Grammatical Functions and Categories 102

of speech involve a ‘stand-for’ relationship because the words actually used are intended to mean something else. In other words, linguistic expressions that are actually used stand for some other linguistic expressions (or, rather their meanings) that are not present explicitly. Both metaphors and metonymies are usually regarded as parasitic on literal meanings, and therefore as paramount examples of stand-for relationships.

Metaphors, along with similes, are probably the most frequent figures of speech. A simile is a figure in which something is compared to something else by the use of a function word such as like or as:

(10) a. A job interview can feel like being in a lion’s den.b. He was pleased as Punch.

Metaphors are often considered to be shortened similes, i.e. two entities are again compared but there are no function words making the comparison explicit. In other words, something is described by stating another thing with which it is implicitly compared:

(11) a. Her words stabbed at my heart.b. A flood of protests poured in following the chairman’s announcement.

Metonymy, on the other hand, is traditionally approached as a stand-for relationship that is, unlike metaphor, not based on similarity but on contiguity or proximity. This means that metonyms are expressions that are used instead of some other expressions because the latter are associated with or suggested by the former:

(12) a. The White House declined to comment on the issue.b. Keep your eye on the ball!

In the two examples above, the expressions the White House and your eye are metonyms used for the U.S. President and his advisers and your gaze, respectively.

4.R. Reading list

4.R.1. Recommended reading

Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum (1973: 3.26-29)Leech, G., J. Svartvik (1975: 106-108; 113; 121)

4.R.2. Further reading

Greenbaum, S., R. Quirk (1990: 4.1-4.6)

103 Part 3: Tense and aspect

Quirk, R. S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik (1985: 4.2; 4.5-4.16)

4.R.3. Sample texts for discussion

4.R.3.1. John Lyons: Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968, pages 304-306.

The term ‘tense’ derives (via Old French) from the Latin translation of the Greek word for ‘time’ (Greek khrónos, Latin tempus). The category of tense has to do with time-relations in so far as these are expressed by systematic grammatical contrasts. Three such contrasts were recognized by traditional grammarians in the analysis of Greek and Latin: ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’. And it has often been supposed that the same three-way opposition of tense is a universal feature of language. This is not so. In fact tense itself is not found in all languages; and, as we shall see, the opposition of ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ is not simply a matter of tense even in Greek and Latin. The essential characteristic of the category of tense is that it relates the time of the action, event or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance (the time of utterance being ‘now’). Tense is therefore a deictic category, which (like all syntactic features partly or wholly dependent upon deixis …) is simultaneously a property of the sentence and the utterance (…). Many treatments of tense have been vitiated by the assumption that the ‘natural’ division of time into ‘past’, ‘present’ and ‘future’ is necessarily reflected in language. Even Jespersen falls victim to this assumption in his discussion of tense in The Philosophy of Grammar.

before after- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - o - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - →

‘now’

Fig. 16. Time and tense.

Making reference to a diagram similar to that which is given in Fig. 16, he first of all establishes the ‘present’ as contemporaneous with the theoretical zero-point (the ‘now’ of the time of utterance), the ‘past’ as ‘before-now’ and the ‘future’ as ‘after-now’. The ‘primary’ distinctions of ‘past’ and ‘future’ are then subdivided by Jespersen by means of a ‘secondary’ application of the notions ‘before’ and ‘after’: ‘before-past’, ‘after-past’, ‘before-future’ and ‘after-future’. (As the ‘theoretical zero-point’, the ‘present’ is not subdivided.) The result is a seven-term ‘notional’ tense-system, partly or wholly realized in various languages.

But tense admits of categorization in many different ways. One might grant (as has often been suggested) that the directionality of time is given in ‘nature’ (as expressed by

Grammatical Functions and Categories 104

the arrowhead in the diagram in Fig. 16), but this may or may not be relevant to the analysis of tense in particular languages. Various categorizations are possible. The ‘theoretical zero point’ (the ‘now’ of utterance) might be included with either ‘past’ or ‘future’ to yield, on the one hand, a dichotomy between ‘future’ and ‘non-future’, or, on the other, a dichotomy between ‘past’ and ‘non-past’. A different dichotomy (based on the distinction of ‘now’ and ‘not-now’ without reference to the directionality of time) could be ‘present’ v. ‘non-present’. Other possible categorizations might depend upon the notion of ‘proximity’ (with or without reference to directionality): e.g. a dichotomy of ‘proximate’ v. ‘non-proximate’ (with respect to time of utterance), a trichotomy of ‘now’ v. ‘proximate’ v. ‘remote’. And these distinctions might be combined in various ways, and not merely as suggested in Jespersen’s scheme.

4.R.3.2. Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, Jan Svartvik: A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985, pages 176-177.

[…] we distinguished past, present and future on a referential level, and also on a semantic level. It remains only to mention the familiar fact that ‘present’ and ‘past’ are also interpreted on a grammatical level, in reference to tense. Here, however, the threefold opposition is reduced to two, since morphologically English has no future form of the verb in addition to present and past forms. Some grammarians have argued for a third, ‘future tense’, maintaining that English realizes this tense by the use of an auxiliary verb construction (such as will + infinitive): but we prefer to follow those grammarians who have treated tense strictly as a category realized by verb inflection. In this grammar, then, we do not talk about the FUTURE as a formal category: what we do say is that certain grammatical constructions are capable of expressing the semantic category of FUTURE TIME (…).

Some grammarians have gone further, avoiding the term ‘present’ in reference to tense, and preferring ‘nonpast’. The terms PRESENT TENSE and PAST TENSE have this justification: that the tenses they name typically have reference to present and past time respectively:

She is quite well today. Yesterday she was sick.

But there is also some morphological justification for treating the present as the unmarked tense, since it is often realized by the base or uninflected form of the verb (compare the present tense I need a rest with the past tense I needed a rest). There is also a semantic justification, to the extent the present tense may be used to express not only present but future time. Contrast:

Yesterday *is/was Sunday. Today is Monday.Tomorrow is Tuesday.

105 Part 3: Tense and aspect

Notice we can use the present tense in questioning someone about a future activity as well as about a present one:

What are you doing today? *What are you doing yesterday?

What are you doing tomorrow?

And we can use the present form of the modal with future meaning, but not with past meaning:

I can help you today.*I can help you yesterday.

I can help you tomorrow.

We have good reason for arguing, therefore, that the semantic triad of past, present, and future is unequally separated into past and nonpast categories for the purposes of tense. Tradition and familiarity favour the retention of the label ‘present’ in place of ‘nonpast’. But this concession places upon us the responsibility of continually maintaining a clear distinction between present and past TENSE, on the one hand, and present and past TIME on the other.

4.R.3.3. Frank R. Palmer: The English Verb. London: Longman, 1965, page 60.

The simple present, causes difficulty to the teacher of English if he tries to illustrate the verb forms situationally; for in order to illustrate the use of the present progressive, he is likely to perform actions and describe them:

Now I am opening the door.Now I am writing on the blackboard.

The difficulty arises from the fact that in the situation the teacher is demonstrating, and so would normally use the simple forms:

Now I open the door.Now I write on the blackboard.

But these forms would be unhelpful, or even misleading, to learners of English. The difficulty can, in part, be overcome by making such sentences replies to What am I doing? But that may create a more artificial situation.

Grammatical Functions and Categories 106

4.E. Exercises

4.E.1. What is your opinion about each of the statements (heard and overheard) that follow? Do you agree or disagree? Wholly? Partly? Note your reasoning in each case.

1 The present simple tells us that an action is habitual.2 The present tense is the easiest to understand and teach.3 Teaching and learning the past tense in English is a pretty straightforward matter.

4.E.2. Complete these sentences so that they represent a universal truth or a situation that may be regarded as permanent, using the present simple of the verbs in the list. Add any other words that may be needed to complete the sentences: a, an, the, at, on, etc.

believe exist float flow generates indicatework make rise sell set treat stand

1 The sun __________________ east, and ______________ the west.2 A tobacconist ________________ cigarettes.3 The Thames ________________ London.4 London _______________ Thames.5 Water ______________ Moon. (negative)6 Jet aircraft _____________ a lot of noise.7 Combustion _____________ heat.8 Hospitals _____________ sick.9 A drop in barometric pressure ________________ change in weather.10 Computers ________________ a great speed.11 Oil ______________ water.12 An atheist ______________ God. (negative)

4.E.3. Present simple in proverbs. Complete the following by choosing appropriate verbs from the list.

pour make (2) leap end have breakflock dread run gather catch rain

1 The early bird _____________ the worm.2 Look before you _____________.3 It never __________ but it ____________.4 A rolling stone ___________ no moss.5 Birds of a feather ___________ together.6 Still waters __________ deep.7 A burnt child ___________ the fire.

107 Part 3: Tense and aspect

8 All work and no play __________ Jack a dull boy.9 Walls _________ ears.10 All`s well that ___________ well.11 Clothes __________ the man.12 It is the last straw that ____________ the camel`s back.

4.E.4. Present Simple in explanations. The following paragraph explains the working of an automatic ticket barrier on the London Underground Railway system. Complete the paragraph using the present simple tense of the verbs in the list. Use each verb once only.

be buy leave let record release scan show suck take

When you ____________ a ticket you ____________ it to a machine which _____________ it in, ____________ it, ______________ it, and ____________ a barrier for you - in about a third of a second. And when you ____________ a station a similar gate _____________ your ticket from you (always assuming you've got the correct ticket) and ________________ you out, returning ticket if it _____________ a season.

4.E.5. Present Simple for daily habits. Douglas Fairbanks Jr. describes a typical day's activities. Complete the extract with the present simple tense of the verbs in the list. Some verbs are used more than once.

be eat get go have needread separate take throw wake up walk

I normally ____________ about seven. I seldom __________ to be called because I ___________ a built-in alarm clock. I ____________ sparingly, one piece of dry toast, fruit juice and tea. It ____________ (negative) long to dress, about three minutes. I _____________ relatively large wardrobe, but that _______________ because I rarely ___________ anything away. I _____________ the New York Times, Daily News and Washington Post over breakfast, and then _______________ the mail between my wife's and mine. The business mail _____________ into my brief-case, to be dealt with at the office. My office _____________ about a mile away and I usually ___________. It ____________ about the only exercise I _____________ in the city.

4.E.6. Present simple in headlines. Complete with the present simple tense of the verbs in the list, putting the verb in its correct position. Do not add any other words.

continue crash demand face fearfind forecast hit launch retain

1 MP URGENT INQUIRY 6 AMERICA SPACE SHUTTLE

Grammatical Functions and Categories 108

2 INJURIES ENGLISH TEAM 7 BOYS GOLD COIN HOARD3 CONSUMER BOOM 8 SIX DRUG CHARGES4 BRITISH RAIL LOWER LOSSES 9 DOCTOR FLU EPIDEMIC5 PLANE IN FOG 10 CHAMPION TITLE

4.E.7. All the following sentences illustrate performative verbs. Identify the kind of context from which they are taken:

1 I pledge you - I pledge myself - to a new deal for the American people.2 I vow to thee, my country – all earthly things above – entire and whole and perfect,

the service of my love.3 Lighten our darkness, we beseech Thee, O Lord.4 I declare this meeting closed.5 I swear by Almighty God that the evidence I shall give shall be the truth, the whole

truth and nothing but the truth.6 I take thee, John, to be my lawful wedded husband.7 I pronounce that they be man and wife.8 We therefore commit his body to the ground.9 I promise to pay the bearer on demand the sum of five pounds.

4.E.8. True or false?

1 Lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs are two major word classes.2 We use auxiliaries to form tenses and express modality.3 Auxiliary verbs usually carry more meaning than lexical verbs.4 Every verb is marked for tense.5 All verbs have finite and non-finite forms.6 The present simple tense may refer to past, present or future time.7 By using a performative verb in the first person, present simple tense the speaker

performs an action.8 With other persons and tenses the performative verb describes the performance.9 We can usually use hereby in front of a performative verb.10 Many performative verbs are used in official documents and ceremonies.11 We never use performative verbs in daily conversation.

4.E.9. Subordinate clauses referring to the future, especially clauses of time and condition, usually use a present tense, because the verb in the main clause is sufficient to indicate the future meaning. Join the pairs of sentences together, using the words given and making any other small changes necessary.

1 I'm going to be sixty-five soon, I’m going to retire. (when)2 I'm going to retire. I shall go round the world. (as soon as)3 I shall let my house. I shall be away. (while)4 Perhaps I shall live to be a hundred. There won’t be time to do everything I want to

109 Part 3: Tense and aspect

do. (even if)5 I can hardly wait. I'm going to be sixty. (until)6 I will keep my health. I hope. (that)7 I shall go round the world. But it could be too late. (unless)8 You should retire yourself. Or you could be too old. (before)9 Our health could fail. Then what would we do? (suppose)10 What will be happening in ten years' time? I do wonder about this. (-)

4.E.10. Complete the sentences, using the present simple or past simple of the verbs suggested.

1 I understood exactly what.... (mean).2 ... everything he tells me. (not believe)3 Listen! ... there's someone at the door. (think)4 Five plus five ... (make)5 ... his suit. (not match)6 John ... when he was young. (resemble)7 Who ... to? (belong)8 The ... ten gallons. (hold)9 How ... where I lived? (know)10 Do you think the winner ...? (deserve)11 ... what I see? (see)12 This wine ... (taste)13 How do I look in this dress? ... me? (suit)14 ... better than he speaks. (understand)15 What exactly ... of? (consist)

4.E.11. Complete the following, using verbs from the list. Pay attention to the correct word order.

wear discover beat begin meet hide win fly write fight

1 When Muhammed Ali __________ George Foreman?2 When the Second World War ____________?3 When the Wright Brothers ______________ in the first aeroplane?4 What Marie Curie ______________ in 1898?5 What prize the Curies ______________ in 1903?6 Who Churchill and Roosevelt ____________ at Yalta in 1945?7 What the Romans _____________ in the Senate?8 Where Charles II of England ____________ in order to escape from the Roundheads?9 When Shakespeare _____________ 'Hamlet'?10 Who J F Kennedy ________________ in the 1960 US presidential election?

4.E.12. Put the verbs in the following sentences into the past simple.

Grammatical Functions and Categories 110

1 Because of the bad weather, they (defer) ___________ the meeting till the following week.

2 We (enjoy) _____________ our stay in Devon last year.3 I (receive) _____________ his letter and (reply) ____________to it promptly. It

(contain) ____________ many things that (amuse) ____________ me. 4 The cinema manager (agree) ___________ to our proposal and (allot) ____________

us seats at a cheap rate.5 During the match, the referee (blunder) _____________ several times, which (anger)

___________ the crowd.6 We (remit) __________ the amount to you on 5 April.7 In his first job, he (quarrel) ____________ with his colleagues and (incur)

____________ the anger of his employer.8 This morning I (satisfy) ___________ my hunger at breakfast by eating six eggs.9 In 1478 the people (rebel) _____________ against this tyrant, whose rule they (abhor)

__________.10 In the 1965 race, snow and ice (hinder) ______________ the competitors` progress.11 When he was older, he (regret) ____________ not having studied harder. 12 Yesterday I (enter) ______________ the dentist's surgery at the appointed time.

4.E.13. Put the verbs in the following sentences into the past simple.

1 Yesterday I (drop) _____________ my watch and damaged it. 2 Last Saturday our team (play) ______________ well.3 It (snow) ______________ heavily last night and Tom (slip) ___________ in the

snow when he went out this morning, and (hop) ___________ back home with a sprained ankle.

4 My sister Mary (knit)_____________ a jumper for me last Christmas.5 It was the first time the child had seen a cow: when the cow (moo) _____________,

the child (cry) ____________.6 By way of answer, he (nod) ____________ but said nothing.7 On that windy morning, he (hum) _____________ an old song as he trudged along.8 Yesterday some wicked thieves (rob) ____________ the poor old lady of her handbag.

4.E.14. Complete the following newspaper report with the past simple of the verbs in the list. The verb be is used twice, all others only once.

advance be come leap make orderreach say submerge watch sink

One minute Mr Jack Jones was using his huge mechanical digger to clear sand which had been blown up against the foreshore at Swansea. The next his mighty machine had scooped up a breathless police sergeant and a constable who _____________ him to follow a man running along the beach.

111 Part 3: Tense and aspect

With the two determined lawmen crouching in the bucket, the digger ____________ its top speed of 10 mph as it ____________ on the fugitive. When the digger ___________ level with the man, the two law officers ____________ out of the bucket and _____________ their arrest. But as Mr Jones ______________ in horror the 10-ton digger ______________ deeper and deeper into the sand. His efforts to free it ___________ fruitless and soon the tide ____________ in and ____________ it.

Last night, after a five-hour rescue operation, Mr Mervyn Owens, head of the company which owns the digger, ______________: 'We have been landed with a repair bill of at least £6,000.' [The Times, 25 October 1984]