Government Initiatives to Improve Literacy Rate of Women in India

8/12/2019 Government Initiatives to Improve Literacy Rate of Women in India

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Government initiatives to improve literacy rate ofwomen in India

TEAM GLAD2BAWOMAN !"L #$% 2

T'e (overnment 'as initiated many pro)ects to improve t'e literacy rate of women in India* +ome of t'em 'ave ,een

disc-ssed ,elow.

National /olicy on Ed-cation.

T'e national policy on ed-cation is a smaller ,ranc' or se(ment of t'e 0National Ed-cation for women1* It 'as a

positive infl-ence in t'e empowerment of women* It propa(ates new val-es t'ro-(' redesi(ned te t ,oo3s%

c-rric-l-ms% and stationary and so on* All t'ese materials 'ave ,een modeled to s-it t'e needs of women accordin(ly*

+a3s'aar B'arat Mission for 4emale literacy

T'is was la-nc'ed in 2&% to prevent t'e alarmin( drop in female ed-cation* Its aim was to red-ce t'e illiteracy rate of

women ,y 'alf* In spite of ,ein( new in t'e arena% it 'as mana(ed to do its s'are*

Indian +'i3s'a 5armi /ro)ect

T'is pro)ect is all a,o-t s'arin( power t'ro-(' ed-cation* T'is pro)ect tries to preac' t'e i(norant Indian pop-lation

t'at women too can rise to ,e on t'e top after ac6-irin( ed-cation* T'is plan is co7s-pported ,y t'e +wedis'

Government and it is in vo(-e in 8a)ast'an*

Trainin( of 4emale teac'ers

Trainin( women to ed-cate t'e nation is also anot'er forte of t'e 0Indian +'i3s'a 5armi /ro)ect1* T'is plan ed-cates

t'em a,o-t all t'e tec'nical 3now7'ow9s t'at are re6-ired to ,ecome a teac'er*

+c'olars'ips for 'er

T'e i(norant section of t'e society always roots for t'e ed-cation of t'eir sons* D-e to several ,iases and s-perstitions

t'ey i(nore t'e ed-cation of t'eir da-('ters* B-t w'en 6-estioned t'ey smartly p-t -p answers citin( financialdiffic-lties* +everal sc'olars'ips 'ave ,een introd-ced ,y t'e central as well as t'e state (overnment s-c' as t'e +in(le

(irl c'ild sc'olars'ip for women% +c'olars'ip for women scientists and so on* +everal sc'olars'ips s-c' as t'e Ma-lana

A:ad national +c'olars'ip 'ave ,een la-nc'ed to assist meritorio-s (irl +t-dents ,elon(in( from minority

comm-nities* T'ese are an answer to t'e 6-alms t'at were earlier cited ,y t'e families of women for not ,ein( a,le to

ed-cate t'em*

Ma'ila +ama3'ya /ro(ram

T'is initiative was ta3en ,y t'e (overnment in #;


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National /ro(ram for Ed-cation of Girls at Elementary Level

T'is is also anot'er win( of t'e ++A* It reac'es to t'e remote places w'ere t'e ++A cannot reac'* T'is pro(ram 'as

-plifted t'e ed-cation standards of several women across t'e ,ac3ward provinces of 8a)ast'an% G-)arat% and Bi'ar and

so on* T'e female literacy rate (rew from *$ C to $ *@$C as per 2# ens-s data* T'e male literacy rate in

comparison rose from *2$C to only


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Female Male

Census of India, 1981


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arents are &een to send their children to school$ and that the gender discrimination in thedesire to educate %oys and girls is far lower than generally assumed"

Myth +: People do not have money or are un illing to spend on education.

The NC/ER .5BB41 and NSS' .5BB5$ 5BB71 studies suggests that in a gi!en year eo les end anywhere from Rs" 500 to more than Rs" 4000 er child on rimary education" @or theyear 5B8 8 $ the total household e* enditure on rimary education was Rs" 788"6 million"This ri!ate s ending on rimary education is not )ust %y the rich and the middle class inur%an areas" 'ut of the Rs" 788"6 million$ Rs" 4202"6 million were s ent %y rural areas$more than half of the total ri!ate e* enditure" In that year$ the total go!ernment e* enditureon rimary education was Rs" 5 $000 million" So the ri!ate e* enditure is %y no means aninsignificant amountA it was more than 40 ercent of what the go!ernment s ent on rimaryeducation"

The NSS' study also oints out that households in our !illages on a!erage s end a%out Rs"504 on fees$ Rs" 42 for %oo&s and su lies$ and Rs" 50 for ri!ate coaching to ro!iderimary education to their children" The oor ha!e already %een s ending on education"

States in which go!ernments s end more on education$ eo le also s end more" If oneinter rets higher s ending %y go!ernments as a little %etter +uality of education$ then it isa arent that arents are willing to s end when they are offered the &ind of education theydesire" In Derala$ for e*am le$ the oor s end a su%stantial ortion of their income onrimary education$ one NSS' study suggests u to one third of the income"

Myth ): ,asic education provided by the government is &ree.The re!ious discussion clearly indicates that eo le$ including the rural oor$ s end a greatdeal of money on %asic education of their children" / detailed analysis of the NC/ER andNSS' studies leads Professor J"("


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rohi%ition stands as a guide? Rise of the mafia$ street !iolence to ca ture mar&ets$corru tion of the olice$ legal system$ and the %ureaucracy$ untold deaths due to illicit li+uor"In the final analysis$ rohi%ition has done more damage$ not )ust to the treasury$ which is ofthe least conse+uence$ %ut to families and communities$ the alleged %eneficiaries of the %an"The law of unintended conse+uences is far more otent in case of good intention laws"

Education is undou%tedly critical for the child$ %ut so is nutritious diet$ healthcare$ nurturingen!ironment" Education$ e!en a good education$ without the other necessary ingredientswould ma&e the child only marginally %etter" 'ur concern is with all round welfare of thechildA we need sensi%le and acti!e arenting for all the children" If we sincerely andgenuinely %elie!e in the effecti!eness of the law to address social ro%lems$ shouldn#t wethen ass a law ma&ing good arenting com ulsory:

olution *: Ta!e education out o& the Directive Principles and put it in the list o&

/undamental 0ights.It is forgotten that the /rticles 27 and 24 of the Constitution guarantee a fundamental Rightagainst E* loitation" /rticle 27? Prohi%ition of traffic in human %eings and forced la%ourTraffic in human %eings and %eggar and other similar forms of forced la%our are rohi%ited"""

/rticle 24? Prohi%ition of em loyment of children in factories No child %elow the age offourteen years shall %e em loyed to wor& in any factory or mine or engaged in any otherha ardous em loyment" Readers must )udge how effecti!ely these fundamental rights arerotected %y the go!ernment"

It is im ortant to note that these /rticles do not im ose any ositi!e o%ligation on thego!ernmentA they re+uire that the go!ernment sim ly re!ent certain acti!ities$ namely$forced la%our and em loyment of children in ha ardous )o%s" They do not mandate thego!ernment to ro!ide alternati!e means of sur!i!al to those who are forced into la%our.%eggars for e*am le1 or to the children who are in ha ardous )o%s" They do not as& thego!ernment to ro!ide for the care of these unfortunates$ nor do they re+uire thego!ernment to e!en offer safe$ remunerati!e$ non ha ardous em loyment" They mandateonly re!ention$ not ro!ision" Fes ite this limited mandate$ the go!ernment has misera%lyfailed in li!ing u to the romise of /rticles 27 and 24" The ro onents of the fundamentalright to education actually sti ulate that go!ernment would %e re+uired to ro!ide necessary

schooling facilities" Is the go!ernment that cannot enforce /rticles 27 and 24 ca a%le ofmeeting the demands of the fundamental right to education: /gain$ the ro onents do notro erly address these +uestions"

olution +: Increase government spending on education to percent o& 2DP.The almost dou%ling of go!ernment e* enditure on education is %ound to ha!e someositi!e im act" There is ro%a%ly no go!ernment$ articularly a democratic one$ which is so


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inefficient and corru t as to eat u all the increase in s ending without any im act on the+uantity and +uality of education" The +uestion is whether the im act would %e in any wayro ortionate to the increase in s ending"

Se!eral of the countries that achie!ed high literacy rates in the ost war era$ ha!e rarelys ent anywhere close to the ercent of their


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Derala s end the highest fraction of their income on their children#s %asic educationcom ared to the oor in any other state in the country"

Table "# State $ommitment to %ducation

C!ara"teristi"s #est$en%al

&erala

Elementary Ed-cationomp-lsory

Fes No

4ee 4ree

/rimary Ed-cation


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to com are the two states in terms of their educational erformance" The cross sectioncom arisons at a single oint in time do not control for !ariations o!er time" Derala#s currents ending on education is almost the same as ,est (engal$ %ut since Derala had a headstart$ current literacy rates and the reach of education are li&ely to %e different" Nonethelessit is instructi!e to e*amine the distri%ution of their education s ending" Derala and ,est(engal ha!e chosen to s end their education money rather differently" The difference in thenature of their s ending is the real ur ose of this com arison"

Table '# (istribution of State %ducation Spending

C!ara"teristi"s#est$en%al

&erala

4ree /rimary Ed-cation inGovernment +c'ools


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of the distance" This increases com etition among schools" The ro!ision of directscholarshi to students in Derala also leads to the same result" ,ith the scholarshi money$students can go to any school of their choice" /mong all the states in the country$ the highestro ortion of children in Derala recei!es trans ortation su%sidies and direct scholarshi s.Ta%le 71"

The focus on how the two go!ernments s end their education ru ees indicates that Derala%y offering more choices to arents and increasing com etition among schools actuallyractices mar&et rinci les" Derala#s citi ens ha!e recei!ed far %etter educational ser!icethan those of almost any other state in the union" The Derala model of education of choiceand com etition is uni+ue in the country$ and so is Derala#s educational erformance" It isnot )ust how much a state s ends on education %ut how it s ends that determines efficiencyand effecti!eness of the education system" The status of higher education in these twostates is also worth com aring" State uni!ersities in ,est (engal recei!e B5 ercent of their

%udget from the go!ernment" In Derala it is only 64 ercent$ the remaining amount isgenerated %y fees$ donations$ endowments$ and other sources" /gain Derala re+uires itsuni!ersities to raise almost half of their %udget from the customers and communities theyser!e" This fosters accounta%ility and more attention to the needs of those who hel financestate uni!ersities" This is one of the im ortant reasons that Derala erforms %etter also inhigher education than many other states in the union"

Sour"e ofFundin% andt!e Nature ofSpendin%

Central'niversities

State'niversities

/ercent ofB-d(et from t'eGovernment

;&C &C

/ercent of"niversityB-d(et +pent onAdministration

@#C #


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more than B0 ercent of their funds from the central go!ernment and s end a%out 77 ercenton academic rograms and su ort and 45 ercent on administration" The state uni!ersitieson a!erage get a little more than 60 ercent of their money from state go!ernments ands end 66 ercent on academics and only 58 ercent on administration" The stateuni!ersities that are more de endent on non go!ernment funds ay more attention to theirstudents and less to their %ureaucracy"

In Derala$ the go!ernment has %een s ending more on education %ut so do the eo le ofDerala" The oor in the state s end a%out 7 ercent of their annual er ca ita income onelementary education the highest ro ortion in the country .Ta%le 51" .I find it difficult to%elie!e these num%ersA it is hard to imaging that oor arents s end more than one third oftheir income on elementary education" (ut in any case it must %e some ositi!e num%ere!en far lower than 7 ercent1" Contrary to the con!entional wisdom$ go!ernment s endingis not a su%stitute for ri!ate s ending" (oth seem to grow togetherA they are

com lementary" Parents# financial commitment to their children#s education is a crucialcom onent of +uality education" oreo!er$ as the em irical e!idence suggests$ schools anduni!ersities that de end on non go!ernment funds manage their finances more res onsi%lyand are more attenti!e and res onsi!e to the needs of their customers"

These are some of the macro solutions that ha!e %een offered to im ro!e education in India"Scores of micro solutions that deal with curricula$ edagogy$ and such are also on the ta%le"any of them are rele!ant and useful %ut there is no articular attern to them or any

systemic theme unifying them" Since the focus of the a er is on %road structure of theeducation system$ I do not discuss the micro reform issues"

III. Agenda &or 0e&orm0e&orm 1: 5iberalise6 abolish the license(permit ra7 in education.,e ha!e a%olished the license ermit ra) in the economy" Instead of go!ernmentdetermining what and how much of goods and ser!ices should %e roduced$ under mar&etrinci les of choice and com etition$ we now allow %usinesses and consumers to ma&ethose decisions" In the economy$ go!ernment so!ereignty has %een a%olished and consumerso!ereignty has %een esta%lished" ,e need the same li%eralisation in the education system"

It is more readily acce ted that increased choice and com etition are good for highereducation" The central go!ernment had introduced a %ill which would ha!e allowedesta%lishment of ri!ate uni!ersities" Pri!ate colleges already e*ist in rofessional fields suchas medicine and engineering" (ut there is no full fledged ri!ate uni!ersity in the country"The %ill would ha!e hel ed increase choice in higher education" It would also ha!e lessenedthe financial %urden on central and state go!ernments of su%sidising higher education" /sstudents who could afford to ay the tuition go to ri!ate uni!ersities$ less su%sidy would %e


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necessary$ or more resources would %e a!aila%le to now smaller num%er of students ingo!ernment uni!ersities" 3ni!ersity


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recognised schools already functioning in that locality$ and general desira%ility of the schoolwith reference to the suita%ility and sufficiency of the e*isting schools in the locality and thero%a%le effect on them .my em hasis1"; In this en!ironment the ca ture theory of regulationredicts ermanent artificial scarcity of schools" The theory suggests that the e*isting

%usinesses would ta&e control of the licensingGregulatory agency and there%y create %arriersto entry and reduce com etition in the mar&et" Not only o ening of a new school %ut additionof a new class in an e*isting school also re+uires rior ermission .Rule 461" Rule 4 ?Closing down of a school or any class in a school No managing committee shall close downa recognised school$ not %eing an unaided minority school$ or an e*isting class in suchschool without gi!ing full )ustification and without the rior a ro!al of the Firector$ who shall$%efore gi!ing such an a ro!al$ consult the /d!isory (oard"

Rule 8 tells that school cannot fire any em loyee without ermission and due rocess"Terms and Conditions of Ser!ice of Em loyees of Recognised Pri!ate Schools$ Clause 2?

Su%)ect to any rule that may %e made in this %ehalf$ no em loyee of a recognised ri!ateschool shall %e dismissed$ remo!ed or reduced in ran& nor shall his ser!ice %e otherwiseterminated e*ce t with the rior a ro!al of the Firector" Clause 7? /ny em loyee ofrecognised ri!ate school who is dismissed$ remo!ed or reduced in ran& may$ within threemonths from the date of communication to him of the order of such dismissal$ remo!al orreduction in ran&$ a eal against such order to the Tri%unal constituted under section 55"

Schools need an e*it olicy as %adly as other %usinesses" The license ra) in educationhowe!er goes much further than it did in the industry" The go!ernment ne!er re+uired thatthe customer of a com any must ta&e the com any#s a ro!al %efore switching to ananother com any to urchase a similar roduct or ser!ice" (ut$ Rule 57B? /dmission ontransfer certificate No student who had re!iously attended any recognised school shall %eadmitted to any aided school unless he roduces a transfer or school lea!ing certificate fromthe school which was last attended %y him" Schools could deny their customers the freedomto switchA they ha!e ca ti!e customers"

Rule 575 creates more corru tion and ar%itrariness" Power to Firector to regulate manner ofadmission ,here the circumstances of a case so re+uire$ the Firector may$ notwithstandinganything contained in the admission lan$ direct the admission of any student to an aided

school$ and$ on recei t of the direction$ the head of such school shall admit such student inthe school"


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Categories of aid 5" /id shall %e of two categories$ namely .a1 maintenance grantA and .%1%uilding grant 2" aintenance grant shall %e of two &inds$ namely .a1 recurring maintenancegrantA and .%1 non recurring maintenance grant 7" The recurring maintenance grants are .a1staff grantA .%1 ro!ident fund grantA .c1 ension and retirement %enefit grantA .d1 medical%enefit grantA .e1 %enefits s ecified in Cha ter A .f1 grants for the ur ose of %oo&s and

)ournals which are essential for the li%raryA and .g1 grants for the ac+uisition of essentiale+ui ments of the school" 4" Non recurring maintenance grant Non recurring maintenancegrant shall %e of the following categories$ namely .a1 contingent grantA .%1 rent grantA .c1de reciation grant for schoolA .d1 hostel grant and de reciation hostel grantA .e1 grant fore+ui ment$ furniture$ games and s orts materials and the li&eA .f1 %iennial or triennial grantsfor the urchase of %oo&s for the li%rary and for the setting u of a %oo& %an&"

'ne cannot %ut %e ama ed that with all these a erwor& schools actually manage to teach alittle" It would indeed %e far %etter to remo!e all these %arriers and gi!e schools an o en

grant so that they can decide how %est to s end it to achie!e +uality education" /%olition ofthe license ermit ra) in education would$ as it has in the industry$ increase choice andcom etition in the mar&et for education and ma&e schools more res onsi!e to needs ofstudents and arents"

/chie!ement ar&s %y School anagement$ Chennai$ 5BB4 B6 .9igher Secondary -e!el1Pu%lic Pri!ate /ided Pri!ate 3naided English /ll (oys


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'nce education is li%eralised and all e*isting institutions are gi!en autonomy$ they will %eginto com ete for students" The decision ma&ing owers$ in all areas of management$ would %ehanded down to schools$ colleges$ and uni!ersities that is to arents$ teachers$ and localadministrators" It is critical to institutionalise accounta%ility$ in managing finances as well asteaching and research$ so that the com etiti!e forces would wor& to im ro!e$ and notundermine$ the o!erall e* erience of education"

). *ink government grants with performanceTo facilitate the Schum eterian rocess of creati!e destruction$ go!ernment grants to alleducational institutions must %e lin&ed with their academic erformance" @or com letelyri!ate institutions$ the lin& %etween re!enues and erformance does e*istA arents wouldnot continue to urchase their ser!ices unless the standards were met" (ut go!ernmentgrants to go!ernment as well as ri!ate academic institutions are largely automatic %asedsim ly on the num%er of students and hysical infrastructure of the ast with an eye on the

growth in the head count and the need for maintenance and e* ansion of facilities" .Refer tothe earlier descri tion of the multitude of headings under which grants are doled out"1 -in&inggo!ernment grants with erformance would hel realign self interest and incenti!es of theinstitution with the needs of its customers" The institution#s tas& is to educateA its re!enuesshould de end on the e*tent to which it meets its res onsi%ility"

There are multitudes of ways to measure erformance of institutions and the issue needs adee er analysis" (ut a sim le way to gauge erformance is to consider the num%er ofstudents who ass the standardised %oard e*aminations" /n institution#s re!enues could %elin&ed with that num%er" Success in assing %oard e*aminations is ro%a%ly not the %estway to )udge the +uality of educationA we should thin& of %etter and yet easier ways toassess the +uality" The %asic o%)ecti!e nonetheless is to ma&e educational institutions earntheir go!ernment grants %y fulfilling their res onsi%ilities"

+. ,elp establish independent certification accreditation and examination agencies.Performance of the di!erse institutions that would dot the educational landsca e cannot %eaccurately measured %y any single$ uniform method" ,e would need as muche* erimentation in erformance measurement as in the de!elo ment of curricula andteaching edagogy" ono olies in the ro!ision of education are harmful$ so they are in the

assessment of education" Com eting sources of ro!iders as well as assessors further thecause of good education"

In lace of the license ermit system$ inde endent certification and accreditation agencieswould hel monitor the +uality of education" /gain$ instead of a mono oly or oligo oly ofsuch agencies$ freely com eting agencies would ro!ide more o%)ecti!e and accurateinformation to arents and students to ena%le them to ma&e informed decisions"


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Significance and wor&ing of such inde endent institutions in !arious areas of the economyare discussed in Fesai 5BB8"

0e&orm +: 8mpo er students and parents.

In the current system$ go!ernment grants are gi!en to academic institutions schools$colleges$ and uni!ersities" @or the mar&et for education to wor& as efficiently and e+uita%lyas ossi%le$ it is critical that the su ort is gi!en directly to students and arents instead ofinstitutions" @ree choices of em owered students and arents would then determine theeducational landsca e" Consumers of education would %ecome so!ereign"

The idea of em owering consumers of education is generally framed as se aratingro!isionG roductionGmanagement from financing of education" The go!ernment does not runor control any academic institution$ it sim ly ro!ides su ort to students and arents so thatthey can urchase education in a com etiti!e mar&et lace" There are se!eral ways to

im lement this ideaA two most common are scholarshi s and !ouchers" any countries$including those with high literacy rates$ are mo!ing towards a !oucher system to im ro!e the+uality of their education" The education system of Chile is now almost com letely %ased on!ouchers" Singa ore is mo!ing towards Inde endent and /utonomous schools and colleges"Se!eral school districts and states in the 3nited States ha!e %een e* erimenting with a!oucher system" College education in the 3"S" has long %een financed either directly %ystudents and arents$ or through scholarshi s gi!en %y colleges and foundations$ or throughgo!ernment su%sidised loans$ or through outright grant from the go!ernment for those whomeet the minimum family income criterion" .@or details of the !oucher system in se!eralcountries$ see the s ecial issue of Education and 3r%an Society$ /ugust5BBB"1

There are se!eral ty es of !oucher systems" The system is rather fle*i%le so that it can %eada ted to eculiar ro%lems of a country" It also allows a great deal of freedom toinstitutions in managing their affairs" Through !ouchers institutions recei!e a fi*ed some ofmoney for educating students" Institutions then are free to decide how to s end that moneyso as to im ro!e the +uality of education$ retain students . re!ent dro outs1$ and attractmore students to increase their !oucher re!enues" Fe ending on local conditions$institutions would design a ro riate schemes and rogrammes to achie!e a%o!e goals" Insome areas$ institutions may %e a%le to attract and retain students %y ro!iding mid day

meals and uniforms$ in other %y offering a wider !ariety of e*tra curricular acti!ities$ in stillother areas %y arranging for remedial classes$ and so on" Institutions would %e a%le to usefunds to meet s ecific local needs without any directi!es from the go!ernment or urgingsfrom the communities" It will %e in their self interest to disco!er and im lement the mostsuita%le schemes and rogrammes for their students"

). -niversal voucher system


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In this system$ go!ernment ro!ides !ouchers of a s ecified sum to all indi!iduals in a gi!enage grou " Indi!iduals would then find institutions that meet their needs and as irations"Netherlands and Chile ha!e a !ery similar system"

+. ncentive voucher systemE*cluding clothing e* enses Source? NSS'$ 5BB7A NC/ER$ 5BB APR'(E sur!ey


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The go!ernment e* enditure of elementary education !aries from state to state in the rage ofRs" 600 er student er year to Rs" 5400" Pri!ate e* enditures in go!ernment andgo!ernment aided schools seem to rage from Rs" 700 to Rs" 5000" So the !oucher amountcould %e in rage of Rs" 800 to Rs" 2400" Certainly additional wor& is re+uired for moreinformed estimates of the !oucher amount"

In conclusion$ the three reform areas li%eralisation$ accounta%ility$ and em owermentro!ide a framewor& within which to design rogrammes and olicies to gi!e India an

education system that could meet the needs of the 25st century" @irst and foremost$li%eralise the whole education system from rimary to higher" /llow free entry and e*itA %urythe license ermit ra) education" Remo!e the archaic socialist restriction that educationinstitution cannot o erate for monetary %enefit" -et the rofit moti!e that roduces all othergoods and ser!ices so efficiently and a%undantly lay its role in the mar&et for education"

a&e all schools$ colleges$ and uni!ersities autonomousA let the teachers$ arents$ and localadministrators ha!e all the owers to ma&e decisions" -in& go!ernment grants to theerformance of institutions" Incenti!es matter" ,e cannot ma&e our education system whollyde endent on sudden emergence of crores of enlightened and wise teachers$ rofessors$and administrators" Those who erform$ must %e rewarded$ those who do not$ must find a%etter use of their talents"

Fesign inno!ati!e ways to finance education of those who cannot afford it? Scholarshi s$!oucher systems$ loans" Encourage self regulation of this autonomous education system %yromoting inde endent certification$ accreditation$ and e*amination agencies" Transfergo!ernment institutions to trusts$ societies$ and ri!ate !oluntary organisations .misla%elledas N


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of a ser!ice as essential as education must at least %e a%le to match" 'nly then we would %ecertain that we are not under in!esting in education"

References /ggarwal$ ash$ and Dusum D" Premi$ Reforming School Education$ Hi&as

Pu%lishing 9ouse$ 5BB8" Fesai$ /sho& H" Self Regulation in the Ci!il Society$ Centre for Ci!ilSociety$ 5BB8" Furaisamy$ P" and T" P" Su%ramanian$ The Relati!e Effecti!eness of Pu%licand Pri!ate 9igher Secondary Schools in an 3r%an Centre in India$; Journal of EducationalPlanning and /dministration$ January 5BBB" Education and 3r%an Society$ S ecial Issue onCharter Schools and 3r%an Education$ /ugust 5BBB" @ilmer$ Feon$ and -ant Pritchett$;Educational Enrolment and /ttainment in India? 9ousehold ,ealth$


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national #emale literacy rate )as an alarmin%ly lo) !' per cent, Gross Enrolment Ratio GER.

#or %irls )as 2/'! per cent at primary level and /'* per cent at the upper primary level in the

00 1 0/ years a%e %roup.' ocial and cultural +arriers to education o# )omen and lac o#

access to or%ani$ed schoolin%, had to +e addressed immediately'

Access "o choolin% ImprovedEducation administrators %ave hi%h priority on reducin% the in#rastructure4access de#iciency'

5ocused attention on this need has resulted in esta+lishin% a net)or o# 6,*6,72 schools at

the primary level and 2,6/,630 schools at the upper primary level +y 2 /- 7 #rom 8ust

2, ,*60 primary and 03,7 * upper primary schools in 0 7 -70' A lar%e ma8ority !69. o#

these are rural schools' "oday ! per cent o# India&s rural population has access to primary

schools )ithin a ilometer o# the ha+itation'

Greater access to schoolin% is, ho)ever, not enou%h' pecial measures are called #or to help

%irls 8oin the schools' "hese include settin% up o# %irls toilets and providin% separate %irls&

schools at upper primary level to counter community resistance to %irls& studyin% in co-

educational schools' ome schools are residential ones 1 the recent addition to residential

schools +ein% the astur+a Gandhi ;ali a


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improvement in %irls& enrolment )ith respect to total population o# %irls clearly sho)s that

there is a near universal enrolment at primary level' "he %ap and challen%e e>ists no) at

upper primary sta%e, +ut there too the %ap is narro)in% steadily'

Enrolment o# cheduled ?aste and cheduled "ri+e %irls poses a %reater challen%e to India&seducation administrators' urvey data, ho)ever, revealed that the participation o# these

disadvanta%ed %irls in +asic education, has %ro)n steadily over the years' G'E'R' #or ? %irls

at primary level have clim+ed up #rom */'!9 in 0 !*-!6 to 0 *'*9 in 2 /- 7 and at upper

primary sta%e, #rom as lo) as 2*'*9 in 0 !*-!6 to *0'79in 2 /- 7' In the case o# " %irls,

the GER at primary level have %one up #rom *!9 in 0 !*-!6 to 007'79 +y 2 /- 7 and #rom

20' 9 in 0 !*-!6 to 7 '79 in 2 /- 7 #or upper primary level'

"he overall %ender %ap in enrolment at the primary sta%e has dropped to /'* percenta%e

points and that at the upper primary level has reduced to !' percenta%e points in 2 7'"here are only /! districts out o# a total o# * districts in India, )ith a %ender %ap a+ove 0

percenta%e points at the primary sta%e' 5ocused attention is +ein% tar%eted to these districts

+y education policy planners, in order to address the +arriers in speci#ic terms'

@eclinin% @rop ut Rates And ut # chool GirlsProvidin% access and enrolment to schoolin% #acilities are only a part o# the story' ur aim is

also to help the students to continue their studies' Althou%h the phenomenon o# drop outs

continue to +e a serious pro+lem in India&s education scenario, the drop out rates in

elementary education have +een on the decline, more sharply so #or %irls' Girls drop out rate

in 2 /- 7 )as lo)er than #or +oys, at primary level i.e 27'/29 compared to 30'!09 #or

+oys' ince 2 , %irls drop out rates have #allen +y 0*'79 points in 8ust #our years,

compared to a reduction o# only /'09 points over the entire last decade 0 -2 .'

With respect to the situation inside the school it is #ound that the repetition rates have +een

#ast declinin% #or %irls' ")o clear messa%es that underlie this trend are: one, that %irls )ho

enter the school system do not leave easily and t)o, school e##iciency is %radually improvin%

)ith %irls completin% the elementary cycle o# education in lesser time'

"he num+er o# out o# school children have also +een declinin% rapidly, #rom 32 million in 2 0-

2 to 6'7 million in 2 *- 6' # the total a%e cohort o# %irls in the *-0/ years a%e %roup, 3' 9

are reportedly out o# school' In the *-00 years a%e %roup, out o# school %irls are 3'3/ percent

and in the 00-0/ years a%e %roup they are 7'3 percent' "he inclusion o# these Bhard to reach&


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and older %irls, )ho have remained e>cluded #rom the education net is +ein% addressed

throu%h conte>t speci#ic strate%ies and interventions presently'

Core Girls Cove "o =pper Primary"he trends in transition rates #rom Primary to =pper Primary are also positive' "he transition

rate has improved #rom 60' ! in 2 3 to ! '*/ in 2 7' "he %ains in the transition rates o#

%irls !'* percenta%e points. have +een hi%her than that o# +oys 6'*7 percenta%e points.'

"his has led to sharper decline in the %ender %ap in transition rates #rom /' 3 percenta%e

points to 3' 2 percenta%e points'

In the case o# ? %irls, the transition rate has increased #rom ! percent in 2 /- 7 to !3

percent in 2 7- * leavin% a %ender %ap o# 3 percenta%e points' "he picture is compara+le in

the case o# " %irls #or )hom the transition rate has increased #rom !7 percent in 2 /- 7 to

!! percent in 2 7- * leavin% a %ender %ap o# 2 percenta%e points'

?onstitutional And Policy 5rame)or"he ?onstitution o# India in Article 07 0. on ri%ht to eDuality, provides the +asic policy

#rame)or that enshrines the vision o# %irls& education and the spirit in )hich their education

is to +e provided'

=ntil 0 6*, education )as a tate su+8ect' ince its trans#er to the ?oncurrent ist +y the

/2 nd ?onstitutional Amendment in 0 6*, the ?entral Government has played a more proactive

role in the sector throu%h several centrally sponsored schemes that had a distinct +earin% on

promotin% education #or %irls'

A ne) thrust )as provided to %irls& education in the Fational Policy on Education 0 !*, as

modi#ied in 0 2. )hich provided a holistic vision #or the education o# )omen and %irls and

reco%ni$ed the cross cuttin% issues that inhi+ited the reali$ation o# this %oal' It aims at usin%

Education as an a%ent o# +asic chan%e in the status o# )omen in society'

"he !*th ?onstitutional Amendment Act, 2 2 has made elementary education a 5undamental

Ri%ht #or children in the a%e %roup o# *-0/ years +y providin% that the State shall provide

free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such

manner as the State may, by law, determine. "his has +een a path +rea in% le%islation in

India, )here such a ma8or commitment to the cause o# elementary education has +ound


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%overnments, community +ased or%ani$ations and civil society into a common resolve to

achieve universal elementary education'

@ra)in% upon the ?onstitution and other policy statements articulated in the years that

#ollo)ed, the Government o# India in partnership )ith tate Governments has desi%neddi##erent strate%ies, interventions, schemes and pro%rammes )ith speci#ic o+8ectives that

impin%e on %irls& education' In the second part o# this essay )e shall loo at some o# these

pro%rammes and interactions that have +e%un to chan%e the #ace o# India'

Documents

Government Initiatives to Improve Literacy Rate of Women in India