Governmentality - Foucault

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GovernmentalityFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Governmentality is a concept first developed by the French philosopher Michel Foucault in the later

ears of his life, roughly between 1977 and his death in 1984, particularly in his lectures at the Collège

de France during this time.

The concept has been elaborated further from an "Anglo-Neo Foucauldian" perspective in the social

sciences, especially by authors such as Peter Miller, Nikolas Rose, and Mitchell Dean. Governmentality

can be understood as:

the way gover nments try to produce the citizen best suited to fulfill those governments' policiesthe organized practices (mentalities, rationalities, and techniques) through which subjects are

governed[1]

Governmentality may also be understood as:

the "art of government"[2]

the "how" of governing (that is, the calculated means of directing how we behave and act)[3]

"governmental rationality"[4]

"a 'guideline' for the analysis that Michel Foucault offers by way of historical reconstructionsembracing a period starting from Ancient Greece right through to modernity and neo-

liberalism"[5][6][7]

"the techniques and strategies by which a society is rendered governable"[8]

The ‘reasoned way of governing best and, at the same time, reflection on the best possible way of

governing’ [9]

Contents

1 The semantics of governmentality2 Basic definition of governmentality3 History of the term4 Further developments of the concept

4.1 Mentality of rule4.2 From governmentality to neoliberal governmentality: cartography

4.2.1 Governmentality and cartography4.2.2 Neoliberal governmentality and cartography

4.2.2.1 Power-knowledge relations: OpenStreetMap4.2.2.2 Retreat of the State: OpenStreetMap

4.3 Self-governing capabilities4.4 Technologies of power

4.4.1 Technologies of the self 4.4.2 Responsibilisation4.4.3 Healthism4.4.4 Normalisation

4.4.5 Self-esteem4.4.6 Technologies of the market

4.5 Ecogovernmentality4.6 Crises of Governmentality4.7 Application to health care

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4.8 Beyond the West5 See also6 References7 Further reading

The semantics of governmentality

This term was thought by some commentators to be made by the "…linking of governing ("gouverner")

and modes of thought ("mentalité")".[10] In fact, it was not coined by uniting words "gouvernement" and

"mentalité", but simply by making gouvernement into gouvernementalité just like musical into

musicalité [i.e. government + -al- adjective + -ité abstract noun] (see Michel Senellart's "Course

Context" in Foucault's "Security, territory, population" lectures). To fully understand this concept, it is

important to realize that in this case, Foucault does not only use the standard, strictly political definition

of "governing" or government used today, but he also uses the broader definition of governing or

government that was employed until the eighteenth century.[11] That is to say, that in this case, for

Foucault, "...'government' also signified problems of self-control, guidance for the family and for children, management of the house hold, directing the soul, etc."[12] In other words, for our purposes,

government is "…the conduct of conduct..."[13]

Basic definition of governmentality

In his lectures at the Collège de France, Foucault often defines governmentality as the "art of

government" in a wide sense, i.e. with an idea of "government" that is not limited to state politics alone,

that includes a wide range of control techniques, and that applies to a wide variety of objects, from one's

control of the self to the "biopolitical" control of populations. In the work of Foucault, this notion isindeed linked to other concepts such as biopolitics and power-knowledge. The genealogical exploration

of the modern state as "problem of government" does not only deepen Foucault’s analyses on

sovereignty and biopolitics; it offers an analytics of government which refines both Foucault’s theory of

power and his understanding of freedom.[14]

The concept of "governmentality" develops a new understanding of power. Foucault encourages us to

think of power not only in terms of hierarchical, top-down power of the state. He widens our

understanding of power to also include the forms of social control in disciplinary institutions (schools,

hospitals, psychiatric institutions, etc.), as well as the forms of knowledge. Power can manifest itself

positively by producing knowledge and certain discourses that get internalised by individuals and guidethe behaviour of populations. This leads to more efficient forms of social control, as knowledge enables

individuals to govern themselves.

"Governmentality" applies to a variety of historical periods and to different specific power regimes.

However, it is often used (by other scholars and by Foucault himself) in reference to "neoliberal

governmentality", i.e. to a type of governmentality that characterizes advanced liberal democracies. In

this case, the notion of governmentality refers to societies where power is de-centered and its members

play an active role in their own self-government, e.g. as posited in neoliberalism. Because of its active

role, individuals need to be regulated from 'inside'. A particular form of governmentality is characterized

by a certain form of knowledge ("savoir" in French). In the case of neoliberal governmentality (a kind of governmentality based on the predominance of market mechanisms and of the restriction of the action of

the state) the knowledge produced allows the construction of auto-regulated or auto-correcting selves.

In his lecture titled Governmentality, Foucault gives us a definition of governmentality:

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"1. The ensemble formed by the institutions, procedures, analyses and reflections, the

calculations and tactics that allow the exercise of this very specific albeit complex form of

power, which has as its target population, as its principal form of knowledge political

economy, and as its essential technical means apparatuses of security.

2. The tendency which, over a long period and throughout the West, has steadily led

towards the pre-eminence over all other forms (sovereignty, discipline, etc) of this type of

power which may be termed government, resulting, on the one hand, in formation of a

whole series of specific governmental apparatuses, and, on the other, in the development of

a whole complex of savoirs.

3. The process, or rather the result of the process, through which the state of justice of the

Middle Ages, transformed into the administrative state during the fifteenth and sixteenth

centuries, gradually becomes 'governmentalized'."[15]

As Foucault’s explicit definition is rather broad, perhaps further examination of this definition would be

useful.

We shall begin with a closer inspection of the first part of Foucault’s definition of governmentality:

This strand of the three-part definition states that governmentality is, in other words, all of the

components that make up a government that has as its end the maintenance of a well-ordered and happy

society (population). The government’s means to this end is its "apparatuses of security," that is to say,

the techniques it uses to provide this society a feeling of economic, political, and cultural well-being.

The government achieves these ends by enacting "political economy," and in this case, the meaning of

economy is the older definition of the term, that is to say, "economy at the level of the entire state, which

means exercising towards its inhabitants, and the wealth and behavior of each and all, a form of

surveillance and control as attentive as that of the head of a family over his household and his goods".[16]

Thus, we see that this first part of the definition states that governmentality is a government with specific

ends, means to these ends, and particular practices that should lead to these ends.

The second part of Foucault’s definition (the "resulting, on the one hand, in formation of a whole series

of specific governmental apparatuses, and, on the other, in the development of a whole complex of

savoirs"[15]) presents governmentality as the long, slow development of Western governments which

eventually took over from forms of governance like sovereignty and discipline into what it is today:

bureaucracies and the typical methods by which they operate.

The next and last strand of Foucault’s definition of governmentality is "3. The process, or rather theresult of the process, through which the state of justice of the Middle Ages, transformed into the

administrative state during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, gradually becomes

'governmentalized'."[2] This strand can be restated as the evolution from the Medieval state, that

maintained its territory and an ordered society within this territory through a blunt practice of simply

imposing its laws upon its subjects, to the early renaissance state, which became more concerned with

the "disposing of things",[17] and so began to employ strategies and tactics to maintain a content and thus

stable society, or in other words to "render a society governable".[18]

Thus, if one takes these three strands together, governmentality may be defined as the process through

which a form of government with specific ends (a happy and stable society), means to these ends

("apparatuses of security"[19]), and with a particular type of knowledge ("political economy"[19]), to

achieve these ends, evolved from a medieval state of justice to a modern administrative state with

complex bureaucracies.

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History of the term

The concept of governmentality segues from Foucault's ethical, political and historical thoughts from the

late 1970s to the early 1980s. His most widely known formulation of this notion is his lecture entitled

"Security, territory and population" (1978). A deeper and richer reflection on the notion of

governmentality is provided in Foucault's course on "The Birth of Biopolitics" at the Collège de France

in 1978-1979. The course was first published in French in 2004 as Naissance de la biopolitique: Cours

au Collège de France (1978-1979) (Paris: Gallimard & Seuil). This notion is also part of a wider analysis on the topic of disciplinary institutions, on neoliberalism and the "Rule of Law", the

"microphysics of power" and also on what Foucault called biopolitics. In the second and third volumes

of The History of Sexuality, namely, The Use of Pleasure (1984) and The Care of the Self (1984), and in

his lecture on "Technologies of the Self" (1982), Foucault elaborated a distinction between

subjectivation and forms of subjectification by exploring how selves were fashioned and then lived in

ways which were both heteronomously and autonomously determined. Also, in a series of lectures and

articles, including "The Birth of Biopolitics" (1979), "Omnes et Singulatim: Towards a Criticism of

Political Reason" (1979), "The Subject and Power" (1982) and "What is Enlightenment?" (1984), he

posed questions about the nature of contemporary social orders, the conceptualization of power, human

freedom and the limits, possibilities and sources of human actions, etc. that were linked to his

understanding of the notion of "governmentality".

The notion of governmentality (not to confuse with governance) gained attention in the English-

speaking academic world mainly through the edited book The Foucault Effect (1991), which contained a

series of essays on the notion of governmentality, together with a translation of Foucault's 1978 short

text on "gouvernementalité" .

Further developments of the concept

Hunt and Wickham, in their work Foucault and Law [1994] begin the section on governmentality with a

very basic definition derived from Foucault’s work. They state, "governmentality is the dramatic

expansion in the scope of government, featuring an increase in the number and size of the governmental

calculation mechanisms" [1994:76]. In other words, governmentality describes the new form of

governing that arose in the mid-eighteenth century that was closely allied with the creation and growth

of the modern bureaucracies. In giving this definition, Hunt and Wickham conceive of the term as

consisting of two parts 'governmental' and '–ity' - governmental meaning pertaining to the government of

a country; and the suffix –ity meaning the study of. They acknowledge that this definition lacks some of

Foucault’s finer nuances and try to redress this by explaining some more of Foucault’s ideas, including

reason of state, the problem of population, modern political economy, liberal securitisation, and theemergence of the human sciences" [1994:77].

Kerr’s approach to the term is more complex. He conceives of the term as an abbreviation of

"governmental rationality" [1999:174]. In other words it is a way of thinking about the government and

the practices of the government. To him it is not "a zone of critical-revolutionary study, but one that

conceptually reproduces capitalist rule" [1999:197] by asserting that some form of government (and

power) will always be necessary to control and constitute society. By defining governmentality only in

terms of the state, Kerr fails to take account of other forms of governance and the idea of mentalities of

government in this broader sense.

Dean’s understanding of the term incorporates both other forms of governance and the idea of

mentalities of government, as well as Hunt and Wickham’s, and Kerr’s approaches to the term. In line

with Hunt and Wickham’s approach, Dean acknowledges that in a very narrow sense, governmentality

can be used to describe the emergence of a government that saw that the object of governing power was

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to optimise, use and foster living individuals as members of a population [1999:19]. He also includes the

idea of government rationalities, seeing governmentality as one way of looking at the practices of

government. In addition to the above, he sees government as anything to do with conducting oneself or

others. This is evident in his description of the word in his glossary: "Governmentality: How we think

about governing others and ourselves in a wide variety of contexts..." [1999:212]. This reflects that the

term government to Foucault meant not so much the political or administrative structures of the modern

state as the way in which the conduct of individuals or of groups may be directed. To analyse

government is to analyse those mechanisms that try to shape, sculpt, mobilise and work through thechoices, desires, aspirations, needs, wants and lifestyles of individuals and groups [Dean, 1999:12].

Dean's main contribution to the definition of the term, however, comes from the way he breaks the term

up into ‘govern’ ‘mentality’, or mentalities of governing—mentality being a mental disposition or

outlook. This means that the concept of governmentality is not just a tool for thinking about government

and governing but also incorporates how and what people who are governed think about the way they

are governed. He defines thinking as a "collective activity" [1999:16], that is, the sum of the knowledge,

beliefs and opinions held by those who are governed. He also raises the point that a mentality is not

usually "examined by those who inhabit it" [1999:16]. This raises the interesting point that those who are

governed may not understand the unnaturalness of both the way they live and the fact that they take thisway of life for granted—that the same activity in which they engage in "can be regarded as a different

form of practice depending on the mentalities that invest it" [1999:17]. Dean highlights another

important feature of the concept of governmentality—its reflexivity. He explains:

On the one hand, we govern others and ourselves according to what we take to be true

about who we are, what aspects of our existence should be worked upon, how, with what

means, and to what ends. On the other hand, the ways in which we govern and conduct

ourselves give rise to different ways of producing truth. [1999:18]

By drawing attention to the ‘how and why’, Dean connects "technologies of power" [Lemke, 2001:191]

to the concept of governmentality. According to Dean any definition of governmentality should

incorporate all of Foucault’s intended ideas. A complete definition of the term governmentality must

include not only government in terms of the state, but government in terms of any "conduct of conduct"

[Dean, 1999:10]. It must incorporate the idea of mentalities and the associations that go with that

concept: that it is an attitude towards something, and that it is not usually understood "from within its

own perspective" [1999:16], and that these mentalities are collective and part of a society’s culture. It

must also include an understanding of the ways in which conduct is governed, not just by governments,

but also by ourselves and others.

The semantic linking of governing and mentalities in governmentality indicates that it is not possible to

study technologies of power without an analysis of the mentality of rule underpinning them. The practice

of going to the gym, expounded below, is a useful example because it shows how our choices, desires,

aspirations, needs, wants and lifestyles have been mobilised and shaped by various technologies of

power.

Mentality of rule

A mentality of rule is any relatively systematic way of thinking about government. It delineates adiscursive field in which the exercise of power is ‘rationalised’ [Lemke, 2001:191]. Thus Neo-liberalism

is a mentality of rule because it represents a method of rationalising the exercise of government, a

rationalisation that obeys the internal rule of maximum economy [Foucault, 1997:74]. Fukuyama [in

Rose, 1999: 63] writes "a liberal State is ultimately a limited State, with governmental activity strictly

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bounded by the sphere of individual liberty". However, only a certain type of liberty, a certain way of

understanding and exercising freedom is compatible with Neo-liberalism. If Neo-liberalist government is

to fully realize its goals, individuals must come to recognize and act upon themselves as both free and

responsible [Rose, 1999:68]. Thus Neo-liberalism must work to create the social reality that it proposes

already exists. For as Lemke states, a mentality of government "is not pure, neutral knowledge that

simply re-presents the governing reality" [Lemke, 2001:191] instead, Neo-liberalism constitutes an

attempt to link a reduction in state welfare services and security systems to the increasing call for

subjects to become free, enterprising, autonomous individuals. It can then begin to govern its subjects,not through intrusive state bureaucracies backed with legal powers, the imposition of moral standards

under a religious mandate, but through structuring the possible field of action in which they govern

themselves, to govern them through their freedom. Through the transformation of subjects with duties

and obligations, into individuals, with rights and freedoms, modern individuals are not merely ‘free to

choose’ but obliged to be free, "to understand and enact their lives in terms of choice" [Rose, 1999:87].

This freedom is a different freedom to that offered in the past. It is a freedom to realize our potential and

our dreams through reshaping the way in which we conduct our lives.

From governmentality to neoliberal governmentality: cartography

Governmentality and cartography

Cartographic mapping has historically been a key strategy of governmentality.[20] Harley,[21] drawing on

Foucault, affirms that State-produced maps "extend and reinforce the legal statutes, territorial

imperatives, and values stemming from the exercise of political power". Typically, State-led mapping

conforms to Bentham's concept of a panopticon, in which 'the one views the many'. From a Foucauldian

vantage point, this was the blueprint for disciplinary power.[22]

Neoliberal governmentality and cartography

Through processes of neoliberalism, the State has "hollowed out" some of its cartographic

responsibilities and delegated power to individuals who are at a lower geographical scale.[23] 'People’s

cartography' is believed to deliver a more democratic spatial governance than traditional top-down State-

distribution of cartographic knowledge.[24] Thus subverting Harley's [21] theory that mapping is uniquely

a source of power for the powerful. Joyce[25] challenges Foucauldian notions of Panopticism, contending

that neoliberal governmentality is more adequately conceptualised by an omniopticon - 'the many

surveilling the many'.[26] Collaborative mapping initiatives utilising GPS technology are arguably

omniopticons,[27] with the ability to reverse the panoptic gaze.[28]

Power-knowledge relations: OpenStreetMap

A prime example of an omnioptic form of neoliberal governmentality is OpenStreetMap

(http://www.openstreetmap.org/) (OSM). OSM, a mapping website founded by Steve Coast in August

2004, does not rely on the government; rather on thousands of volunteers with portable GPS devices.[29]

OSM has a clear Code of Conduct

(http://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Automated_Edits/Code_of_Conduct) and exerts 'disciplinary power'

if this is not abided by.[30] In Foucauldian terms, discipline is the discursive framework through which

activity is organised so that the 'correct training' of individuals is ensured.[31] For instance, an OSM

guideline is that "the work of others must be respected".[32] Hence, if a user starts an 'edit war', they may

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be banned from contributing towards the website. OSM thus conforms to Hannah's[22] notion that

neoliberal governmentality "consistently blends the principles of freedom and regulation". It is clear that

even grassroot cartographic initiatives do not exist outside of power-knowledge dynamics.[33]

Retreat of the State: OpenStreetMap

Foucault [34] affirms that neoliberal governmentality is not about the retreat of the State; rather a

restructuring of power relations in society. When the Haiti earthquake struck on 12 January 2010, an

OSM crowdsourcing effort enabled the construction of a map depicting the position of hospitals. [35]

Although OSM users were empowered through the ability to contribute geographic data, government

agencies printed the OSM maps, distributed them in Port-au-Price, and uploaded them to mobile GPS

units.[35] Thus, the State’s power has not eroded: rather its focus has shifted from control over territory,

"towards the governing of a complex composed of men [sic] and things". [36] In brief, the State has

transformed from sole purveyor of geographic information to an institutional body of oversight.

Ultimately, adhering to Foucauldian notions of neoliberal governmentality, OSM indicates that whilst

the State is no longer the locus of all power, its steering capacity should not be underestimated.[37] This

opposes Crampton's [24] affirmation that OSM is "mapping without a net"; a metaphor indicating the

State’s alleged retraction from the cartographic project.

Self-governing capabilities

Through our freedom, particular self-governing capabilities can be installed in order to bring our own

ways of conducting and evaluating ourselves into alignment with political objectives [Rose, 1996:155].

These capabilities are enterprise and autonomy. Enterprise here designates an array of rules for the

conduct of one’s everyday existence: energy, initiative, ambition, calculation, and personal

responsibility. The enterprising self will make an enterprise of its life, seek to maximize its own humancapital, project itself a future, and seek to shape life in order to become what it wishes to be. The

enterprising self is thus both an active self and a calculating self, a self that calculates about itself and

that acts upon itself in order to better itself [Rose, 1996:154]. Autonomy is about taking control of our

undertakings, defining our goals, and planning to achieve our needs through our own powers [Rose,

1996:159]. The autonomy of the self is thus not the eternal antithesis of political power, but one of the

objectives and instruments of modern mentalities for the conduct of conduct [Rose, 1996:155].

These three qualities: freedom, enterprise and autonomy are embodied in the practice of going to the

gym. It is our choice to go the gym, our choice which gym to go to. By going to the gym we are working

on ourselves, on our body shape and our physical fitness. We are giving ourselves qualities to help us perform better than others in life, whether to attract a better mate than others, or to be able to work more

efficiently, more effectively and for longer without running out of steam to give us an advantage over

our competitors. When we go to the gym, we go through our own discipline, on our own timetable, to

reach our own goals. We design and act out our routine by ourselves. We do not need the ideas or

support of a team, it is our self that makes it possible. The practice of going to the gym, of being free,

enterprising, autonomous, is imbued with particular technologies of power.

Technologies of power

Technologies of power are those "technologies imbued with aspirations for the shaping of conduct in the

hope of producing certain desired effects and averting certain undesired ones" [Rose, 1999:52]. The two

main groups of technologies of power are technologies of the self, and technologies of the market.

Foucault defined technologies of the self as techniques that allow individuals to effect by their own

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means a certain number of operations on their own bodies, minds, souls, and lifestyle, so as to transform

themselves in order to attain a certain state of happiness, and quality of life. Technologies of the market

are those technologies based around the buying and selling of goods that enable us to define who we are,

or want to be. These two technologies are not always completely distinct, as both borrow bits of each

other from time to time.

Technologies of the self

Technologies of the self refer to the practices and strategies by which individuals represent to

themselves their own ethical self-understanding. One of the main features of technologies of self is that

of expertise. Expertise has three important aspects. First, its grounding of authority in a claim to

scientificity and objectivity creates distance between self-regulation and the state that is necessary with

liberal democracies. Second, expertise can "mobilise and be mobilised within political argument in

distinctive ways, producing a new relationship between knowledge and government. Expertise comes to

be accorded a particular role in the formulation of programs of government and in the technologies that

seek to give them effect" [Rose, 1996:156]. Third, expertise operates through a relationship with the

self-regulating abilities of individuals. The plausibility inherent in a claim to scientificity binds

"subjectivity to truth and subjects to experts" [Rose, 1996:156]. Expertise works through a logic of choice, through a transformation of the ways in which individuals constitute themselves, through

"inculcating desires for self-development that expertise itself can guide and through claims to be able to

allay the anxieties generated when the actuality of life fails to live up to its image [Rose, 1999:88].

The technologies of the self involved in the practice of, for example, going to the gym are the:

technology of responsibilisation, technology of healthism, technology of normalisation and technology

of self-esteem.

Responsibilisation

In line with its desire to reduce the scope of government (e.g. welfare) Neo-liberalism characteristically

develops indirect techniques for leading and controlling individuals without being responsible for them.

The main mechanism is through the technology of responsibilisation. This entails subjects becoming

responsibilised by making them see social risks such as illness, unemployment, poverty, etc. not as the

responsibility of the state, but actually lying in the domain for which the individual is responsible and

transforming it into a problem of ‘self-care’ [Lemke, 2001:201] and of 'consumption'.[38] The practice of

going to the gym can be seen as a result of responsibilisation, our responsibility to remain free of illness

so as to be able to work and to care for our dependants (children, elderly parents etc.) This technology

somewhat overlaps with the technology of healthism.

Healthism

Healthism links the "public objectives for the good health and good order of the social body with the

desire of individuals for health and well-being" [Rose, 1999:74]. Healthy bodies and hygienic homes

may still be objectives of the state, but it no longer seeks to discipline, instruct, moralise or threaten us

into compliance. Rather "individuals are addressed on the assumption that they want to be healthy and

enjoined to freely seek out the ways of living most likely to promote their own health" [Rose, 1999:86-

87] such as going to the gym. However while the technology of responsibilisation may be argued to be a

calculated technique of the state, the wave of Healthism is less likely to be a consequence of state planning, but arising out of the newer social sciences such as nutrition and human movement. Healthism

assigns, as do most technologies of the self, a key role to experts. For it is experts who can tell us how to

conduct ourselves in terms of safe, precise techniques to improve cardiovascular fitness, muscle

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strength, and overall health. The borrowing from technologies of the market by technologies of the self can be clearly seen in the area of healthism. The idea of health, the goal of being healthy, the joys

brought by good health and the ways of achieving it are advertised to us in the same manner as goods

and services are marketed by sales people. By adhering to the principles of healthism, our personal goals

are aligned with political goals and we are thus rendered governable.

Normalisation

Another technology of power arising from the social sciences is that of normalisation. The technology of

norms was given a push by the new methods of measuring population. A norm is that "which is socially

worthy, statistically average, scientifically healthy and personally desirable".[39] The important aspect of

normality, is that while the norm is natural, those who wish to achieve normality will do so by working

on themselves, controlling their impulses in everyday conduct and habits, and inculcating norms of

conduct into their children, under the guidance of others. Norms are enforced through the calculated

administration of shame. Shame entails an anxiety over the exterior behaviour and appearance of the

self, linked to an injunction to care for oneself in the name of achieving quality of life [Rose, 1999:73].

Norms are usually aligned with political goals, thus the norm would be fit, virile, energetic individuals,

able to work, earn money, and spend it and thus sustain the economy. For instance, the practice of goingto the gym allows one to achieve this ‘normality’. Through shame we are governed into conforming with

the goals of Neo-liberalism.

Self-esteem

Self-esteem is a practical and productive technology linked to the technology of norms, which produces

of certain kinds of selves. Self-esteem is a technology in the sense that it is a specialised knowledge of

how to esteem ourselves to estimate, calculate, measure, evaluate, discipline, and to judge our selves.[40]

The ‘self-esteem’ approach considers a wide variety of social problems to have their source in a lack of self-esteem on the part of the persons concerned. 'Self-esteem' thus has much more to do with self-

assessment than with self-respect, as the self continuously has to be measured, judged and disciplined in

order to gear personal 'empowerment' to collective yardsticks.[41] These collective yardsticks are

determined by the norms previously discussed. Self-esteem is a technology of self for "evaluating and

acting upon ourselves so that the police, the guards and the doctors do not have to do so".[42] By taking

up the goal of self-esteem, we allow ourselves to be governable from a distance. The technology of self-

esteem and other similar psychological technologies also borrow from technologies of the market,

namely consumption. A huge variety of self-help books, tapes, videos and other paraphernalia are

available for purchase by the individual.

Technologies of the market

The technologies of the market that underlie the practice of going to the gym can be described as the

technology of desire, and the technology of identity through consumption. The technology of desire is a

mechanism that induces in us desires that we work to satisfy. Marketers create wants and artificial needs

in us through advertising goods, experiences and lifestyles that are tempting to us. These advertisements

seek to convey the sense of individual satisfaction brought about by the purchase or use of this

product.[43] We come to desire these things and thus act in a manner that allows us to achieve these

things, whether by working harder and earning more money or by employing technologies of the self toshape our lifestyle to the manner we desire . The borrowing of technologies of the self by technologies

of the market extends even further in this case. Marketers use the knowledge created by psyche-

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discourses, especially psychological characteristics as the basis of their market segmentation. Thisallows them to appeal more effectively to each individual. Thus we are governed into purchasing

commodities through our desire.

The technology of identity through consumption utilises the power of goods to shape identities. [44] Each

commodity is imbued with a particular meaning, which is reflected upon those who purchase it,

illuminating the kind of person they are, or want to be. Consumption is portrayed as placing an

individual within a certain form of life. The technology of identity through consumption can be seen inthe choices that face the gym attendee. To go to an expensive gym because it demonstrates

wealth/success or to go to a moderately priced gym so as to appear economical. The range of gym wear

is extensive. Brand name to portray the abilities portrayed in its advertising, expensive to portray

commitment, or cheap to portray your unconcern for other people’s opinions. All of these choices of

consumption are used to communicate our identity to others, and thus we are governed by marketers into

choosing those products that identify with our identity.

These technologies of the market and of the self are the particular mechanisms whereby individuals are

induced into becoming free, enterprising individuals who govern themselves and thus need only limited

direct governance by the state. The implementation of these technologies is greatly assisted by expertsfrom the social sciences. These experts operate a regime of the self, where success in life depends on our

continual exercise of freedom, and where our life is understood, not in terms of fate or social status, but

in terms of our success or failure in acquiring the skills and making the choices to actualise ourself.[45] If

we engage in the practice of going to the gym, we are undertaking an exercise in self-government. We

do so by drawing upon certain forms of knowledge and expertise provided by gym instructors, health

professionals, of the purveyors of the latest fitness fad. Depending on why we go to the gym, we may

calculate number of calories burned, heart-rate, or muscle size. In all cases, we attend the gym for a

specific set of reasons underpinned by the various technologies of the self and the market. The part of

ourselves we seek to work upon, the means by which we do so, and who we hope to become, all vary

according to the nature of the technology of power by which we are motivated [Dean, 1999:17]. All of these various reasons and technologies are underpinned by the mentality of government that seeks to

transform us into a free, enterprising, autonomous individual: Neo-liberalism. Furthermore, Neo-

liberalism seeks to create and disseminate definitions of freedom, autonomy and what it means to be

enterprising that re-create forms of behavior amenable to neo-liberal goals.

Ecogovernmentality

Ecogovernmentality (or eco-governmentality) is the application of Foucault’s concepts of biopower and

governmentality to the analysis of the regulation of social interactions with the natural world. Timothy

W. Luke theorized this as environmentality and green governmentality. Ecogovernmentality began in the

mid-1990s with a small body of theorists (Luke, Darier, and Rutherford) the literature on

ecogovernmentality grew as a response to the perceived lack of Foucauldian analysis of

environmentalism and in environmental studies.

Following Michel Foucault, writing on ecogovernmentality focuses on how government agencies, in

combination with producers of expert knowledge, construct "The Environment." This construction is

viewed both in terms of the creation of an object of knowledge and a sphere within which certain types

of intervention and management are created and deployed to further the government’s larger aim of

managing the lives of its constituents. This governmental management is dependent on the disseminationand internalization of knowledge/power among individual actors. This creates a decentered network of

self-regulating elements whose interests become integrated with those of the State.

Crises of Governmentality

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According to Foucault, there are several instances where the Western, "liberal art of government" enters

into a period of crisis, where the logic of ensuring freedom (which was defined against the background

of risk or danger) necessitates actions "which potentially risk producing exactly the opposite."[46]

The inherently contradictory logics that lead to such contradictions are identified by Foucault as:

1. Liberalism depends on the socialization of individuals to fear the constant presence of danger, e.g.,

public campaigns advocating savings banks, public hygiene, and disease prevention, the development of

detective novels as a genre and of news stories of crime, and sexual anxieties surrounding

"degeneration."[47]

2. Liberal freedom requires disciplinary techniques that manage the individual's behaviour and everyday

life so as to ensure productivity and the increase in profit through efficient labour, e.g., Bentham's

Panopticon surveillance system. Liberalism claims to supervise the natural mechanisms of behaviour

and production, but must intervene when it notices "irregularities."[48]

3. Liberalism must force individuals to be free: control and intervention becomes the entire basis of

freedom. Freedom must ultimately be manufactured by control rather than simply "counterweighted" byit.[48]

Examples of this contradictory logic which Foucault cites are the policies of the Keynesian welfare state

under F.D. Roosevelt, the thought of the German liberals in the Freiburg school, and the thought of

American libertarian economists such as the Chicago School which attempt to free individuals from the

lack of freedom perceived to exist under socialism and fascism, but did so by using state interventionist

models.[48]

These governmental crises may be triggered by phenomena such as a discursive concern with increasing

economic capital costs for the exercise of freedom, e.g., prices for purchasing resources, the need for excessive state coercion and interventionism to protect market freedoms, e.g., anti-trust and anti-

monopoly legislation that leads to a "legal strait-jacket" for the state,[49] local protests rejecting the

disciplinary mechanisms of the market society and state.[49] and finally, the destructive and wasteful

effects of ineffective mechanisms for producing freedom.[50]

Application to health care

Scholars[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] have recently suggested that the concept of governmentality may be

useful in explaining the operation of evidence-based health care and the internalization of clinical

guidelines relating to best practice for patient populations, such as those developed by the American

Agency for Health Care Research and Quality and the British National Institute for Health and Clinical

Excellence (NICE). Recent research by Fischer (http://oxford.academia.edu/MichaelFischer) and

colleagues at the University of Oxford has renewed interest in Foucault's exploration of potential

resistance to governmentality, and its application to health care, drawing on Foucault's recently

published final lectures at the College de France.[59][60][61]

Beyond the West

Jeffreys and Sigley (2009) highlight that governmentality studies have focused on advanced liberal

democracies, and preclude considerations of non-liberal forms of governmentality in both western and

non-western contexts.[62] Recent studies have broken new ground by applying Foucault’s concept of

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governmentality to non-western and non-liberal settings, such as China. Jeffreys (2009) for example

provides a collection of essay on China’s approach to governance, development, education, the

environment, community, religion, and sexual health where the notion of 'Chinese governmentally' is

based not on the notion of ‘freedom and liberty' as in the western tradition but rather, on a distinct

rational approach to planning and administration.[63] Such new studies thus use Foucault’s

Governmentalities to outline the nature of shifts in governance and contribute to emerging studies of

governmentality in non-western contexts.

See also

Michel FoucaultPolitical power Rationality and power

References

1. Mayhew, Susan (ed) A Dictionary of Geography (Article: Governmentality) Oxford University Press, 20042. Foucault, M. (1991). 'Governmentality', trans. Rosi Braidotti and revised by Colin Gordon, in Graham

Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter Miller (eds) The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality , pp. 87–104.

Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

3. [Jeffreys and Sigley (2009) 'Governmentality, Governance and China' in China's Governmentalities, (ed.)

Elaine Jeffreys, ISBN 978-0-415-54744-4]

4. Gordon, C (1991). 'Governmental rationality: an introduction', in Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon and Peter

Miller (eds) The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality , pp. 1–48. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago

Press.

5. Michel Foucault, The Government of Self and Others: Lectures at the Collège de France 1982-1983

(2010) http://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/foucault-studies/article/view/3127/3298.pdf

6. Michel Foucault The Courage of Truth : Lectures at the Collège de France 1983-1984 (2011)7. Michel Foucault The Birth of Biopolitics Lectures At The College de France 1978-1979 (2008)

8. Foucault, Governmentality, and Critique(2002)

http://www.andosciasociology.net/resources/Foucault$2C+Governmentality$2C+and+Critique+IV-2.pdf

9. Foucault, M., (2008), The birth of biopolitics. Lectures at the College de France, 1978‐79. Palgrave

MacMillan

10. Lemke, T (2001). 'The birth of bio-politics: Michael Foucault’s lectures at the College de France on neo-

liberal governmentality' in Economy and Society v.30, i.2, p. 190-207 .

11. Burchell, 90

12. Lemke, 2

13. Foucault in Burchell, 48

14. Malette S. (2006). La "gouvernementalité" chez Michel Foucault. M. A., Faculté de Philosophie

(http://www.theses.ulaval.ca/2006/23836/23836.pdf) (PDF). Université Laval - Québec.

15. Burchell, Gordon and Miller, 1991: 102-103

16. Burchell, 92

17. Burchell, 95

18. Jones 174

19. Burchell, 102

20. Rose-Redwood, R.B. (2006). "Governmentality, Geography, and the Geo-Coded World". Progress in Human

Geography. 30 (4): 469–486. doi:10.1191/0309132506ph619oa

(https://dx.doi.org/10.1191%2F0309132506ph619oa).

21. Harley, J.B. (1989). "Deconstructing the Map". Cartographica. 26 (2): 1–20. doi:10.3138/e635-7827-1757-

9t53 (https://dx.doi.org/10.3138%2Fe635-7827-1757-9t53).

22. Hannah, M.G (2000). Governmentality and the Mastery of Territory in Nineteenth-Century America.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

23. Jessop, B (2004). "Hollowing Out the ‘Nation-State’ and Multi-Level Governance". In Kennett, P. A

Handbook of Comparative Social Policy. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. pp. 11–27.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415547444https://dx.doi.org/10.3138%2Fe635-7827-1757-9t53https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationality_and_powerhttp://www.theses.ulaval.ca/2006/23836/23836.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_powerhttp://www.andosciasociology.net/resources/Foucault$2C+Governmentality$2C+and+Critique+IV-2.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucaulthttp://rauli.cbs.dk/index.php/foucault-studies/article/view/3127/3298.pdfhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://dx.doi.org/10.1191%2F0309132506ph619oa


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58. Sheaff, R. et al. (2004) Governmentality by Network in English Primary Care. Social Policy and

Administration 70, 779-86.

59. Fischer, Michael Daniel; Ferlie, Ewan (1 January 2013). "Resisting hybridisation between modes of clinical

risk management: Contradiction, contest, and the production of intractable conflict". Accounting,

Organizations and Society 38 (1): 30–49. doi:10.1016/j.aos.2012.11.002

(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aos.2012.11.002).

60. Foucault, Michel; Ewald, François; Burchell, Alessandro Fontana ; English series editor, Arnold I. Davidson ;

translated by Graham (2012). The courage of truth (the government of self and others II) : lectures at the

Collège de France, 1983-1984. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN 9781403986689.

61. Foucault, Michel (2011). The government of self and others : lectures at the College de France, 1982-1983

(Paperback edition. ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403986672.

62. [ Jeffreys, E. & Sigley, G. 2009, 'Governmentality, governance and China' in Elaine Jeffreys (eds), China's

Governmentalities: governing change, changing government, Routledge, New York, USA, pp. 1-23]

63. [ Jeffreys, E. 2009, China's Governmentalities: governing change, changing government, Routledge, New

York. ISBN 978-0-415-54744-4]

Further reading

Cruikshank, B. (1996) 'Revolutions within: self-government and self-esteem', in Andrew Barry,Thomas Osborne & Nikolas Rose (eds.) (1996), Foucault and Political Reason: Liberalism, Neo-

Liberalism, and Rationalities of Government , Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Dean, M. (1999) Governmentality: Power and Rule in Modern Society. London: Sage.Joyce, P. (2003) The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City. London: Verso.Foucault, M. (1997) Ethics: Subjectivity and Truth, edited by Paul Rabinow, New York: NewPress.Foucault, M.(1982) 'Technologies of the Self' (http://www.thefoucauldian.co.uk/tself.htm), inLuther H. Martin, Huck Gutman and Patrick H. Hutton (eds) Technologies of the Self: A Seminar with Michel Foucault , pp. 16–49. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1988.Foucault, M.(1984) The History of Sexuality Vol. 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurley.

New York: Random House, 1985.Foucault, M.(1984) The History of Sexuality Vol. 3: The Care of the Self , trans. Robert Hurley.

New York: Vintage Books, 1988.Foucault, M. (2004), Naissance de la biopolitique: cours au Collège de France (1978-1979).Paris: Gallimard & Seuil.

Foucault, M., (2008), The birth of biopolitics. Lectures at the College de France, 1978‐79.

Palgrave MacMillanHunt, H. & Wickham, G. (1994) Foucault and Law. London. Pluto Press.Inda, J. X. (2005). "Anthropologies of Modernity: Foucault, Governmentality, and Life Politics(http://www.academia.edu/417342/Anthropologies_of_Modernity_Foucault_Governmentality_and_Life_Politics)". Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Kerr, D. (1999) 'Beheading the king and enthroning the market: A critique of Foucauldiangovernmentality' in Science & Society, New York: v.63, i.2; p. 173-203 (accessed throughExpanded Academic Index).Luke, T.W. (1997) Ecocritique: Contesting the Politics of Nature, Economy and Culture.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Nagl, D. (2013) 'The Governmentality of Slavery in Colonial Boston, 1690-1760' in AmericanStudies, 58.1, pp. 5–26. [1] (http://www.winter-verlag.de/en/detail/t3699977/Nagel_The_Governmentality_of_Slavery/)

Rivera Vicencio, E. (2014)‘The firm and corporative governmentality. From the perspective of Foucault’, Int. J. Economics and Accounting, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.281–305.

http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=67421

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Presshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.academia.edu/417342/Anthropologies_of_Modernity_Foucault_Governmentality_and_Life_Politicshttp://www.winter-verlag.de/en/detail/t3699977/Nagel_The_Governmentality_of_Slavery/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403986689https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403986672http://www.inderscience.com/info/inarticle.php?artid=67421https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415547444https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.aos.2012.11.002http://www.thefoucauldian.co.uk/tself.htm


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Rose, N. (1996) Inventing Our Selves. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Rose, N. (1999) Powers of Freedom: reframing political thought . Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press.Scott, D. (1995) 'Colonial Governmentality' in Social Text , No. 43 (Autumn, 1995), pp. 191–220.

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