a solution may be standardised by using a primary standard.
State the properties required of a primary standard.
Be able to name some primary standards.
State that sodium hydroxide is not a primary standard and state reasons why.
State the procedure required to prepare a standard solution.
Be able to carry out simple uncertainty calculations and be aware of the
uncertainties in laboratory equipment.
State that a control experiment allows the validity of a technique to be
evaluated and to be able to suggest chemicals which can be used as controls.
State that volumetric analysis involves measuring volumes and the main
technique is titration.
Sate what a back titration is and state the reasons it may be necessary to
carry out a back titration.
State that gravimetric analysis involves weighing reactants and products.
Be able to explain what is meant by heating to constant mass.
State that colorimetry can be used to analyse the concentration of coloured
solutions.
State that when carrying out a colorimetric analysis the filter which provides
maximum absorption for the test substance is always chosen.
Need Help
Understand
Revise
Be able to carry out stoichiometric calculations based on both volumetric and
gravimetric analysis.
Be able to carry out percentage yield calculations
State that recrystallisation is a technique used to purify a solid organic chemical
based on its solubility.
State that the melting point of a chemical is one way to identify the chemical
and it can be used to evaluate the purity of a chemical.
State that mixed melting point involves taking the pure form of the product
and mixing it with the prepared compound. If the melting point of the mixture
is the same as the pure product then the prepared compound is identical to the
pure compound.
State that thin – layer chromatography (TLC) can be used to identify
chemical and assess their purity.
State that the technique of solvent extraction (using a separating funnel) is
based on the relative solubility of a compound in two different immiscible
liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is a separation technique.
State that refluxing is a technique used to apply heat energy to a chemical
reaction mixture over an extended period of time which avoids the loss of a
substance through evaporation.
Vacuum filtration using a Buchner or sintered glass funnel. This method is
carried out under reduced pressure and provide a faster means of separating
the precipitate from the filtrate.
State that distillation is the process of heating a liquid until it boils, capturing
and cooling the resultant hot vapours, and collecting the condensed vapours.
In the modern organic chemistry laboratory, distillation is a powerful tool, both
for the identification and the purification of organic compounds.
I have discussed the work of this section with my teacher!
Date. __________________________________
Pupil Signature. __________________________
Teacher Signature. _______________________