GOVERNMENT · By the 1850s the debate over slavery had creat-ed divisions within both parties. The Democrats split into Northern and Southern factions. Many Whigs joined a new party

452

Political Awareness Political parties play alarge role in the decisions made by government.This chapter will help you understand the func-tion of political parties. It may also help youidentify your own political beliefs.

To find out more about how politicalparties influence policy and how you

can get involved in the political process, view theDemocracy in Action Chapter 16 video lesson:

Political Parties

Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 16—Overview to preview chapter infor-mation.

GOVERNMENT

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CHAPTER 16: POLITICAL PARTIES 453

Unlike Italy, the structure of the govern-ment in the United States does not needa coalition of political parties for thegovernment to operate. That does not

mean, however, that political parties do not exist inthe United States. In a nation as large and diverseas the United States the voice and will of the indi-vidual citizen can easily be lost.

Parties and Party SystemsA political party is a group of people withbroad common interests who organize to

win elections, control government, and thereby in-fluence government policies.Although most nationshave one or more political parties, the role that par-ties play differs with each nation’s political system.

One-Party Systems In a one-party system theparty, in effect, is the government. The decisions of party leaders set government policy. In someone-party nations, political differences arise onlywithin the party itself because the government tol-erates no other opposition. In elections in suchnations, only the party’s candidates appear on theballot.

One-party systems are usually found in nations with authoritarian governments. Suchparties often come into power through force.For example, a revolution in 1917 brought theCommunist Party to power in Russia. TodayCuba, Vietnam, North Korea, and China areamong the few nations that remain one-partyCommunist governments.

One-party systems also exist in some non-Communist countries such as Iran wherereligious leaders dominate government. A gov-ernment dominated by religion is known as a theocracy. The Muslim clergy controls the Islamic Republican Party. All major oppositionparties have been outlawed or are inactive. Mex-ico has also had a one-party government for manyyears. As in Iran, minor party candidates

Development of PartiesS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

No Government in ItalyROME, ITALY, NOVEMBER 4, 1974

Resistance to authority

is spreading as Italy

enters its 21st week with-

out a national govern-

ment. Political chaos is

nothing new to Italians.

Italy has had 36 govern-

ments in the past 31 years.

However, the current cri-

sis is the nation’s worst

since World War II. It

began in June, when a

coalition of 3 political

parties collapsed after only 3 months in power. Last

week another effort failed to forge a ruling majority

from among Italy’s more than 12 political parties.

Most Italians accepted the news calmly. Few believe

that their 37th government, whenever it is formed,

will be better than the 36th.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termspolitical party, theocracy, ideologies, coalition government, third party, single-member district,proportional representation

Find Out■ What is a multiparty system and how does

it affect governing?■ Why have third parties played only a minor

role in American politics?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy Could Americans have participated as effectively in government withoutpolitical parties?

The Democratic National Convention in Boston, 2004▲

An Italian demands

a government

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appeared on the ballot. Mexico’s Institutional Rev-olutionary Party (PRI) never lost a major election,and its leaders dominated Mexico’s government. In1997 voters began to shift to rival parties, and in2000 a non-PRI candidate was elected president.

Multiparty Systems In nations that allowmore than one political party, the most commonpolitical system today is the multiparty system.France, for example, has 5 major parties, and Italyhas over 10. In such countries voters have a widerange of choices on election day. The parties in amultiparty system often represent widely differing ideologies, or basic beliefs about government.

In a multiparty system, one party rarely getsenough support to control the government. Sever-al parties often combine forces to obtain a majori-ty and form a coalition government. Whengroups with different ideologies share power,coalitions often break down when disputes arise,requiring new elections. Thus, many nations withmultiparty systems are politically unstable.

Two-Party Systems Only about a dozen na-tions have systems in which two parties competefor power, although minor parties exist. In theUnited States, the major parties are the RepublicanParty and the Democratic Party.

Growth of American PartiesMany of the Founders distrusted “factions,”or groups with differing political views. In

The Federalist, No. 10 1 James Madison observed:

“The public good is disregarded in the conflicts of rival parties, and . . . measuresare too often decided, not according to therules of justice and the rights of the minorparty, but by the superior force of an inter-ested and overbearing majority.”—James Madison, 1787

In his Farewell Address of 1796,2 PresidentGeorge Washington warned against the “baneful[very harmful] effects of the spirit of party.” Evenso, by the end of President Washington’s secondterm, two political parties had organized in oppo-sition to one another. The Federalists called for astrong central government. The Democratic-

Republicans believed that the states should havemore power than the central government.

Parties Before the Civil War After the Fed-eralists elected John Adams president in 1796, theirpower quickly declined. Thomas Jefferson won thepresidency under the Democratic-Republicanbanner in 1800 and 1804. The Democratic-Repub-licans dominated politics into the 1820s. Thenconflicts over banking, tariffs, and slavery shat-tered the party. By 1828, when Andrew Jacksonwon the presidency, the Democratic-Republicanswere splitting into two parties. Jackson alignedwith the group called Democrats. The other groupcalled itself National Republicans, or Whigs.

By the 1850s the debate over slavery had creat-ed divisions within both parties. The Democratssplit into Northern and Southern factions. ManyWhigs joined a new party that opposed the spreadof slavery—the Republican Party.

Parties After the Civil War By the Civil War’send, two major parties dominated the national political scene. The Republicans remained the majority party from the Civil War until well intothe twentieth century. Democrats held the presi-dency for only 4 terms between 1860 and 1932.

Parties in the Great Depression andAfter In 1932 the Democratic Party won the WhiteHouse and assumed control of Congress. For mostof the next 60 years, Democrats were the majorityparty. Beginning in 1968, Republicans controlledthe White House for 6 of the next 9 presidentialterms.After losing the White House to Bill Clinton in1992, Republicans won the 1994 mid-term elec-tions, taking both houses of Congress for the first

454 CHAPTER 16: POLITICAL PARTIES

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Federalist, No. 10, pages 812–814. 2. Washington’s Farewell Address, page 817.

Student Web Activity Visit the United States Government: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 16—Student Web Activities for an activity about political parties.

GOVERNMENT

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time in 42 years. Beginning in 1995, for the firsttime since Truman, a Democratic president workedwith a Republican Congress.

The Role of Minor PartiesDespite the dominance of the two majorparties, third parties have been part of the

American political scene since the early days of theRepublic. A third party is any party other than oneof the two major parties. In any election there maybe more than one party running against the majorparties, yet each of them is labeled a “third” party.Because they rarely win major elections, third par-ties are also called minor parties.

Although a variety of reasons motivates them,third parties have one thing in common. They be-lieve that neither major party is meeting certainneeds. A third party runs candidates who proposeto remedy this situation.

Types of Third Parties Although there maybe some exceptions and overlapping, minor par-ties generally fall into one of three categories.The single-issue party focuses exclusively on one major social, economic, or moral issue. For

example, in the 1840s the Liberty Party and theFree Soil Party formed to take stronger standsagainst slavery than either the Democrats or theWhigs had taken. A single-issue party generally isshort-lived. It may fade away when an issue ceasesto be important, or a party with a popular issuemay become irrelevant if one of the major partiesadopts the issue.

Another type of third party is the ideologicalparty, which focuses on overall change in societyrather than on an issue. Ideological parties such asthe Socialist Labor Party and the Communist PartyUSA advocate government ownership of factories,transportation, resources, farmland, and othermeans of production and distribution. The Liber-tarian Party calls for drastic reductions in govern-ment in order to increase personal freedoms.

The third type of minor party is the splinterparty, which splits away from one of the majorparties because of some disagreement. Such dis-putes frequently result from the failure of a popu-lar figure to gain the major party’s presidentialnomination. The most notable occurrence was in1912, when former president Theodore Rooseveltled a group out of the Republican Party to formthe Progressive, or Bull Moose, Party. Splinter


Critical Thinking Since 1961, there have been four Democratic and five Republican presidents, yet a majority of the people in the country lean toward the Democrats. How could the Republican candidates have won the presidental elections?

Source: The National Election Studies, Center for Political Studies, University of Michigan.* Republican and Democratic data include Independents leaning toward that party, while Independents are those with no particular leaning.

Perc

en

tag

e

05

101520253035404550556065

Year20001996199219881984198019761972196819641960

DemocratsRepublicansIndependentsApolitical

Political Party Identification*Political Party Identification*

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Critical Thinking Many political parties throughout American history have challenged the Democrats and Republicans, yet none have been very successful. Which third party has been in existence the longest?

Founder:Ross Perot

Founder:Theodore Roosevelt

Source: Kruschke, Earl R., Encyclopedia of Third Parties in the United States (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1991); www.memory.loc.gov.* Formerly known as United We Stand

1796

1789

1804

1812

1820

1828

1836

1844

1852

1860

1868

1876

1884

1892

1900

1908

1916

1924

1932

1996

2004

1940

1948

1956

1964

1972

1980

1988

Anti-Mason

Free SoilAmerican (Know-Nothing)

Constitutional UnionSouthern Democrats

ProhibitionLiberal Republican

GreenbackSocialist Labor

Populist

Liberty

National DemocraticSocialist

Bull Moose ProgressiveLa Follette Progressive

Communist

States' Rights Democratic

Workers WorldHenry Wallace Progressive

George Wallace American Independent

*Reform

Green

Natural Law Constitution (U.S. Taxpayer’s)

New AllianceNational Unity

Citizen's

LibertarianPeople's

U.S. Labor

UnionSocialist Workers

Democratic-Republican

National Republican

Whig

Republican

Democratic

Major Parties

Third Parties

American Political Parties Since 1789American Political Parties Since 1789

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parties typically fade away with the defeat of theircandidate. The Bull Moose Party disappearedafter Roosevelt lost in 1912, for example.

The Impact of Third Parties Minor partieshave influenced the outcome of national elections.Theodore Roosevelt’s Bull Moose Party drew somany Republican votes from Presi-dent William Howard Taft in 1912that Democratic candidate WoodrowWilson was elected. In 1968 theAmerican Independent Party won13.5 percent of the vote, and somebelieve this swayed the narrow elec-tion of Republican candidateRichard Nixon. Some believe RossPerot’s independent candidacy mayhave helped Bill Clinton win in 1992.

Third parties often have promot-ed ideas that were at first unpopularor hotly debated. Major parties lateradopted many of their issues. For example, thirdparties first proposed a minimum wage for work-ers, the five-day workweek, unemployment insur-ance, and health insurance.

Obstacles to Third Parties As a result ofthe two-party tradition, minor parties face difficulties in getting on the ballot in all 50 states.The names of Republicans and Democrats are

automatically on the ballot in many states, butthird-party candidates are required to obtain alarge number of voter signatures in a short time.

Another difficulty for third-party candidates isthat nearly all elected officials in the United Statesare selected by single-member districts. Underthis system no matter how many candidates com-

pete in a district, only one will win.Because most voters support a major

party, the winner will almost alwaysbe a Democrat or a Republican.

By contrast, many nations use anelection system based on propor-tional representation. In this systemseveral officials are elected to repre-sent voters in an area. Offices arefilled in proportion to the votes thateach party’s candidates receive. Sucha system encourages minor parties.

A related problem is financingthird-party campaigns. Political cam-

paigns require a great deal of money. Americans,convinced that a third-party candidate cannot win,are reluctant to contribute to such a campaign.

In the past, third parties have appealed mainlyto voters in certain regions of the country or to cer-tain groups in society. To survive, a third partymust plant political roots in all parts of the coun-try. Few third parties have demonstrated this kindof staying power.

Bull Moose Party button

Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Growth of Democracy Imagine you have beennamed to a committee to plan a new govern-ment for a former colony. The structure of thisgovernment will influence the development ofpolitical parties. Consider the advantages anddisadvantages of no parties, one-party, two-party, and multiparty systems. Write a speechexplaining your choice.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

below to identify three types of political partysystems and how they affect governing.

2. Define political party, theocracy, ideologies,coalition government, third party, single-memberdistrict, proportional representation.

3. Identify Bull Moose Party, American IndependentParty.

4. Identify three obstacles facing third parties.

Critical Thinking5. Making Inferences Why might the National

Organization for Women want to choose and run a third-party candidate?


Party System Effects

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In order to succeed, a political party must havea dedicated core of willing volunteers likeJason Brinton of Utah. Both major partiesemploy small paid staffs in permanent party

offices at county, state, and national levels.Between elections these employees carry out theday-to-day business operations of the party. Atcampaign time, however, political parties also usevolunteers to perform a wide range of tasks. Vol-unteers obtain campaign contributions, publicizecandidates, send out campaign literature, canvassvoters, and watch at the polls on Election Day. Par-ties also seek the help of various professionals towin elections. These professionals include mediaexperts to prepare television commercials, poll-sters to take public opinion polls, and writers toprepare speeches for the candidates. In addition,to be successful, a party needs strong leadershipand good organization at every level.

Membership and OrganizationDemocrats and Republicans are organizedinto 50 state parties and thousands of local

parties that operate independently of the nation-al organization. Although the 3 levels generallycooperate, separate authority exists at each level.Local, state, and national parties select their ownofficers and raise their own funds.

Party Membership How does a voter join apolitical party, and what does it mean to belong?In many states citizens must declare their partypreference when they register to vote or whenthey vote in certain kinds of elections. Joining apolitical party, however, is not required in theUnited States. A voter may declare that he orshe is an independent, not supporting any par-ticular party.

People who belong to a political party gen-erally do so because they support most of itsideas and candidates. Both the Republican andDemocratic Parties do everything they can to

Party OrganizationS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Teen Youngest DelegateSALT LAKE CITY, UTAH, AUGUST 13, 1996

Alocal teenager has be-

come one of the most

visible delegates at the Re-

publican National Con-

vention in San Diego this

week. Among the speakers

at yesterday’s opening ses-

sion was 18-year-old Jason

Brinton, a June graduate of

West High School. Brin-

ton’s election last spring to

be part of Utah’s 28-mem-

ber delegation makes him the youngest delegate at

the Republican gathering. “ I campaigned vigorous-

ly at the Utah Convention as a voice for the young

people of our party,” he said. Brinton also heads the

state chapter of Teen Age Republicans, a political

action group headquartered in Manassas, Virginia.

Jason Brinton


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsindependent, precinct, precinct captain, ward,state central committee, national convention, national committee, patronage

Find Out■ How are parties organized on the national,

state, and local levels?■ How do political parties assist in educating

the public?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes What role do the Republicanand Democratic Parties play in the day-to-day operations and processes of the government?

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attract supporters. In thissense, the two major partiesare open parties, welcomingwhoever wishes to belongand accepting whatever de-gree of involvement theseindividuals choose. Partymembership involves no du-ties or obligations beyondvoting. Members do not haveto attend meetings or con-tribute to the party if theychoose not to do so. Mostpeople who consider them-selves Democrats or Republi-cans do nothing more thanvote for the party’s candidates.

Some citizens, however,become more involved in the political process.They may support a party by contributing moneyor by doing volunteer work for the party or its can-didates. In most states, one must be a party memberin order to hold an office in a party or to be its can-didate for a public office. Thus, party membershipprovides a way for citizens to increase their influ-ence on government. The parties, in turn, dependon citizen involvement, especially at the local level,to carry out activities and accomplish goals.

Local Party Organization The basic localunit is the precinct, a voting district ranging in sizefrom just a few voters to more than 1,000 voters,all of whom cast their ballots at the same pollingplace.

In a precinct each party has a volunteerprecinct captain, who organizes party workers todistribute information about the party and its can-didates and to attract voters to the polls. Severaladjoining precincts comprise a larger districtcalled a ward. Party members in each ward select aperson, also unpaid, to represent the ward at thenext level of party organization—the party’s coun-ty committee.

The county committee selects a chairperson tohandle the county party’s daily affairs. The partycounty chairperson usually has a great deal of po-litical power in the county. He or she is very oftenthe key figure in determining which candidate re-ceives the party’s support. If the state’s governor, ora United States senator, is from the same party,

they may seek recommendations from the countychairperson when appointing judges and adminis-trative officials.

At the same time, however, local parties, be-cause of the nature of their membership, are theweakest link in the organizational chain. One studyof political parties concluded the following:

“The vast majority of local parties are essentially voluntary organizations. . . .They have the least influence and thefewest resources. The combination of . . .reliance on volunteers in an era when volunteers are hard to find, complex cam-paign finance regulations, and the generallow regard in which parties are held combine to discourage the best leadershipor the greatest participation.”—Xandra Kayden and Eddie

Mahe, Jr., 1985


The political party organization is not a hierarchy, with the lower levels subordinate to the higher levels. The different groups cooperate, but they have separate powers. What is the basic component at the local level of political party organization?

Critical Thinking

Congressional district and state legislative district committees

County committees (townships in Northeast; parishes in Louisiana; districts in Alaska)

Urban areasCity committee

Rural areas Town, village, rural

township committees

Precinct leaders

State committees

Ward committee

National committee

Political Party OrganizationPolitical Party Organization

Paper handbookdistributed tolocal Democraticleaders in 1936

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State Party Organization In each state themost important part of a party is the state centralcommittee, which usually is composed largely ofrepresentatives from the party’s county organiza-tions. The state central committee chooses theparty state chairperson. In selecting this person,however, the committee generally follows thewishes of the governor, a United States senator, orsome other party leader powerful in state politics.

A main function of the state central committeeis to help elect the party’s candidates for state gov-ernment offices. In addition, the state central com-mittee may provide assistance to local parties andcandidates and may help coordinate the activitiesof the local parties. Of course, it also works hard atraising money.

National Party Organization The nationalparty organization has two main parts—the na-tional convention and the national committee. Thenational convention is a gathering of party mem-bers and local and state party officials. It meetsevery four years, primarily to nominate the party’spresidential and vice-presidential candidates. Be-yond this function it has very little authority.

Between conventions the party’s nationalcommittee, a large group composed mainly of

representatives from the 50 state party organiza-tions, runs the party. Some members of Congressand some state and local elected officials also maysit on the national committee, as may other select-ed party members.

The party national chairperson, elected by thenational committee, manages the daily operation ofthe national party. Usually the person selected is thechoice of the party’s presidential candidate. The na-tional chairperson also raises money for the party,touts its achievements, and promotes national,state, and local party cooperation.

Both the Democrats and the Republicans alsohave independent campaign committees for Con-gress. These committees provide assistance to sen-ators and representatives who are running forreelection. Each party’s committee also providesresources to help challengers defeat senators andrepresentatives from the other party.

Political Party FunctionsThe Constitution does not provide for political parties or even mention them. Yet

political parties are an essential part of the Ameri-can democratic system. Through the electionprocess, the people select the officials who will

Running for Office

T he most direct way of being involved in gov-ernment is to hold elected office. The proce-dures and requirements for becoming a

political candidate vary somewhat from state tostate. However, in most cases to do so you mustfile an official petition, signed by the required num-ber of registered voters, with the appropriate localor state election board before a specified dead-line. If other members of your political party havefiled petitions for the same office, you may have towin a primary election to become the candidate.

Among the resources you will need in yourcampaign are time, money, and volunteers. Running for political office takes a great deal of personal time. Loans and donations from supporters will pay for brochures, TV and radio

spots, and other devicesto promote your candida-cy. Volunteers can helpget your message out to voters by distributingyour materials. You mayalso need expert volunteerhelp to file the campaign finance reports required under state and federal law.

Candidate Qualifications Contact your localboard of elections to determine the qualifica-tions, requirements, and procedures for runningfor office in your community.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

Campaignbutton

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govern them. As part of this process, political par-ties perform several important functions. No otherbody or institution in American government per-forms these tasks.

Recruiting Candidates Political parties seekmen and women who seem to have a good chanceof being elected. Selecting candidates for public of-fice and presenting them to the voters for approvalis the major function of political parties. It is oftensaid that political parties are election-orientedrather than issues-oriented. This characteristichelps the Republicans and the Democrats main-tain their status as major parties.

Educating the Public Despite efforts to avoiddivision, political parties do bring important issuesto the public’s attention. Each party publishesits position on important issues such as infla-tion, military spending, taxes, pollution, energy,and the environment. Candidates present these views in pamphlets, press conferences, speeches,and television, radio, and newspaper advertisements.

The Republican and Democratic Party nationalorganizations as well as third parties also maintainWeb sites to raise money for their candidates, keepsupporters informed about party positions on keyissues, and recruit volunteers. The DemocraticNational Committee site (www.democrats.org) pre-sents information about current campaigns, newlegislation, important policy issues, and local partyorganizations. The Republican National Committeesite (www.rnc.org) contains similar material, alongwith video news briefs, a “week in review” feature,and special reports.

Sometimes major party candidates feel saferattacking their opponent’s views than stating theirown. Important issues can become lost in a sea ofpersonal attacks. When major party candidates failto address issues, a minor party candidate mayforce debate on these subjects. In 1992 and 1996Ross Perot brought his concern for the nationaldebt and the nation’s economic problems to thecampaign agenda. In 2000 and 2004 Ralph Naderchampioned consumer and environmental issuesas leader of the Green Party.

Unfortunately, many Americans are not well-informed about important issues or the back-ground of candidates. Political parties simplifyelections by helping such people decide how to

vote. By supporting a candidate just because he orshe is a Democrat or a Republican, the voter knowsgenerally how the candidate stands on key issues.Political party affiliation helps voters assess whichcandidate will be more acceptable.

Operating the Government Political partiesalso play a key role in running and staffing the government. Congress and the state legislatures areorganized and carry on their work on the basis of party affiliation. Party leaders in the legisla-tures make every effort to see that their memberssupport the party’s position when considering leg-islation.

A party also acts as a link between a legislatureand a chief executive. A chief executive worksthrough his or her party leaders in the legislature topromote the administration’s program. For most ofthe past 30 years, however, one party has controlledthe White House and the other has controlled oneor both houses of Congress. In recent years thesame situation has developed between governorsand legislatures in more than half the states.


Appealing to Voters Independent candidateRoss Perot filmed “infomercials” during hispresidential campaigns. Here he holds a chartdepicting an increase in deficit spending anddeclares that he can put the nation’s financesin order. Analyze the impact of Perot’s candidacy on the political issues of thetime.

Third Parties Sway Elections

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Dispensing Patronage Political parties alsodispense patronage, or favors given to rewardparty loyalty, to their members. These favors ofteninclude jobs, contracts, and appointments to gov-ernment positions. Business executives or laborunions that contribute heavily to a political party,for example, may expect government to be sympa-thetic to their problems if that party comes topower. They may be awarded contracts to providegovernment with goods or services. Loyal partyworkers may be placed in government jobs.Although laws and court decisions have limited

patronage in recent years, the practice remains amajor way that parties control and reward theirsupporters.

The Loyal Opposition The party out ofpower in the legislative or executive branch as-sumes the role of “watchdog” over government. Itobserves the party in power, criticizes it, and offerssolutions to political problems. If the oppositionparty does this successfully, public opinion mayswing in its favor and return it to power in a futureelection. Concern about this makes the party inpower more sensitive to the will of the people.

Reduction of Conflict In a complex society,conflict among groups with differing interests isinevitable. To win an election, a political partymust attract support from many different groups.To accomplish this, a party encourages groups tocompromise and work together. A key outcome ofthis process is that parties encourage governmentto adopt moderate policies with mass appeal.

Parties contribute to political stability in an-other way, too. When one party loses control of thegovernment, the transfer of power takes placepeacefully. No violent revolutions occur after elec-tions, as they do in some nations. In the UnitedStates, the losing party accepts the outcome ofelections because it knows that the party will con-tinue to exist as the opposition party and somedaywill return to power.

Political Processes Prepare for a debate onthe following statement: The two-party systemhas outlived its usefulness. Choose either the pro or con side of the issue and preparearguments for the side you chose. Pair up with a classmate who has prepared arguments opposing yours and debate the issue.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic

organizer like the one to the right to show the three levels at which each major political party functions.

2. Define independent, precinct, precinct captain,ward, state central committee, national convention, national committee, patronage.

3. Identify party county chairperson, party statechairperson, party national chairperson.

4. Analyze the role of political parties at the national, state, and local levels.

Critical Thinking5. Understanding Cause and Effect What are

the advantages and the disadvantages of thesystem of patronage?


It’s a Zoo In 1874 Thomas Nast drew acartoon in Harper’s Weekly that showed adonkey, representing Democratic presidentUlysses S. Grant, and an elephant, symbolizingRepublicans fearful that Grant would run againfor president. When the symbols stuck, theparties put a spin on them. For Republicans,the elephant is strong and intelligent; forDemocrats, the donkey is clever and brave.

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toto

SHOULD THERE BE LIMITSON CAMPAIGN SPENDING?

Assume you are a member of Congress whowill vote on a constitutional amendment to limitcampaign spending. Spending limits would hurtyour next campaign, but you are receiving pressurefrom your district to curb campaign spending.

KEY ISSUES✔ Do you think unlimited campaign spending canlead to political corruption?✔ Is the threat to free speech a valid argumentfor not limiting campaign spending?

✔ Are the wealthy favored in the campaignprocess?

Debate Discuss the issue in class. Select three peo-ple on each side of the issue to hold a debate infront of the class.

Vote Vote for or against limited campaign spend-ing. Those on each side of the issue should work together to draft a letter to Congress expressingtheir viewpoint.

Debating the IssueDebating the Issue

SHOULD THE GOVERNMENT ESTABLISH A CAP ON CAMPAIGN SPENDING?

Although there are limits to how much individuals and groups can contribute to a federalcandidate, there are no limits on how much money a candidate can raise or spend. In thepresidential election of 2004, candidates spent more than $650 million on their campaigns.

MONEY AND INFLUENCE

Fund-raising abuses and a disgruntled publichave forced Congress to take a closer look at whatcan be done to limit campaign spending. In 1997the Senate proposed a constitutional amendmentto put a cap on spending. It was voted down. TheBipartisan Campaign Reform Act was passed byCongress in 2003 and largely upheld by theSupreme Court. It restricts some uses of campaignfunds, but only in federal elections. State campaignsare less regulated but could be affected by aconstitutional amendment.

Those who favor reform argue that large corpo-rations and other special interest groups have moremoney to spend on contributions, which gives themmore influence over the candidates. With the costsof campaigning increasing in every election, manypeople are concerned that only the wealthy orsomeone backed by one of the two major partiescan be elected to government office.

PROTECTING FREE SPEECH

In 1976 the Supreme Court considered the issue of putting a cap on campaign spending. Itruled that setting limits on an individual’s campaign spendingwas unconstitutional because itviolated the right of free speech. The Court said that money is necessaryfor a candidate to reach voters.

Others who balk at limits say that ifcampaign spending is controlled, incum-bents will have an edge because of namerecognition. To compete, opponents need tobe able to spend large amounts of money togenerate the same kind of name recognition. Onebill in Congress proposed that free television timeand reduced mail rates be offered to candidates who voluntarily adhere to spending limits.

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Party nominations are often hard-foughtcontests. In the summer that Harding wasselected, the Democrats later required 44ballots to choose their candidate, Ohio

governor James Cox. To win elections, a partymust first offer appealing candidates and conductexpensive campaigns.

How Candidates Are SelectedHistorically, individuals have sought nomi-nation for public office in one of four ways:

(l) caucus; (2) nominating convention; (3) prima-ry election; or (4) petition. Although election lawsvary greatly from state to state, all candidates havereached the ballot through one or more of thesemethods.

Caucuses Early in our nation’s history,caucuses—private meetings of party leaders—chose nearly all candidates for office. The caucusbecame widely criticized as undemocratic, howev-er, because most people had no say in selecting thecandidates.

In modern caucuses, party rules requireopenness with the selection process starting at thelocal level. Selecting delegates starts at the neigh-borhood level and then moves to the county, con-gressional district, and finally the state level.Nineteen states use caucuses today.

Nominating Conventions As political caucuses came under attack, the nominatingconvention, an official public meeting of a partyto choose candidates for office, became popular.Under this system, local party organizationssend representatives to a county nominatingconvention that selects candidates for countyoffices and chooses delegates who will go to astate nominating convention. The state conven-tion, in turn, selects candidates for statewide office and chooses delegates who will go to thenational convention.

Nominating CandidatesS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Hard to ChooseCHICAGO, ILLINOIS, JUNE 12, 1920

After failing in four

tries to nominate a

presidential candidate, the

Republican National Con-

vention recessed last night.

When the delegates went

to bed, General Leonard

Wood and Illinois gover-

nor Frank Lowden were

the front-runners for the

nomination. This morn-

ing the delegates found

the situation had changed. Exhausted Republican

leaders emerged at 6 A.M. from an all-night meeting

in the Blackstone Hotel, after settling on Ohio sena-

tor Warren Harding to be the candidate. Harding

finished a distant fourth in yesterday’s voting. After

six more ballots today, the delegates finally agreed to

the choice of Harding.

1920 Republicancandidates


Reader’s Guide

Key Termscaucus, nominating convention, boss, direct primary, closed primary, open primary, plurality,runoff primary, ticket, platform, planks

Find Out■ How are primaries conducted as a method of

choosing candidates?■ What are the processes followed at a national

nominating convention?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes Primaries and nominatingconventions are democratic methods of selectingcandidates. What are some drawbacks?

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In theory, the convention system was more democratic than party caucuses because powerwould flow upward from the people. As the con-vention system developed, however, it became increasingly undemocratic. Powerful party leaders,called bosses, chose delegates and controlled con-ventions. Public reaction against the bosses in the1900s led to primary elections as the method ofselection at the state and local levels.

Primary Elections The method most com-monly used today to nominate candidates is the direct primary, an election in which party mem-bers select people to run in the general election.Two types of primary elections are held. Moststates hold a closed primary, in which only mem-bers of a political party can vote. Thus, only Democrats pick Democratic candidates for office,and only Republicans can vote in the Republicanprimary. In an open primary, all voters may par-ticipate, even if they do not belong to the party, butthey can vote in only one party’s primary.

Primary elections are conducted according tostate law and are held at regular polling places just

as general elections are. Each state sets the date ofits primary, provides the ballots and the people tosupervise the election, and counts the votes. Inmost states a primary candidate does not need amajority of the votes to win, but only a plurality,or more votes than any other candidate. In a fewstates, however, if no candidate receives a majority,a runoff primary is held. The runoff is a secondprimary election between the two candidates whoreceived the most votes in the first primary. Theperson who wins the runoff becomes the party’scandidate in the general election.

In most states today, candidates for governorand for the House, Senate, other state offices, andmost local offices are selected in primary elections.In many states, however, party caucuses and nom-inating conventions continue to exist alongsideprimaries.

Petition Under the petition method, a personannounces his or her candidacy and files petitionsthat a specified number of voters have signed inorder to be placed on the ballot. Some states re-quire that all candidates file petitions.


Loretta and Linda Sanchez

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference Loretta and Linda Sanchez, typ-ical sisters in many ways, aresharing a unique and historic

experience in Washington, D.C.:they are the first sisters ever toserve in Congress together.Loretta, the older of the two mem-bers of the House of Representa-tives, was first elected fromCalifornia’s 47th district in 1996.Linda was elected in 2002 to rep-resent California’s 39th district.

Both sisters credit their motherfor their success. Maria Sanchezhelped all of her children make it tocollege before she enrolled herself,while in her forties, and earned acollege degree in bilingual educa-tion. “She’s an incredible woman,”says Linda Sanchez. “She was veryinvolved in the local community andalways taught us to stand up forwhat was right.”

Loretta and Linda plan to sharehousing near the Capitol and travelback to California on weekends.Although they are both members ofthe Democratic Party, they are notexactly alike. “My sister is more lib-eral than I,” says Loretta. “We ap-proach issues from a differentperspective.” Loretta earned anMBA degree and had a career in fi-nancial consulting before enteringpublic service. Linda studied lawand served as a labor leader andcivil rights lawyer before enteringinto politics.

The Sanchez sisters are gladto be in this together. Linda says, “Ithink it will be good to come hometo somebody who understands howdifficult it can be to do the workhere in Washington and can appre-ciate the mini-victories or help withthe mini-failures.”

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In a primary contest, the party-backed candi-date has an advantage because party workers willcirculate petitions. The party will also use its fi-nancial and organizational resources to back itschoice. Candidates without caucus or conventionsupport have serious obstacles to overcome. If sucha candidate poses a serious threat, however, partyleaders frequently are willing to make a deal. Theymight offer the challenger party support for an-other office, or appointment to a government post,to avoid a primary. Political analyst Theodore H.White once explained why:

“Established leaders hateprimaries for good reason;they are always, in anyform, an appeal from theleaders’ wishes to the peo-ple directly. Primaries suckup and waste large sums ofmoney from contributorswho might better be tappedfor the November finals;the charges and counter-charges of primary civilwar provide the enemyparty with ammunition itcan later use with blast ef-fect against whichever pri-mary contender emergesvictorious.”—Theodore H. White, 1961

Presidential NominationsThe most exciting and dramatic election inAmerican politics is the presidential elec-

tion. Every 4 years, each major party gathers dur-ing July or August in a national convention.Elected or appointed delegates representing the 50states, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands,American Samoa, and the District of Columbiaattend the convention. The task of the delegates isto select a ticket—candidates for president andvice president—that will win in the Novembergeneral election. Because this ticket, if elected, canchange history and affect every American’s life,millions of Americans watch the televised cover-age of the conventions. The drama and spectacleof a convention, however, have not always been so

open to the public’s view. Likewise, presidentialnominations have not always been as democraticas they are today.

The History of Presidential NominationsBefore national nominating conventions, congres-sional caucuses chose presidential candidates.From 1800 to 1824, congressional leaders fromeach party met in secret and selected their party’sticket. In the presidential election of 1824, AndrewJackson made the caucus system an issue, declaringthat a small group of representatives did not speak

for the nation. Although Jacksonlost the election, his revoltagainst “King Caucus,” as hecalled it, discredited the caucussystem and led to the eventualadoption of the nominatingconvention.

A minor political party, theAnti-Masons, held the first na-tional convention in 1831, andthe two major parties quicklycopied the idea. Since 1832 aconvention of party membershas chosen major party presi-dential candidates. To makethese conventions more demo-cratic, by 1916 almost half thestates were choosing conventiondelegates in presidential prima-ry elections.

For years, when citizens voted in a presidentialprimary, they really were choosing among groupsof party members pledged to support specific can-didates. The group pledged to the winning candi-date became that state’s delegation to the nationalconvention.

In the 1970s, however, both major parties pro-vided a more democratic nomination process. Forexample, new party rules encouraged that women,minorities, and young people be included as con-vention delegates. By 1996, presidential primariesexisted in 44 states and were part of the selectionprocess for about three-fourths of the delegates tothe two national conventions.

Presidential Primaries Today Like otherprimary elections, presidential primaries operateunder a wide variety of state laws. In addition, each


Andrew Jackson presented himself to voters as the hero

of the “common man.”

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party frequently changes its rules regarding dele-gate selection. Even in the same state, each party’sprimary may operate under different procedures.The following three generalizations, however, canbe made about presidential primaries: (1) Theymay be a delegate selection process or a presidentialpreference poll, or both. (2) Either the candidatewho wins the primary gets all the state’s conventiondelegates (called “winner-take-all”), or each candi-date gets delegates based on how many popularvotes he or she receives in the primary. (3) Dele-gates selected on the basis of the popular vote maybe required to support a certain candidate at thenational convention, or they may be uncommitted.

Many presidential primaries were originallywinner-take-all. The Democrats now use propor-tional representation. Under this system a state’s del-egates must represent the candidates in proportion tothe popular vote each receives in the primary once acertain threshold is reached. The Republicans allowboth winner-take-all and proportionalsystems.

Although proportional representa-tion was intended to make a party’snomination process more democratic,in many states it had an unanticipatedresult. Combined with the other rulesfor state delegations,proportional repre-sentation made delegate selection al-most impossibly complicated. Todayonly a few of the states with presidentialprimaries hold “beauty contests.” Theseare preference polls in which voters indi-cate which candidate they would like tobe the nominee. Caucuses later choosethe actual delegates.

Criticisms of Presidential Pri-maries While most people agree thatthe presidential primary system is a greatimprovement over the previous methodof selecting convention delegates, it has itscritics. A major criticism is that the pri-maries extend over too long a time in anelection year.With the first primary held inFebruary and the last in June, seeking aparty’s nomination is a very long, costly,and exhausting process.

Another criticism is that the primariesseem to make the image of the candidates


Primary ElectionsThe major political par-ties generate excite-ment in the primariesand the national con-ventions by sponsoringyoung voter programs.Why do states con-tinue to experimentwith the structure of primaries?

Getting to the National Convention

Republican button(above) and Democraticbrochure (left)

more important than the issues. The news media’scoverage of primary campaigns tends to play up can-didates’ personalities rather than their positions onimportant questions. Also, relatively few people votein primaries. Thus, the winner of a primary may notbe as popular as the victory would indicate.

Candidates who win the early primaries cap-ture the media spotlight. Often the other candi-dates are saddled with a “loser” image that makes itdifficult for them to raise campaign contributions.Some are forced to drop out before the majority ofvoters in either party have the chance to pick theirchoice for the nominee.

Some states have joined forces to create re-gional primaries. Four New England states heldtheir 2004 Democratic presidential primaries onMarch 2, while four Southern states held theirs onMarch 9. Candidates who did not do well on eitherdate lost almost all chance of becoming theirparty’s nominee.

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Because primaries eliminate many opponents,they often result in one-sided convention victories forparticular candidates.Some observers believe that thenominating convention itself has become simply arubber-stamp operation. If the primary winnerscome to the convention with enough delegate votesto win the nomination, they ask, why hold the nom-inating convention at all? Of course, it is possible thatin the future, primary election support for con-tenders will be more equally divided, in which casethe convention will once again be an arena of debateover and real battles for the presidential nomination.

The National Convention

From Febru-ary to June, the

candidates crisscrossthe country competingfor delegate support. Meanwhile,the national committee staff ispreparing for the convention tobe held in late summer.

Preconvention Planning Long before its con-vention meets, the national committee of each majorparty chooses the site and dates. After the city anddates are chosen, the national committee tells eachstate party organization how many votes the state willhave at the convention. In the past, states had the same number of convention votes as they hadelectoral votes. At recent conventions, however, theparties have used complicated formulas to determinethe number of votes each state will have.

Assembling the Convention From across thecountry, thousands of delegates assemble in the con-vention city, accompanied by a mass of spectators,protesters, and news media representatives.When thedelegates arrive, many are already pledged to a candi-date, but others are not. All the candidates activelywoo these uncommitted delegates, especially if thepresidential nomination is still in doubt. As rumorsof political deals circulate, candidates hold news con-ferences, and reporters mill about in search of stories.One writer described a national convention as:

“ . . . an American invention as native to theU.S.A. as corn pone or apple pie. . . . It hassomething of the gaiety of a four-ring circus,something of the sentiment of a class re-union, and something of the tub-thumpingfrenzy of a backwoods camp meeting.”—Theodore H. White

The noise and confusion subside as the partychairperson calls the opening session to order. The

evening of the opening daymarks the keynote speech,an address by an impor-tant party member in-tended to unite the partyfor the coming cam-paign. The delegatesthen approve the con-vention’s four standing

committees—rules andorder of business, creden-tials, permanent organiza-tion, and platform and

resolutions—that have beenat work for several weeks.

Because in recent conventionsthere has been little suspense about who would beeither party’s candidate, the only real conflict hasinvolved committee reports. The conventionspends the second and third days, or even longer,listening to these reports and to speeches aboutthem.

The Rules Committee Each party’s rulescommittee governs the way its convention is run.The committee proposes rules for convention pro-cedure and sets the convention’s order of business.The delegates must approve any proposed changesin the rules of the last convention. Although therules committee report is usually accepted, at timesreal battles have developed over it. The outcome ofa rules fight can be vital to a candidate for the pres-idential nomination. For example, at the 1980 Dem-ocratic convention, Senator Edward Kennedy waseager to capture the nomination, even thoughPresident Jimmy Carter had won a majority of thedelegates in the primaries.

Thinking that many of the Carter delegateswere not strong supporters of the president,Kennedy sought to defeat a rule binding delegates

Supportingpresidentialcandidates

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to vote for the candidate who had won their stateprimary. If the rule were defeated, the Carter dele-gates would be free to support whomever theywished. Kennedy felt that many of the Carter dele-gates would then switch to him. When Kennedylost this rules vote, he also lost whatever chance hehad for the nomination.

The Credentials Committee The creden-tials committee must approve the delegations fromeach state. Sometimes disputes arise over who theproper delegates are. Candidates who trail in dele-gate support may challenge the credentials of theiropponents’ delegates. Two entire rival delegationsmay even appear at the convention, each claimingto be a state’s official delegation. It is up to the cre-dentials committee to determine which delegatesshould be seated. Although the committee’s deci-sions may be appealed on the convention floor, thedelegates generally accept its report without changes.

Fights over credentials often have been livelierthan rules fights at national conventions. In 1964,for example, African Americans at the Democraticconvention charged that an all-white Mississippidelegation had excluded them, giving the AfricanAmerican citizens of Mississippi no representationat the convention. The credentials committee allowed some African Americans to be seated in theMississippi delegation. In 1968 the same situationoccurred. The committee refused to seat anotherall-white Mississippi delegation, and this time re-placed it with an integrated rival delegation.

The Committee on Permanent Organiza-tion This committee selects the permanent chair-person and other officials for the convention. Afterit reports, the delegates elect the permanent con-vention officials who take the day-to-day control ofthe convention from the temporary officials.

The Platform Committee The platformcommittee, as its name suggests, is assigned an im-portant task—the writing of the party’s platform, astatement of its principles, beliefs, and positions onvital issues. It also spells out how the party intendsto deal with these issues. The party must try toadopt a platform that appeals to all factions, or di-visions, at the convention—not always an easy task.

Part of the difficulty in getting platforms ac-cepted is that individual parts of the platform,

called planks, may divide the delegates. In 1968,for example, a pro-Vietnam War plank angeredDemocrats who wanted the United States to with-draw from that conflict. In 1980 the Republicanplatform contained a plank opposing the EqualRights Amendment. Although this plank was con-troversial, the platform passed.

Because the party’s presidential candidatemust support the party platform, all contenderstry to get their viewpoints into the platform. Rivalcandidates with opposing views often will create afight within the party over the platform. The dan-ger is that a platform fight may divide the party. Ifthe fight is bitter, as it was for Democrats in 1968,the party may become so divided that it loses theelection.

Nominating the Candidates After eachcommittee’s reports are adopted, the highlight ofthe convention occurs. It is time to select theparty’s candidate for president. From the openingday, the leading contenders have been working tohold onto their delegates and to gain as many un-committed delegates as possible.

In recent years, however, the front-runnershave won enough committed delegates in the pri-maries to take the suspense out of the nominatingprocess. Even so, the nominating speech for eachcandidate sets off a demonstration, as supporters


Party Conventions Supporters of President Bushenjoyed the excitement and energy of the crowd atthe Republican National Convention in New York Cityin 2004. Why do the major political parties striveto hold entertaining national conventions?

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parade around the convention hall. After the nom-inating speeches and all the seconding speechesthat follow are made, the balloting starts.

The convention chairperson now instructsthe clerk to read the alphabetical roll callof the states, and the chairperson ofeach state delegation calls out thedelegates’ votes. The candidate whoreceives a majority of the votes be-comes the party’s nominee. If nocandidate does, then further rollcalls must be taken until one can-didate wins a majority.

In recent conventions most can-didates have been selected on the firstballot. This is partly because risingcampaign expenses have narrowed thefield of candidates in the primaries.Candidates who win few delegates inthe early primary states quickly dropout, knowing that they will not be able to raise thelarge sums of money needed to keep the campaigngoing. By convention time, there may be no mys-tery about who will be the presidential nominee.

Party leaders benefit from the early victory ofone candidate, having more time to plan the con-vention and unify the party. The convention canthen become a scripted television event. However,with the mystery removed from the nominatingprocess, a convention may not be able to attract alarge television audience. This is one reason that themajor television networks have reduced their cover-age to a few hours of prime time.

The Vice-Presidential Nomination Thevice-presidential nomination, which normallytakes place on the last day of the convention, may

create some suspense. Usually, the party’s pres-idential nominee selects a running mate,

and the convention automaticallynominates the person chosen. A

vice-presidential candidate is some-times selected to balance the ticket,meaning that he or she has a per-sonal, political, and geographicbackground different from the

presidential nominee. This balanceis designed to make the ticket appeal

to as many voters as possible.In 1960 John F. Kennedy, a young

Catholic senator from Massachusetts,chose Lyndon B. Johnson, an olderProtestant senator from Texas, as hisrunning mate. In 1984 Minnesota sen-

ator Walter F. Mondale made New York represen-tative Geraldine Ferraro the first femalevice-presidential major party candidate.

Adjournment With the nomination of thepresidential and vice-presidential candidates, theconvention is almost over. These major nomineesappear before the delegates and make their accep-tance speeches. These speeches are intended tobring the party together, to attack the oppositionparty, to sound a theme for the upcoming campaign, and to appeal to a national televisionaudience. The convention then adjourns.

Walter Mondale choseGeraldine Ferraro as

his running mate.


Political Processes Create a poster that presents a democratic and cost-efficient system for selecting nominees for president.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a chart like the one below to show

four ways candidates for office can get on the ballot and why each method has drawn criticism.

2. Define caucus, nominating convention, boss, direct primary, closed primary, open primary, plurality, runoff primary, ticket, platform, plank.

3. Identify convention delegates, rules committee.4. How do states deal with the situation in which

no primary candidate wins a majority of votes?

5. How is each major party’s presidential candidatechosen at its national nominating convention?

Critical Thinking6. Making Generalizations What historical and

political changes in society have influenced presidential nominating methods?


Method Criticism

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TechnologyTechnology

Using an Electronic Spreadsheet

the computer will automatically change the totalsto reflect the new number. The computer will evencopy a formula from one cell to another.

Practicing the Skill

Suppose you wanted to chart the number ofvotes the Republican, Democratic, and third-party candidates received in the last five presiden-tial elections. Use these steps to create aspreadsheet that will provide this information:1. In cells B1 and C1, respectively, type the name

of the political party; in cell D1 type in ThirdParty. In cell E1, type the term total.

2. In cells A2-A6, type the year of a presidentialelection. In cell A7, type the word total.

3. In row 2, enter the number of votes each partyreceived in the year named in cell A2. Repeatthis process in rows 3-6.

4. Create a formula to calculate the votes. Theformula for the equation tells which cells (B2+ B3 + B4 + B5 + B6) to add together.

5. Copy the formula to the right in the cells forthe other parties.

6. Use the process in steps 4 and 5 to create andcopy a formula to calculate the total numberof votes all parties received in each year.

471

Application ActivityApplication ActivityUse a spreadsheet to enter your test

scores and your homework grades. At theend of the grading period, input the correctformula and the spreadsheet will calculateyour average grade.

People use electronic spreadsheets to managelarge groups of numbers quickly and easily.You can use an electronic spreadsheet and

allow the computer to perform the mathemati-cal functions with any data that involves num-bers that can be arranged in columns and rows.

Learning the Skill

A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet. It is made up of numbered cells that form rows andcolumns. Each column (vertical) is assigned a let-ter or number. Each row (horizontal) is assigned a number. Each point where a column and rowintersect is called a cell. The cell’s position on thespreadsheet is labeled according to its correspond-ing column and row—Column A, Row 1 (A1);Column B, Row 2 (B2) and so on. See the diagrambelow.

A1 B1 C1 D1 E1

A2 B2 C2 D2 E2

A3 B3 C3 D3 E3

A4 B4 C4 D4 E4

A5 B5 C5 D5 E5

Spreadsheets use standard formulas to calcu-late the numbers. By entering a simple equationinto the computer, you command the computerto add, subtract, multiply, or divide the numbersin specific cells, rows, or columns.

To make changes in a spreadsheet, use amouse or the cursor keys to move to the cell youchoose. That cell will be highlighted or have a bor-der around it. If you change a number in any cell,

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Reviewing Key TermsInsert the correct terms into the sentences. Someterms will be used more than once.

bosses ticketplank national conventionideology platformcaucus

1. A political party’s (1) is expressed in each (2)of the (3) that it adopts at the (4) to select its (5).

2. Although the (6) replaced the party (7) inchoosing its (8), the party’s (9) continued to influence the nomination process.

Recalling Facts1. What is the main function of the two major

political parties?2. What are the responsibilities of a precinct

captain within a political party?3. What role does the political party out of power

assume?4. What is the difference between open and

closed primaries?5. Identify the three types of third parties and

identify a party of each type.

Understanding Concepts 1. Growth of Democracy Why have third parties

had so little success in the United States?2. Political Processes Why are many Americans

uninformed about the issues in a campaign?3. Political Processes Why is a primary election bet-

ter than a party caucus for selecting candidates?

Critical Thinking1. Understanding Cause and Effect The two major

parties are criticized as being out of touch with the needs of many Americans. How mighta successful third party affect the two majorparties?

2. Predicting Consequences Use a chart to analyzethe advantages and disadvantages of a nationalprimary to nominate each party’s presidentialcandidate.

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 16Chapter 16

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 16–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

Advantages Disadvantages

Party Development

Party Organization and Functions

Party Nominations

• Caucuses—private meeting of party leaders; used early in ournation’s history and in some states today

• Nominating conventions—official public meeting of a party to choosecandidates for office

• Primary elections—party members select people to run in the generalelection; method most commonly used today

• Petitions—candidate is placed on the ballot if a certain number ofvoters signs a petition

• Late 1700s: Despite Washington’s warnings, two political parties—Federalists and Democratic-Republicans—form

• Pre-Civil War: Conflicts over issues such as slavery cause divisions withinnation’s political parties; Democratic-Republicans split into Democratsand Whigs

• Post-Civil War: Republicans and Democrats emerge as the two domi-nant political parties

• Third Parties: Continue to impact the political scene, despite obstaclespresented by the two-party tradition

• Political parties are organized at the local, state, and national level• Functions of political parties include recruiting candidates for public

office, educating the public about issues, running and staffing the gov-ernment, rewarding party loyalists with favors, watching over the partyin power, and encouraging compromise and moderate governmentpolicies

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Analyzing PrimarySourcesWilliam Jennings Bryan’s famous “Cross of Gold” speechwas made at the 1896 Democratic National Convention,which focused that year on theissue of monetary standards.The speech gained Bryan thenomination as the Democraticpresidential candidate that year,although he lost the election toRepublican William McKinley.Read the excerpt and answerthe questions that follow.

“We care not upon what lines thebattle is fought. If they say bimet-allism is good, but that we cannothave it until other nations help us, wereply that, instead of having a goldstandard because England has, wewill restore bimetallism, and then letEngland have bimetallism becausethe United States has it. If they dareto come out in the open field and de-fend the gold standard as a goodthing, we will fight them to the utter-most. Having behind us the producing masses of this nationand the world, supported by the commercial interests, the la-boring interests and the toilers everywhere, we will answertheir demand for a gold standard by saying to them: Youshall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown ofthorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold.”

1. To what demographic of American societydoes Bryan seem to be appealing?

2. Bryan’s speech focused primarily on oneissue—monetary standards. Can you see anyharm in having an election or a party basedaround a single political issue?

Applying Technology SkillsUsing the Internet Find current informationabout the Democratic and Republican Parties onthe Internet to write an information pamphletabout ways that citizens can participate in politicalparties at the national, state, and local levels.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

Participating in State GovernmentThe method by which dele-gates are selected to nationalnominating conventions dependson party rules and on the laws ofeach state. Work with a partner todetermine the process in your state. Contact eachparty’s county and state organizations and localboard of elections to find out the following informa-tion:

• How many delegates your state sends toeach party’s national convention

• How this number is determined • How the delegates to the national convention

are selected • Any special laws or rules that apply to the

processesWhen all information is gathered and analyzed,present your findings to the class.


Chapter 16Chapter 16

1. What event isthis cartoondocumenting?

2. What symbolsdoes the car-toonist use?

3. Why does theelephant seemso jubilant?

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Documents

GOVERNMENT · By the 1850s the debate over slavery had creat-ed divisions within both parties. The Democrats split into Northern and Southern factions. Many Whigs joined a new party