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Green Car Journal's '25 Years of Green Cars' special edition shares perspectives on the most important topics covered in this field over the past 25 years. Special emphasis is placed on hybrids, electric cars, high efficiency clean diesel and gasoline vehicles, and alternative fuels that bring improved environmental performance. Digital edition compliments of the Auto Alliance, www.autoalliance.org.
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O F G R E E N C A R S
DIGITAL EDITION COMPL IMENTS OF
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 3
2408 36
contents
SPECIAL EDITION 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS
VOICES15 Morry Markowitz Fuel cell vehicles in the present tense
28 Mitch Bainwol A huge breakthrough in fuel economy
31 Dr. Alan Lloyd Electric drive can get us there
FEATURES 10 Plugging In Evolution of the electric car
16 Clean Diesel The other ‘alternative fuel’ comes of age
20 Hybrids! Engines of change
24 Alternative Fuels An answer to petroleum dependence?
27 Hydrogen Highway Hydrogen fuel cell cars are coming
32 Green Car Awards Three auto shows, five notable awards
36 Imagining the Road Ahead Favorite ‘green’ concept cars
LONG-TERM TESTS 34 Honda Accord Hybrid Life with our Green Car of the Year
TECHNICAL 23 Well-Connected Advantages of the plug-in hybrid
DEPARTMENTS 06 Outspoken Documenting 25 years of ‘green’ cars
07 Auto Trends Self-driving vehicles, car sharing
09 Directions Engineering for efficiency
ON THE COVER
From GM’s circa-1990s EV1 electric car to Tesla’s coming
Model X…it’s been an amazing 25 years of ‘green’ innovation
10
GCJUSA.COM
CarsOfChange.com
Editor/Publisher Ron Cogan
Executive EditorTodd Kaho
Technical EditorBill Siuru
Contributing EditorsCam BentyDrew Hardin Jeff Karr
Photo EditorSheree Gardner
Staff PhotographerIan Billings
ColumnistsDr. Alan LloydMitch BainwolMorry Markowitz
ContributorsDevin Cogan
Art DirectorThomas Reiss
Graphic DesignersBryan BremerPriscilla Wilson
Advertising Information(805) 541-0473
Green Car Journal® (ISSN 1059-6143) is published by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. 1241 Johnson Avenue #356San Luis Obispo, Calif. 93401
Phone 805.541.0473
© 2014 by RJ Cogan Specialty Publications Group, Inc. All rights reserved.
D Printed on recycled paper.
ISSUE NO. 1, 2014
Nissan’s Mixim electric show car
is one of many favorite concepts
from the past 25 years, page 36
USA $5.99 CAN. $7.99
6 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
was inspired by the 1990 introduction of the GM Impact electric car concept
at the Los Angeles Auto Show, and then again by the amazing array of electric,
hydrogen, and ‘green’ concept vehicles I witnessed at the 1991 Tokyo Motor Show.
I knew then that ‘green’ cars would be important. So, for 25 years now, this has been my
focus as publisher of Green Car Journal and earlier as feature editor at Motor Trend.
Covering this field for 25 years lends an invaluable perspective that’s important to
understanding not only where we’ve been, but where we’re headed. There’s certainly
plenty of ‘green’ car news to share these days, but what does it really mean? With
each announcement of a new technology, fuel, or battery breakthrough there comes
great excitement and also great expectations. It has been so for quite some time.
Over the years so many of these have had their moment of fame and then faded
away. The reasons are as diverse as the ‘breakthroughs’ – lack of funding or interest,
misread demand, or losing out to new or better answers. This has been the story with
electric car battery technologies that have come and gone over the years. The same can
be said of many entrepreneurs who strived to bring electric cars to market, only to
meet with failure as they realized the cost and complexity of doing so. In the midst of
this there have been many successes, perhaps none as notable as Tesla Motors in the
electric car space or Clean Energy Fuels in natural gas fueling.
It has been enlightening to document the early research and development of the
vehicles we take for granted today. While there is no crystal ball for predicting the
automobile’s future, I’ve long been fascinated by researching patents for advanced
and alternative fuel vehicle technologies because this reveals what automakers and
their technology suppliers have in mind for the years ahead. Patent abstracts were a
regular part of Green Car Journal during its first decade until this field evolved from
early research and development to actual products in new car showrooms.
Several decades ago, many of these vehicles and technologies were but ideas to poten-
tially pursue, the subject of technology deep dives I attended, or opportunities that allowed
driving advanced technology prototypes and developmental vehicles on test tracks.
Two of these experiences come readily to mind – driving a nondescript Japanese-market
Toyota test mule equipped with an early gasoline-electric hybrid drive and a Geo Storm
equipped with a prototype GM battery electric powertrain, both at their respective manu-
facturer’s proving grounds. These powerplants evolved to become the Toyota Hybrid System
powering the first-generation Prius and the electric drivetrain powering the GM EV1.
Early developmental electric drive vehicles were often quirky and unexpectedly
noisy in myriad ways, emitting high-pitched frequency sound from their motor con-
troller and gear noise that would otherwise have been masked by the sound of inter-
nal combustion. Some early natural gas vehicle prototypes suffered from gaseous fuel
injector clatter. Developmental hydrogen fuel cell vehicles sacrificed loads of space for
large and cumbersome fuel cells and hydrogen storage. Diesel vehicles were unaccept-
ably loud and emitted soot.
Drive an electric, natural gas, hydrogen fuel cell, high mpg gasoline, or clean diesel
personal-use vehicle today and they are quiet, clean, and seamless in their operation.
We have great ‘green’ cars today because a lot of important work has been done over
the past 25 years. Just imagine what’s coming next.
Covering this field for25 years lends aninvaluable perspectivethat’s important tounderstanding not onlywhere we’ve been, butwhere we’re headed.
I
Ron Cogan
Editor and Publisher
OUTSPOKEN :: DOCUMENTING 25 YEARS OF GREEN CARS
Photography by Ian Billings
Just about every major automaker is developing automated vehicle technology.
Experts predict we’ll see the first highly automated production vehicles by 2020
with fully automated cars expected by 2025. Automation will come incrementally
with more of these technologies becoming available with each new model year.
Already, vehicles with early forms of self-driving technology are in dealer
showrooms, such as adaptive cruise control that automatically maintains a safe
following distance from the car ahead and parking assistance that helps maneu-
ver a car into parking spaces. Other available automated technologies include
Lane Departure Warning, Obstacle Warning, and Blind Spot Detection. While most
are passive systems that alert a driver to a hazardous condition, in the future
these will be able to automatically take corrective action if a driver fails to react.
Most of the near-term technology augments a human driver in controlling the vehi-
cle, similar to the autopilot used in airliners that allows the driver to take over at any
time. Since today’s computers and other electronics are now quicker than the human
brain, on-board systems could also provide control in an emergency situation.
As an example of what’s coming soon, BMW’s Traffic Light Assistant will commu-
nicate with traffic lights to inform a driver of the speed needed to match the timing
of traffic lights. In the future, this could be done automatically. Traffic Jam Assistant,
debuting in the BMW i3, maintains a safe distance between vehicles, controls speed
and steering, and stops the car in heavy traffic if necessary. As long as the driver keeps
one hand on the steering wheel, it keeps the car in its lane at speeds up to 25 mph.
There are several challenges to automated vehicles, not the least of which is
cost since LIDAR (laser radar), ultrasound sensors, computer vision systems,
and other electronics are expensive. However, following the known trajectory of
advanced electronics in all facets of our lives, prices will surely drop dramati-
cally with widespread use. – Bill Siuru
Self-Driving Cars
AUTOTRENDSGoogle Pod PrototypeThe Google Car gives a glimpse of how
a fully driverless pod-like vehicle would
operate. There is no provision for a human
driving since the car is devoid of a steer-
ing wheel, mirrors, or brake and accel-
erator pedals. The only controls are stop
and start buttons in the center console
and a navigation system for selecting and
displaying a planned route. Top speed is a
limited 25 mph.
Sensors can ’see’ beyond blind spots and
detect other vehicles, objects, pedestrians,
and landmarks within a 360 degree radius
over a range spanning the length of two
football fields. This information is fed to a
computer that drives the car. Since there’s
no accommodation for human control in
the event something goes amiss, Google
uses two redundant motors for steering
and braking to provide back-ups. Worst
case? Hit the ‘off’ button.
Google will build about 100 self-driving
cars within the year and plans a small
pilot program in California. If successful,
it will work with partners to bring this
technology worldwide. – BS
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 7
Lean & Green
AUTO TRENDS
Car sharing has been quietly catching on in the United States. Once the domain
of Europeans desiring mobility without the cost of car ownership, there are now
some 1.3 million car sharing members in the U.S. with 21,000 shared vehicles
available from 24 operators. Avis Budget Group’s Zipcar, the most prolific pro-
vider of car sharing services worldwide, offers services in three dozen U.S. cities,
usually at or near universities or airports. Other companies offering car sharing
include Hertz 24/7, Enterprise CarShare, and U-Haul Car Share.
Car manufacturers have also introduced their own car sharing services. The
most ambitious of these is Daimler’s car2go with services in 11 major U.S. cities
and three in Canada. Car2go uses the diminutive smart fortwo, most running on
gasoline with some electric versions as well. BMW’s DriveNow, featuring its all-
electric ActiveE based on the BMW 1 Series Coupe, oper-
ates in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Since many car share locations are easily accessible from
college campuses, a growing demographic more attuned to
smartphones than cars is able to enjoy on-demand mobil-
ity without owning their own ‘wheels.’ The environmental
benefits of car sharing, and especially the use of hybrid
and electric vehicles, is viewed as an important plus. Senior
citizens can also benefit from car sharing since retirees
drive far fewer miles and could save money by foregoing
car ownership. While not as intuitive to seniors accustomed
to owning their own vehicles, that hasn’t stopped AARP
from exploring the option through its recent partnership
with Zipcar that brings seniors reduced membership fees.
Peer-to-peer car sharing that finds individual owners renting their vehicles
to others is gaining some traction. Businesses like Getaround, RelayRides, and
Buzzcar facilitate this by screening owners and renters, providing a website, and
offering a mobile app to bring parties together. These services manage bookings
and collect payment, in return keeping a percentage of rental fees. – BS
Share the Ride
How cool is this? An innovative car shar-
ing program in France is using three-
wheel Toyota i-Road urban electric vehi-
cles for travel in the greater Grenoble
metro area. Not quite a yard wide, these
diminutive personal transports are
designed to be agile like a scooter while
sporting the stability and enclosed-
canopy comfort of a car. They rent in
15 minute increments with users able
to pick them up and return them to the
same location, or drive them one-way to
connect to the city’s various mass transit
options. Lithium-ion batteries provide
just over 30 miles of zero-emission elec-
tric range and charging is available at 27
stations in the area.
The brightly-colored i-Road uses
Active Lean technology that allows
driver and vehicle to lean into turns
with movement said to emulate that of
a skier. No special skills are required
since the vehicle is tasked with main-
taining balance rather than the driver,
providing stability on curves, slopes,
and uneven surfaces. The i-Road origi-
nally debuted at last year’s Geneva
Motor Show. – Ron Cogan
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 9
’ve just driven a revolutionary new vehicle and it isn’t an electric car, extended
range electric car, plug-in hybrid, hybrid, or alternative fuel vehicle. None of the
above. It was a gasoline-powered pickup truck.
How can a pickup truck be revolutionary, you might ask? The pickup in question is
Ford’s all-new aluminum bodied F-150, the best-selling nameplate in America for the
past 37 years. By engineering an all-aluminum body, Ford has been able to take some
630 pounds out of the vehicle. A redesigned, stiffer and high-strength steel frame
reduces weight by another 70 pounds, bringing overall weight savings to 700 pounds
compared to the 2014 pickup.
This lightweighting provides benefits on all fronts. In the ‘green’ world, fuel effi-
ciency gains lead the agenda. While official EPA test results are not available at the
time of this writing, Ford expects fuel economy increases between 5 and 20 percent
depending on vehicle configuration and powertrain options. That is a huge increase
when you consider Ford sells roughly 650,000 F-Series pickups each year. Fleet-wide,
even a fraction of a mile-per-gallon increase multiplies to substantial savings in fuel
and a commensurate reduction in tailpipe emissions.
But the weight reduction also makes the 2015 F-150 perform better as well. First
it takes less power to propel the truck when empty, so acceleration is noticeably
improved. With less mass working on the chassis, the truck has a lighter feel and
handles better than the previous model. It also stops better, since there is less weight
to bring to a halt. The real benefit to traditional truck owners, however, is load capac-
ity. Cargo bed payload capability and gross towing weights remain similar on the new
truck, so the aluminum F-150 can haul and tow an additional 700 pounds. That’s quite
an advantage over the steel-bodied competition.
Ford has also expanded the downsized, turbocharged EcoBoost engine line in the
new F-150 and the results are equally dramatic. The latest version is a 2.7-liter V-6
with a displacement roughly half the size of what you might expect in a full-size pick-
up truck. The direct injected 2.7-liter V-6 utilizes a host of advanced technologies, not
the least of which are two turbochargers that boost performance to V-8 levels. It pro-
duces an amazing 325 horsepower and even more impressive 375 lb-ft torque. There
is virtually no turbo lag as the pickup accelerates like its larger 5.0-liter V-8 cousin.
Small but mighty, a 2.7 EcoBoost F-150 has a maximum towing capability of 8,500
pounds with a 2,250 pound payload capacity.
Unsurprisingly, the 2015 Ford F150 is in the running for Green Car Journal’s inau-
gural Green Truck of the Year™ award. It is nothing short of a complete rethinking of
the pickup truck platform.
Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive land-
scape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars. We applaud
advancements like the addition of the 3.0-liter EcoDiesel engine in the full-size Ram
pickup truck and Grand Cherokee SUV, which offer exceptional fuel economy and per-
formance in their respective segments. GM’s latest Active Fuel Management cylinder
deactivation technology in new EcoTec3-powered Silverado pickups effectively trans-
forms their V-6 and V-8 engines into fuel-efficient four-cylinder engines under low
load conditions, saving fuel and reducing emissions. ‘Green’ is not just for cars any-
more…trucks can play a big role here, too. – Todd Kaho
Major engineering advancements are on the horizon across the automotive landscape, and clearly ‘green’ isn’t just about small fuel efficient cars.
IDIRECTIONS :: ENGINEERING FOR EFFICIENCY
PLUGGING INP L U G G I N G I Nhere’s something almost
magical about plugging your
car into an outlet at night and
waking up to a full ‘tank’ in the morning.
There’s no need for a stop at the gas sta-
tion, ever. Plus, there’s no nagging guilt
that the miles metered out by the odom-
eter are counting off one’s contribution
toward any societal and environmental
ills attendant with fossil fuel use.
This is a feeling expe-
rienced
during the year Green Car Journal edi-
tors drove GM’s remarkable EV1 elec-
tric car in the late 1990s. Daily drives
in the EV1 were a joy. The car was
sleek, high-tech, distinctive, and with
the electric motor’s torque coming on
from zero rpm, decidedly fast. That’s a
potent combination.
The EV1 is long gone, not because
people or companies ‘killed’ it as the
so-called documentary Who Killed the
Electric Car suggested, but
rather because
extraordinarily high costs and a
challenging business case were its
demise. GM lost many tens of thou-
sands of dollars on every EV1 it built,
as did other automakers comply-
ing with California’s Zero Emissions
Vehicle (ZEV) mandate in the 1990s.
Even today, Fiat Chrysler CEO Sergio
Marchionne says his company loses
$14,000 for every Fiat 500e electric car
sold. Combine that with today’s need
for an additional $7,500 federal tax
credit and up to $6,000 in subsidies
from some states to encourage EV
purchases, and it’s easy to see why
the electric car remains such a
challenge.
This isn’t to say that electric
cars are the wrong idea.
On the contrary,
they
TEvolution of the Electric Car B Y R O N C O G A N
10 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
PLUGGING INP L U G G I N G I Nare perceived as important to our driving
future, so much so that government, auto-
makers, and their suppliers see electrifi-
cation as key to meeting mandated 2025
fleet-wide fuel economy requirements and
CO2 reduction goals. The problem is that
there’s no singular, defined roadmap for
getting there because costs, market pen-
etration, and all-important political sup-
port are future unknowns.
The advantages of battery electric
vehicles are well known – extremely low
per-mile operating costs on electricity,
less maintenance, at-home fueling, and
of course no petroleum use. Add in the
many societal incentives available such
as solo driving in carpool lanes, pref-
erential parking, and free public charg-
ing, and the case for electrics gets even
more compelling. If a
homeowner’s solar array is offsetting the
electricity used to energize a car’s bat-
teries for daily drives, then all the better.
This is the ideal scenario for a battery
electric car. Of course, things are never
this simple, otherwise we would all be
driving electric.
There remain some very real chal-
lenges. Government regulation, not
market forces, has largely been driving
the development of the modern elec-
tric car. This is a good thing or bad,
depending upon one’s perspective. The
goal is admirable and to some, crucial
– to enable driving with zero localized
emissions, eliminate CO2 emissions,
reduce oil dependence, and drive on an
energy source created from diverse
resourc-
es that can be sustainable. Where’s the
downside in that?
Still, new car buyers have not stepped
up to buy battery electric cars in
expected, or perhaps hoped-for, num-
bers, especially the million electric
vehicles that Washington had set out
as its goal by 2015. This is surprising
to many since electric vehicle choices
have expanded in recent years. However,
there are reasons for this.
Electric cars are often quite expensive
in comparison to their gasoline-powered
counterparts, although government and
manufacturer subsidies can bring these
costs down. Importantly, EVs offer less
functionality than con-
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 11
12 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
ventional cars because of limited driv-
ing range that averages about 70 to 100
miles before requiring a charge. While
this zero-emission range can fit the
commuting needs of many two-vehicle
households and bring substantial fuel
savings, there’s a catch. Factoring future
fuel savings into a vehicle purchase
decision is simply not intuitive to new
car buyers today.
Many drivers who would potentially
step up to electric vehicle ownership
can’t do so because most electric mod-
els are sold only in California or a
select number of ‘green’ states where
required zero emission vehicle cred-
its are earned. These states also tend
to have at least a modest charging
infrastructure in place. Manufacturers
selling only in these limited markets
typically commit to only small build
numbers, making these EVs fairly
insignificant in influencing electric
vehicle market penetration.
Battery electric vehicles available
today include the BMW i3, Chevrolet
Spark EV, Fiat 500e, Ford Focus
Electric, Honda Fit EV, Kia Soul EV,
Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive,
Mitsubishi iMiEV,
Nissan LEAF, Smart ForTwo Electric
Drive, Tesla Model S, Toyota RAV4 EV,
and VW e-Golf. While most aim at lim-
ited sales, some like BMW, Nissan, and
Tesla market their EVs nationwide. The
Honda Fit EV and Toyota RAV4 EV are
being phased out. Fleet-focused EVs
are also being offered by a small num-
ber of independent companies.
BMW’s i3 offers buyers an optional
two-cylinder gasoline range extender
that generates on-board electricity to
double this electric car’s battery elec-
tric driving range. A growing number
of electrified models like the Prius
Plug-In and Chevy Volt can also run
exclusively on battery power for a
more limited number of miles (10-15
for the Prius and up to 40 miles in the
Volt), and then drive farther with the
aid of a combustion engine or engine-
generator. Many extended range elec-
tric vehicles and plug-in hybrids like
these are coming soon from a surpris-
ing number of auto manufacturers.
It has been an especially tough road
for independent or would-be automak-
ers intent on introducing electric vehi-
cles to the market. Well-funded efforts
like Coda Automotive failed, as have
many lesser ones over the years. Often
enough, inventors of electric cars have
been innovative and visionary, only to
discover that becoming an auto manu-
facturer is hugely expensive and more
challenging than imagined. In many
cases their timeline from concept and
investment to production and sales
becomes so long that before their first
cars are produced, mainstream auto-
makers have introduced models far
beyond what they were offering, and at
lesser cost with an established sales
and service network to support them.
A high profile exception is Tesla
Motors, the well-funded Silicon Valley
automaker that successfully built
and sold its $112,000 electric Tesla
Roadster, continued its success with
the acclaimed $70,000-$100,000+
Model S electric sedan, and is now
retooling its manufacturing plant
to build the Tesla Model X electric
crossover at an MSRP similar to the
Model S. Tesla’s challenge is not to
prove it can produce compelling bat-
tery electric cars, provide remarkable
all-electric driving range,
The next 10 years are crucial as cost, infrastructure, and consumer acceptance challenges are tackled and hopefully overcome to make affordable, unsubsidized electric cars a mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of people are counting on it.
P L U G G I N G I N
12 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 13
or build a wildly enthusiastic – some
would say fanatical – customer base.
It has done all this. Its challenge is to
continue this momentum by develop-
ing a full model lineup that includes
a promised affordable model for the
masses, its Model 3, at a targeted
$35,000 price tag.
This is no easy thing. Battery costs
remain very high and, in fact, Tesla
previously shared that the Tesla
Roadster’s battery pack cost in the
vicinity of $30,000. While you can bury
the cost of an expensive battery pack
in a high-end electric car that costs
$70,000 to over $100,000, you can’t do
that today in a $35,000 model, at least
not one that isn’t manufacturer subsi-
dized and provides the 200+ mile range
expected of a Tesla.
The company’s answer is a $5 billion
‘Gigafactory’ being built in Nevada
that it claims will produce more
lithium-ion batteries by 2020 than
were produced worldwide in 2013. The
company’s publicized goal is to trim
battery costs by at least 30 percent to
make its $35,000 electric car a real-
ity and support its growing electric
car manufacturing. Tesla has said
it’s essential that the Gigafactory is
in production as the Model 3 begins
manufacturing.
Tesla is well-underway with its goal
of building out a national infrastruc-
ture of SuperCharger fast-charge sta-
tions along major transportation cor-
ridors to enable extended all-electric
driving. These allow Tesla vehicles the
ability to gain a 50 percent charge in
about 20 minutes, although they are
not compatible with other EVs. For
all others, Bosch is beginning limited
deployment of its sub-$10,000 DC fast
charger that provides an 80 percent
charge in 30 minutes.
The past 25 years have not secured
a future for the battery electric car,
but things are looking up. The next 10
years are crucial
as cost, infrastructure, and consumer
acceptance challenges are tackled and
hopefully overcome to make afford-
able, unsubsidized electric cars a
mass-market reality. Clearly, a lot of
people are counting on it.
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 13
GIVE IT A TEST DRIVE.
WWW.CARSOFCHANGE.COM
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 15
GIVE IT A TEST DRIVE.
Today, consumers in California can drive and lease the first wave of commercially available fuel cell electric
vehicles (FCEVs) in the U.S, and additional models are promised from several leading automakers in the next few
months and years. Of equal importance, today’s FCEV drivers can fill-up at any of nine hydrogen fueling sta-
tions in the Los Angeles and San Francisco areas, with 50 stations expected to be operational by the end of 2015.
What does this mean? For the fuel cell and hydrogen industry, and for those who will benefit from FCEVs,
the time has come to talk about these vehicles in the present tense. A new game clock is running; the long-
envisioned fuel cell future is indeed underway.
Fuel cells generate electricity through a hydrogen-based chemical process, not combustion. The process is
silent, with no moving parts, and because there is no combustion there are no tailpipe emissions; the only
byproducts are heat and water vapor.
FCEVs can run on hydrogen generated from renewable sources including biogas, wind and solar power, as
well as from more traditional fuels like America’s abundant natural gas.
Moreover, as consumers in California are discovering, FCEVs are the only zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) tech-
nology that replicates today’s driving experience and convenience with a 300 to 400 miles or greater driving
range and rapid fill-up of three to five minutes.
FCEVs will be part of a diverse mix of vehicle types that allow American consum-
ers to fulfill a wide range of driving needs. It only takes a quick look at recent head-
lines to see why the commercial arrival of FCEVs is so important for America.
With traditional energy-exporting regions of the world in turmoil, America is looking more
and more to domestic energy sources. Hydrogen can be produced virtually anywhere in the
country from many conventional and renewable energy sources. The nation already produces
nine million metric tons of hydrogen annually, enough to fuel 30 to 40 million FCEVs.
Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming also help explain why FCEVs are so important. In
2013, governors of eight states signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreeing to put 3.3 million zero-
emission vehicles (ZEVs) on the road within 12 years. More recently, NESCAUM (the nonprofit association of air
quality agencies in the Northeast) developed a plan to begin implementing the ZEV vision defined by the MOU.
Fuel cells and hydrogen energy are the last clean energy technologies in which the U.S. is the global manu-
facturing leader. Nearly half of all jobs in the industry involve high-skill manufacturing, and when the infra-
structure development, sales, and service jobs are added, the job potential is very significant.
Despite recent progress, the path to America’s hydrogen future faces many uncertainties, but most analysts
agree the chief concern is how to develop the nation’s crucial hydrogen infrastructure. To help address this
issue, in 2013 a public private collaboration, H2USA, was co-launched by the U.S. Department of Energy and
industry. H2USA’s mission is to promote the commercial introduction and widespread adoption of FCEVs
across America, and its members include state governments, automotive companies, fuel cell and hydrogen
energy technology suppliers, energy companies, national laboratories, and trade associations.
Through the combined efforts of its members, H2USA is developing real-world approaches to address the
technical, financial, and societal issues surrounding hydrogen infrastructure.
America faces a very bright fuel cell future, but it will take hard work and strong planning to fulfill the
FCEV promise. Today FCEVs are no longer at the curb; they have entered the on-ramp and are preparing to
merge into the mainstream of American driving.
And I can tell you, the FCEV industry is already thinking about the passing lane.
— Morry Markowitz is President & Executive Director of the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association,
www.fchea.org
VOICES :: By Morry Markowitz
>FUEL CELL VEHICLES – IN THE PRESENT TENSE
Environmental concerns from clean air to global warming help explain why FCEVs are so important.
The Other ‘Alternative Fuel’ Comes of Age
C L E A N D I E S E L
B Y B I L L S I U R U
iesels have been purchased in
huge numbers by Europeans
for decades, with over half of
all new vehicles sold there powered by
this efficient engine technology. The die-
sel experience in Europe is sharply con-
trasted by that in the U.S. where diesel
accounts for only about one percent of
all new cars sales, in its best year.
This is about to change. Thirty-six new
clean diesel models are now available or
coming shortly and it’s predicted there
will be over 50 diesel-powered models in
North American new car showrooms by
2017. Diesel has been consistently moving
well beyond its traditional role in power-
ing medium- and heavy-duty trucks on
America’s highways to powering a full
spectrum of personal use vehicles. These
include entry-level cars like the Chevrolet
Cruze Turbo Diesel to upscale clean diesel
sedans and SUVs primarily from pre-
mium German brands, plus other popular
models like the Jeep Grand Cherokee
EcoDiesel, Ram 1500 EcoDiesel, and the
coming Mazda6 SKYACTIV-D diesel.
Growing diesel interest in the U.S. is
largely due to improved diesel technolo-
gies that eliminate noisy engines, smelly
exhaust, and perhaps most important
in a highly competitive auto market,
lackluster performance. Modern clean
diesel’s inherent performance advantages
– more power compared to like-size gaso-
line engines and much higher torque at
lower rpms –mesh well with aspirational
models like those from Audi, BMW, and
Porsche that must provide an exceptional
driving experience as a matter of course.
Among clean diesel’s most important
enabling technologies are direct injection,
common rail fuel distribution, unit fuel
injectors, intercooled turbocharging, and
pilot injection. All are controlled by great-
ly improved on-board computers, sensors,
and advanced electronics that make mod-
ern diesels clean enough to meet stringent
emissions standards in all 50 states.
Today’s clean diesel vehicles are
able to use biodiesel blends, with some
automakers approving B5 (5 percent bio-
diesel/95 percent petroleum diesel) and
others allowing B20 (20 percent biodies-
el/80 percent petroleum diesel). Biodiesel
can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by
57 to 86 percent, according to the EPA.
Highly efficient clean diesel vehicles
fueled with a biodiesel blend further
reduce dependence on foreign oil.
Fuel quality is a critical component for
greater acceptance of biodiesel by both
automakers and consumers. This is being
met by stringent biodiesel fuel standards
for B100 and biodiesel blends. The biodiesel
industry’s BQ-9000 fuel quality assurance
program for biodiesel producers, marketers,
and testing laboratories includes education,
encouragement, and enforcement related to
BQ-9000 accredited companies. All of this
D
16 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
C L E A N D I E S E L
is making biodiesel increasingly likely to be
used in greater quantities by clean diesel
vehicles in the future.
WHAT MAKES ‘CLEAN DIESEL’ SO CLEAN? Today’s diesel engines are turbocharged to
compress and supply greater volumes of
air to the combustion chambers, thus pro-
viding more powerful explosions within
each cylinder that result in greater power
output. The turbocharger’s turbine is spun
by the car’s exhaust at up to 150,000 rpm
to drive an air pump providing this ‘boost’
pressure. Turbocharger temperatures are
very high because of these hot exhaust
gasses so an intercooler – an air-to-air or
water-to-air heat exchanger – is integrated
to cool down the hot compressed air cre-
ated by the turbo. Cooler air is denser so
more air can be delivered to the cylinders
for maximum power.
A gasoline (spark ignition) engine runs
on the Otto cycle, in which a vaporized
mixture of gasoline and air is delivered to
the combustion chambers, compressed by
pistons, and ignited by spark plugs. A die-
sel (compression ignition) engine works
differently, with air compressed during
the engine’s compression stroke and fuel
injected into hot, compressed air in the
cylinder spontaneously ignite. With direct
injection (DI), fuel is injected directly into
the combustion chambers to provide a
fine, high-pressure mist of fuel that large-
ly eliminates diesel’s traditional knocks
and rattles. High pressure results in
improved fuel atomization for increased
engine efficiency, resulting in more power
and better fuel economy.
Diesel fuel has to be injected at very high
pressures to counter the huge compres-
sion pressure in a diesel engine. Typically,
the higher the pressure, the more power
produced and the cleaner the exhaust
emissions. With a common rail (CR) sys-
tem, an engine-driven pump produces the
extremely high pressure fuel supplied to
the electrically-operated injector at each
cylinder via a single thick-walled tube,
the ‘common rail.’ Besides reducing diesel
noise, CR greatly increases injection pres-
sure compared to older distributor pump
injection systems. This results in a much
finer fuel mist for greater engine efficiency.
Another important technology used
in modern clean diesel engines is pilot
injection, which injects a small amount of
fuel prior to the main injection to create
a more gradual increase in combustion
chamber temperature. This helps elimi-
nate diesel knocking and rattling caused
by a sudden increase in temperature.
CLEAN DIESEL’S FUTUREInfluencing clean diesel’s slow adoption
timeframe in the U.S. has been a general
lack of support from politicians and
government. In contrast, European gov-
ernments are much more diesel-friendly,
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 17
aggressively encouraging the development
of diesel technology and creating emis-
sion rules that favor rather than penal-
ize diesels. Most importantly, tax breaks
in most of Europe make diesel fuel less
expensive than gasoline. This not the case
in the U.S., in part because the federal tax
on diesel is 24.4 cents/gallon versus 18.4
cents/gallon for gasoline. Some states also
tax diesel higher than gasoline.
Beyond better technology and extreme-
ly low emissions, consumer attitudes
toward diesel in the U.S. are also chang-
ing. In a recent Harris Interactive poll,
59 percent of the 18-34 year old drivers
queried said that if the cost of diesel fuel
was on par with gasoline, they would
purchase a diesel-powered vehicle. A
smaller 39 percent of those 45 and older
said they would purchase a diesel over
a gas car under the same circumstances.
This tells us that a growing percentage
of consumers is open to driving diesel
and that younger drivers who will com-
prise the biggest share of the future car
market may well be driving efficient
clean diesel in growing numbers.
C L E A N D I E S E L
R E D U C I N G D I E S E L E M I S S I O N S
A variety of emission control devices are used to reduce diesel exhaust emis-
sions. Along with more sophisticated electronic engine management control
and fuel injection systems, these include oxidation catalysts, particulate filters,
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
Catalytic filters reduce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.
Particulate filters physically trap particles before they can leave the tailpipe.
SCR uses a catalyst and a special diesel exhaust fluid (DEF) comprised of
water and urea to reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions, one of clean
diesel’s greatest challenges. EGR recycles a portion of the exhaust back
into the engine to reduce NOx emissions as well. Many advanced exhaust
emission control devices can be compromised by diesel fuel containing
high concentrations of sulfur, like that found in older fuels. Thus, ultra-low
sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel is required. Regulations that limit the sulfur content of
on-highway diesel fuel to 15 parts-per-million (ppm) by weight have made ULSD
available everywhere in the U.S. and Canada. - Bill Siuru
18 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
THE ROAD TO A SUSTAINABLE DRIVING FUTURE is an important one. Decreasing petroleum use, reducing
tailpipe and greenhouse gas emissions, and supporting the use of fuels that can be created from renewable
resources are all critical goals. These are areas in which biodiesel excels.
Made from diverse sources including soybean oil, animal fats, and even recycled cooking oil, biodiesel’s value
as a petroleum alternative is recognized worldwide. In the United States, its role is growing significantly with over
1.8 billion gallons of biodiesel produced here in 2013, the third straight year of record biodiesel production of this
domestic renewable fuel. These biodiesel activities now support over 62,000 jobs nationwide.
Auto manufacturers are continuing to expand their clean diesel product lines with wide-ranging passenger cars,
SUVs, and light trucks, which means greater opportunity for running on B5 or B20 biodiesel blends. All new diesel
models in the U.S. are manufacturer-approved for operating on B5 –a blend of 5% biodiesel and 95% petroleum
diesel – while nearly 80% are also approved for B20 with its higher 20% biodiesel content. B20 approved models
range from the Chevrolet Cruze diesel sedan and Jeep Grand Cherokee SUV to pickups from Chevrolet, Ford,
GMC, Ram, and more, with the new Chevrolet Colorado and GMC Canyon mid-size diesel pickups the latest
additions to this ever-expanding list.
The biodiesel industry’s activities are expanding along with the ever-growing choices of clean diesel models
capable of running on this clean, renewable fuel. Biodiesel is produced in nearly every state with over 2,000 biodiesel
retail sites available nationwide. A rigorous BQ-9000 fuel quality program also continues to move biodiesel forward
as a favored motor fuel. All this means greater opportunity for domestically-produced biodiesel to offset
petroleum use and achieve meaningful emissions reductions now and in the years ahead.
National Biodiesel Board®, www.biodiesel.org
SPONSORED CONTENT
BIODIESELF U E L I N G T H E ROA D A H E A D
America’s Advanced Biofuel
H Y BRIDS!
hat once was a nov-
elty is now a main-
stream technology.
Today, gasoline-electric powertrains,
or ‘hybrids’, are not only accepted,
but expected across a wide range of
vehicle platforms. The modern age of
mass produced hybrid cars began in
the late 1990s.
While the Toyota Prius launched in
Japan first, Honda was first to the North
American market with the original two-
seat Insight in 1999, followed shortly by
the first generation Toyota Prius. While
many automotive experts downplayed the
potential of these cars, Toyota recently
sold the 7 millionth hybrid and is deliv-
ering 250,000 Prius cars per year here, in
four unique models.
You could make the argument that
hybrid
pow-
ertrains
have
done more
than any
other technologi-
cal advancement to
increase fuel efficiency and lower over-
all emissions. They made good environ-
mental sense to the early adopters who
wanted to make a green statement.
While an eco-friendly image is still a
prime motivator for buying a hybrid
today, these cars increasingly present
a strong financial case due to their
exceptional fuel economy.
A hybrid uses two forms of motive
power for propulsion – an internal
combustion engine and an electric
motor. The way an auto manufacturer
blends gasoline and electric power
together is one of biggest differences
between models. For example, Toyota
and Ford have long engineered hybrid
systems with the ability to run in pure
electric mode when sufficient battery
W
20 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
H Y BRIDS!
charge
is avail-
able, although
only for short durations
since on-board battery power in
a hybrid is much more limited than
in an all-electric vehicle. Generally,
the larger the battery designed into a
hybrid vehicle, the longer the EV range.
Increasing battery size is very costly
so automakers generally provide a bat-
tery pack optimized for fuel efficient
hybrid operation with all-electric driv-
ing a modest side benefit.
Honda’s early Integrated Motor
Assist hybrid system traditionally
used its electric motor to bolster the
power of the gasoline engine so less
fuel was needed, but did not allow
for even limited all-electric driving.
Honda’s latest Earth Dreams hybrid
system uses hybrid power most of the
time but also allows operation in pure
electric mode for short durations
when conditions are right.
Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH)
and lithium-ion (Li-ion) are the two
most widely used battery chemis-
tries found in hybrids today. Li-ion
is lighter and offers greater energy
density but is also considerably
more expensive, thus the evolving
nature of hybrids that strive to bal-
ance power with cost. Regenerative
braking performance continues to
improve with each generation of hybrid
vehicles. Kinetic energy normally lost
to friction and heat during braking in a
normal car is partially captured by the
electric motor in a hybrid as it acts as a
generator to feed electricity back to the
hybrid’s battery pack.
Auto stop/start technology is a natu-
ral application for hybrid vehicles.
With auto stop/start, the internal
combustion engine shuts off when the
vehicle is stopped to save fuel, then
automatically restarts when the brake
pedal is released. While common on
hybrids, the technology proven here
is also being adapted to non-hybrid
vehicles including some clean diesels
and gasoline models.
One of the positive attributes of
hybrid technology is that it is scalable.
A manufacturer can engineer a very
powerful system for performance as
Porsche has with the 918 supercar, the
Panamera S E-Hybrid, and the Cayenne
Hybrid, or build a hybrid model aimed
at achieving modest performance but
maximum efficiency, as is the case with
the Toyota Prius.
Hybrid fuel economy can also be
greatly enhanced by additional battery
power and a plug-in charger that allows
a hybrid to operate as an electric car for
greater distances. Plug-in hybrids and
extended range electric vehicles of this
type are on the market now in limited
numbers but expected to grow signifi-
cantly. The challenge is in balancing
expected electric capability and overall
cost or a vehicle can easily be priced out
of the market.
B Y T O D D K A H OEngines of Change
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 21
The way an auto manufacturer blends gasand electric power together is one of thebiggest differences between hybrid models.
22 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
On the low end of the hybrid scale are
mild hybrid systems that use smaller
electric motors and battery packs for a
modest increase in fuel economy. These
simple systems are much less expensive
and have been used in models as large as
full-size General Motors pickup trucks.
They work quite well, but have not caught
on to the extent of full hybrid systems.
Many hybrids allow a driver to
select different driving modes for the
mission at hand. One option is to run
in electric mode, which programs the
system to maximize use of the electric
motor and drive exclusively on battery
power when there’s sufficient charge.
Another common setting is an ‘Eco’ or
economy mode that somewhat deadens
initial accelerator response to force a
smoother, more efficient driving style
that brings higher mpg. Many hybrids
also offer a sport or performance mode
that programs the car’s on-board com-
puter to deliver maximum performance
and a more responsive accelerator feel.
Purpose-built hybrid models like the
Toyota Prius that are designed from
the very beginning for hybrid opera-
tion often offer advantages in terms
of space efficiency. Simply, design-
ing a car around hybrid power allows
seamlessly accommodating batteries
and a hybrid’s unique components.
Integrating a hybrid powertrain into an
existing model has also proven to be a
viable option and today we have dozens
of examples in both the car and SUV
markets. Generally, the biggest obstacle
is determining where to package the
battery pack. Larger vehicles like SUVs
make this somewhat easier, but it’s not
uncommon for a battery pack to impact
cargo space in some way.
Most consumers’ perception of
hybrid vehicles is that they are smaller
economy cars that deliver 50 miles per
gallon…chalk that one up to the Prius.
Larger SUVs, though, are a great appli-
cation for a hybrid powertrain, particu-
larly in the luxury market. In a larger
luxury vehicle, the cost of the hybrid
system is more easily absorbed in the
overall cost of the vehicle since there is
generally more profit margin in these
vehicles. At the lower end of the price
scale, a hybrid system generally comes
at greater cost to the consumer since
there is often little markup or margin.
So what’s the future of hybrid tech-
nology? We expect to see more appli-
cations across a wider spectrum of
vehicle models as automakers strive
to meet looming federally mandated
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE)
standards. Hybrids have increasingly
become an accepted powertrain option
and with gas prices forever fluctuat-
ing, consumers are demanding more
fuel efficient options. Advancing hybrid
technology is a sure way to meet those
demands for generations.
HYBRIDS!
Honda’s first-generation Insight was the first hybrid in the U.S., beating the Prius here by mere months.
For the past 15 years Prius has set the pace for hybrids.
lug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs) combine the func-
tionality of a gasoline-electric
hybrid with the zero-emission capabilities
of an all-electric vehicle. Unlike conven-
tional hybrids that rely solely on an inter-
nal combustion engine and regenerative
braking to charge their batteries, PHEVs
also allow batteries to be charged through
an electrical outlet or EV charging station.
A PHEV’s battery pack is significantly
larger and more powerful than a con-
ventional hybrid, but still quite smaller
than that of a dedicated battery electric
vehicle. Thus, a PHEV’s electric driving
range is shorter than an electric vehicle.
Still, the added functionality of 10 to 40
miles of zero-emission electric driving is
a real plus to many hybrid owners.
Examples of PHEVs already avail-
able to U.S. consumers include the BMW
13 and i8, Chevrolet Volt, Cadillac ELR,
Ford C-MAX Energi, Ford Fusion Energi,
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Porsche
Panamera S E-Hybrid, and Toyota Prius
Plug-In. Other PHEVs from various auto-
makers are in the works.
The larger battery pack in a PHEV can
add several thousand dollars to a hybrid’s
purchase price. For example, Ford’s
Fusion and C-MAX Energi models use a
7.6 kilowatt-hour lithium-ion battery that
provides about 21 miles of electric-only
driving. This compares to the smaller and
less expensive 1.4 kilowatt-hour battery
in Ford hybrids without plug-in capabil-
ity. The kilowatt-hour capacity of a bat-
tery is an indicator of the miles a PHEV
can travel in electric-only mode, much like
the gasoline in a conventional car’s tank
indicates its range.
A PHEV’s greatest advantage is that
driving range is not limited by the finite
battery capacity carried on board, thus
there is no ‘range anxiety.’ Once battery
power is depleted, a PHEV reverts to
conventional gasoline-hybrid operation
or, depending on its configuration, pow-
ers its motors with electricity created
by an on-board internal combustion
engine-generator. For this reason, PHEVs
are often called extended range electric
vehicles (EREVs).
Calculating PHEV fuel economy is
complicated due to differing operating
modes – all-electric with no gasoline
used, combined electric and gasoline use,
and gasoline-only operation. Plus, series
and parallel plug-in hybrids operate dif-
ferently. For this reason, federal PHEV
fuel economy labels have been established
to illustrate a plug-in hybrid’s expected
efficiency measured in miles-per-gallon
(MPG) when running on gasoline-electric
hybrid power and MPGe (miles-per-gallon
equivalent) when running on electricity.
P
A plug-in hybrid’s real advantage is drivingon battery power with no EV ‘range anxiety.’
WELL-CONNECTED
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 23
B Y B I L L S I U R U
24 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
ALTERNATIVEFUELSAn Answer to Petroleum Dependence? B Y R O N C O G A N
here has been serious interest
in alternative fuels through-
out the motor vehicle’s long
history. In fact, Rudolf Diesel
demonstrated his compression engine
running on peanut oil in the late 1800s
and Henry Ford expected his Model T
would run on ethanol. While fossil fuels
have reigned since then, oil shortages
caused by Arab oil embargoes in the
1970s and 1980s triggered a renewed
emphasis in alternatives that resonates
to this day.
Alternative fuels like natural gas, pro-
pane autogas, alcohol fuels (ethanol/
methanol), biodiesel, synthetic fuels,
electricity, and hydrogen have dominat-
ed this interest, driven by an imperative
to replace petroleum-based fuels and
decrease tailpipe emissions, and more
recently to reduce transportation-relat-
ed CO2 greenhouse gases. With such
promise, this begs the question why
alternative fuels aren’t yet widely avail-
able in the U.S. The answer is simple,
and complicated.
The differential cost
between gasoline and
diesel versus other fuels
has historically been an
important factor, but this
changes with the times,
the political climate, and in
the case of propane auto-
gas, the seasons. Plus, as
domestic oil production
significantly increases
due to new oil field
discoveries, hydraulic
fracturing extrac-
tion (fracking), and
petroleum pro-
duction from
Canada’s tar
oil sands, the
issues of for-
eign oil depen-
dence and
supply dimin-
ish and this
can temper
the urgency
to further
develop non-
petroleum fuels.
According to the Department of
Energy, in summer 2014 the average per-
gallon cost of gasoline was $3.70 and
diesel $3.91. In comparison, the cost of
fuel alternatives were both higher and
lower than these traditional fuels with
B20 biodiesel $3.98, E85 ethanol $3.23,
propane $3.07, and natural gas $2.17
(gallon of gas equivalent).
Cost comparisons are instructive
but it’s also important to look at the
big picture since energy density of
each fuel varies and this can influence
miles-per-gallon, and thus cost per mile
driven. Typical fuel economy will some-
what decrease when running on natural
gas and propane and be substantially
lower with E85 ethanol (85 percent eth-
anol/15 percent gasoline). B20 biodiesel
(20 percent biodiesel/80 percent petro-
diesel) offers no noticeable difference
in fuel economy.
One of the most serious challenges
to widespread alternative fuel use is
a lack of infrastructure to widely dis-
tribute these alternative fuels. Today,
DOE’s Alternative Fuel Data Center
indicates there are about 15,000 public
stations dispensing various alternative
fuels nationwide, a number that’s far
eclipsed by the 120,000 gasoline sta-
tions that conveniently dispense con-
ventional fuels today.
THE LINEUPNatural gas is the cleanest-burning fos-
sil fuel with about 90% used in the U.S.
being produced here and most of the
rest produced in Canada. Today, only
two compressed natural gas passenger
T
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 25
ALTERNATIVEFUELScars are sold by automakers in the U.S.
Honda’s Civic Natural Gas, which this
automaker has assembly line produced
since 1998, runs exclusively on com-
pressed natural gas (CNG) and has a
driving range of just over 200 miles per
tank. The new 2015 Chevrolet Impala
Bi-Fuel is capable of seamlessly run-
ning on CNG or gasoline. Ford, GM, and
Ram Truck also offer pickups and vans
that run on CNG and several aftermarket
companies convert specific gasoline or
diesel vehicles to run on CNG as well.
Since virtually every home and busi-
ness has natural gas service, a refuel-
ing infrastructure of sorts is already in
place. By using an appliance like BRC
Fuel Maker’s Phill, a natural gas vehicle
can be refueled at home or at the work-
place. Unlike the fast-fill CNG dispens-
ers found at stations that can refuel
a vehicle in about five minutes, these
slow-fill devices refuel a vehicle over-
night, just like recharging an electric
vehicle at home.
CNG is stored on board vehicles in
cylindrical gaseous storage vessels at
3,000 to 3,600 psi. Liquefied natural gas
(LNG) used in heavy-duty commercial
trucks is stored in cryogenic tanks at
-260 F. Natural gas vehicles emit less
carbon monoxide, non-methane organic
gases, and oxides of nitrogen emissions,
with fewer greenhouse gases and only
tiny amounts of particulate matter.
Propane autogas, more commonly
known as propane or liquefied petroleum
gas/LPG, is the third most popular trans-
portation fuel in many countries, after
gasoline and diesel. There are nearly
150,000 vehicles such as police cars,
taxis, and school buses operating on
propane in the U.S., with most of these
conversions. Propane autogas is even
more popular than CNG in Europe with
virtually every automotive brand offering
propane autogas capability, either from
the factory or as aftermarket conver-
sions. There are also nearly 30,000 pro-
pane autogas stations in Europe, driven
by this fuel’s lower fuel cost.
Domestic availability of propane
is better than other alternative fuels.
While traditional fueling opportunities
at stations are relatively limited, there
are many thousands of fueling points
available that dispense propane, most of
them just large propane cylinders with
a hose and fittings that are mainly used
to refill tanks for BBQ grilles and recre-
ational vehicles.
Propane autogas is different from
natural gas. Although both are hydrocar-
bon fuels, LPG is comprised primarily of
propane and butane while CNG and LNG
are mostly methane. Virtually all LPG
used in U.S. is produced domestically.
Like CNG, this alternative fuel produces
less nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide,
unburned hydrocarbons, and particulate
emissions than traditional motor fuels,
26 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
ALTERNATIVEFUELS
with CO2 emissions decreased some 20
percent compared to gasoline.
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) is an example
of what happens when alternative fuel
vehicle production far outpaces the dis-
tribution infrastructure. For years, the
federal government has provided incen-
tives for automakers to produce flexible-
fuel vehicles capable of running seam-
lessly on E85 ethanol or gasoline from
the same tank. However, without com-
panion incentives for developing a fuel-
ing infrastructure, we now have some 90
ethanol-capable vehicle models totaling
16 million vehicles on American roads
but only 3,250 E85 retail stations provid-
ing this fuel, mostly in the mid-western
U.S. The result is that the vast majority of
these FFVs drive exclusively on gasoline.
Ethanol is typically produced from
corn although other grains like wheat
and barley can be used. The challenge
is that ethanol production competes
with food for these feedstocks and thus
is quite controversial. This could be
solved by cellulosic ethanol produced
from waste agricultural products and
non-food feedstock that use less energy
to grow. Cellulosic ethanol is being, or
soon will be, produced on a commercial
scale at four locations in the U.S. Critics
say it takes more energy to produce etha-
nol than the energy it saves, although
Argonne National Laboratory points out
that if 100 BTUs of energy are used to
plant corn, harvest the crop, and trans-
port it, 138 BTUs of energy are available
in the fuel ethanol...a net 38 percent
increase in energy availability.
E85 reduces oxides of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, and carbon dioxide emissions.
Its higher hydrocarbon emissions can be
mitigated by exhaust emission control
systems. Ethanol advocates point out
that CO2 emissions are offset by the CO2
absorbed by feedstock crops as they grow.
Biodiesel is a cleaner-burning fuel
made from domestically renewable
feedstocks such as soybeans, peanuts,
cottonseed, sunflower seeds, rapeseed,
jatropha, and canola. It also can be made
from vegetable oils such as frying oil and
waste animal fats.
An increasingly interesting potential
for biodiesel production comes from
algaculture. Algae grows naturally all
over the world with over 100,000 dif-
ferent species, many that can be con-
verted into biodiesel and other biofuels.
Algaculture can use land unsuitable for
growing conventional crops, including
arid land and areas with excessively
saline soil and groundwater. It can also
use seaweed abundant in the world’s
oceans as well as industrial and munici-
pal wastewater. Importantly, algae can
produce up to 300 times more oil per
acre than conventional crops.
Most manufacturers’ warranties have
limited their vehicle’s use to B5 (5% bio-
diesel/95% petrodiesel) or B20. Diesel
powered Ford, Chevrolet, GMC, and Ram
light trucks are warranted for B20 as is
the Chevrolet Cruze Diesel, with more
B20 approvals in the wings. Vehicles can
run quite well on pure B100 biodiesel as
shown by a thriving homebuilt biodiesel
conversion community.
Combustion of biodiesel results in
reduced unburned hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and particulate matter, with
a negligible increase in nitrogen oxide
emissions. Feedstocks absorb CO2 during
growth to make this biofuel essentially
carbon-neutral. There is no sulfur in
biodiesel so it works well with catalysts,
particulate traps, exhaust gas recircu-
lation, and other systems designed to
reduce diesel emissions.
We now have 90 ethanol-capable models totaling 16 million vehicles on American roads but only 3,250 E85 retail fueling stations.
Chevy’s 2015 Impala Bi-Fuel is the only factory-produced sedan in the U.S. that can run on CNG and gasoline.
HYDROGENHIGHWAYany believe hydrogen to
have the greatest potential
of all alternative fuels, not
only for vehicles but as a primary energy
source for all aspects of life. Used in fuel
cells to electrochemically create electrici-
ty for powering a vehicle’s electric motors,
hydrogen produces no emissions other
than water vapor and heat. There are no
CO2 or other greenhouse gases.
While hydrogen is largely extracted
from methane today, there are bigger
things on the horizon. Hydrogen is a vir-
tually unlimited resource when electro-
lyzing water using solar- or wind-gener-
ated electricity, a process that splits H2O
(water) into hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O) molecules. Water covers much of the
Earth’s surface and is the most abundant
compound on the planet.
Many automakers have hydrogen vehi-
cle development programs underway and
some, like GM and Honda, are working
cooperatively to develop next-generation
fuel cell systems and hydrogen storage.
In recent years, Honda has been leasing
its FCX Clarity fuel cell sedan to limited
numbers of consumers in California and
Hyundai has recently followed suit with
its Tucson Fuel Cell crossover vehicle,
also available to limited numbers of
consumers in California where hydrogen
refueling is more readily available. Both
Honda and Toyota have announced plans
to introduce next-generation production
fuel cell vehicles for consumers in 2015.
As with any game-changing technol-
ogy, hydrogen vehicles come with their
challenges. Hydrogen vehicles are pres-
ently quite costly to produce, although
their cost to consumers who lease them
will surely be subsidized by manu-
facturers until this field matures. The
production of ‘green’ hydrogen through
electrolysis and other means is also pres-
ently limited and costly, plus the nation’s
hydrogen refueling infrastructure is
extremely sparse, although growing.
The hydrogen vehicle field contin-
ues to evolve. A new study by Sandia
National Laboratory focused on 70 gas
stations in California – the state with
the largest number of existing hydrogen
stations –to determine if any could add
hydrogen fueling based on requirements
of the 2011 NFPA 2 hydrogen technolo-
gies code. The conclusion is that 14 of
the 70 stations explored could readily
accept hydrogen fuel, with an additional
17 potentially able to integrate hydrogen
with property expansions. In this light,
expanding the network of hydrogen sta-
tions may be more straightforward than
previously thought.
Even amid these challenges, with
major commitments from automakers
like Honda, Toyota, GM, and others in
Europe and Asia, hydrogen vehicles are a
very real and exciting possibility for the
road ahead. - Ron Cogan
M
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 27
28 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
A steady stream of advanced powertrains, new fuel-efficient systems like stop/start, and more alternative
fuels have helped raise fuel economy to new heights in recent years, but the latest breakthrough in energy-
efficient cars may surprise you: safety technology.
You got it. Safety equals green. New safety systems are fuel economy game-changers, because fewer crashes
mean less congestion, less fuel use, and fewer carbon emissions.
Recently in a white paper on autonomous vehicles, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) noted that “Vehicle control systems that automatically accelerate and brake with the flow of traffic
can conserve fuel more efficiently than the average driver. By eliminating a large number of vehicle crashes,
highly effective crash avoidance technologies can reduce fuel consumption by also eliminating the traffic con-
gestion that crashes cause every day on our roads.”
NHTSA is referring to a new generation of energy-saving, life-saving technologies on our roads – and often
these systems are money-saving and time-saving, too.
Real-time navigation in cars helps drivers keep their eyes on the road while diverting them around traffic. The
Texas Transportation Institute estimates that, in 2011, congestion in 498 metropolitan areas caused Americans
to travel 5.5 billion hours more and buy an extra 2.9 billion gallons of fuel, for a congestion cost of $121 billion.
Adaptive cruise control is a new driver assist that automatically keeps a safe distance from the car ahead, keep-
ing traffic running smoothly. A report by MIT estimates that a 20 percent reduction in accelerations and decelera-
tions should lead to a 5 percent reduction in fuel consumption and carbon emissions.
The Federal Highway Administration estimates that 25 percent of congestion is attributable to traffic incidents,
around half of which are crashes. Sophisticated automatic braking technology helps drivers avoid crashes, and fewer
fender benders improve fuel economy since drivers spend less time idling in traffic.
In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel
efficiency. After analyzing government data, Morgan Stanley observed, “To be conservative,
we assume an autonomous car can be 30 percent more efficient than an equivalent non-
autonomous car. Empirical tests have demonstrated that level of fuel savings from cruise
control use/smooth driving styles alone. If we were to reduce the nation’s $535 billion
gasoline bill by 30 percent that would save us $158 billion.”
With all these benefits, clearly the traditional definition of ‘fuel economy’ is restrictive
and counter-productive. We can achieve much more with a broader view. Here’s how.
The federal government established a national fuel economy/greenhouse gas program with the ambitious goal
to nearly double fuel economy by 2025. Our compliance is based on the fuel efficiency of what we sell, not what
we offer for sale. While consumers have more choices than ever in energy-efficient automobiles, if they don’t buy
them in large volumes, we fall short. So we will need every technology available to make this steep climb.
We can still squeeze more fuel savings from safety and congestion-mitigation technologies, but these sys-
tems reduce fuel use in ways not apparent in government mileage tests so the government doesn’t consider
them towards meeting federal standards.
The federal government should recognize the real-world fuel economy improvements from these safety technologies.
In fact, the government can encourage their deployment by allowing automakers to count the demonstrated fuel econ-
omy benefits of these safety technologies towards meeting their compliance with the federal fuel economy program.
While automakers don’t advocate speeding, we are urging regulators to put the pedal to the metal on this
priority. More rapid adoption of these new technologies will help keep drivers safer, avoid traffic congestion,
save time, save money, and reduce fuel use.
— Mitch Bainwol is president and CEO of the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, www.autoalliance.org
VOICES :: By Mitch Bainwol
>A HUGE BREAKTHROUGH IN FUEL ECONOMY
In the future, autonomous cars may enhance road safety while giving us a leg up on fuel efficiency.
DRIVING
>A HUGE BREAKTHROUGH IN FUEL ECONOMY
SPONSORED CONTENT
IT IS A CERTAINTY THAT ELECTRIC DRIVE will play an important part in our driving future.
Whether powered solely by batteries or electricity generated by an on-board hydrogen
fuel cell, vehicle electrification delivers high efficiency and zero localized emissions while
presenting an ultra-low carbon strategy for the road ahead.
Honda has a long history with vehicle electrification, from its hydrogen fuel cell electric
vehicle prototype in 1999 and Insight gasoline-electric hybrid production model introduced
that same year, to the recently-unveiled Honda FCEV Concept hydrogen fuel cell electric
vehicle. In between there have been many electrified Honda products including battery
electric, hybrid, and plug-in hybrid models, two generations of FCX limited production
hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles, and the FCX Clarity. Now, Honda is poised to introduce
its most advanced third generation fuel cell electric vehicle in 2015. MORE >>
DRIVINGT H E H Y D R O G E N F U T U R E
HONDA’S NEXT-GENERATION FUEL CELL ELECTRIC VEHICLE IS COMING IN 2015
Honda FCEV Concept
SPONSORED CONTENT
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles present an ideal answer
to the need for sustainable mobility. They offer the efficiency
and emissions benefits of battery electric vehicles with some
important differences. In fuel cell vehicles, the electric motor is
powered by a fuel cell where on board hydrogen meets up with
oxygen to create electricity, without combustion or any emissions
other than water vapor. Hydrogen is the most abundant element
in the universe and can be created with many different energy
sources including renewables like solar, wind, and hydroelectric.
The early developmental vehicles that marked this field’s long
trajectory have made way to production fuel cell electric vehicles
like Honda’s FCX Clarity. Offered to retail consumers in 2008, this
remarkable fuel cell sedan featured crisp acceleration, excellent
handling, and an accommodating four-passenger cabin.
Driving range is a real advantage with hydrogen fuel cell
electric vehicles. The FCX Clarity could be driven 240 miles
between fill-ups, with refueling at a hydrogen station taking about
five minutes. The result? Anxiety-free zero-emission driving.
In other words, even though this sedan ran on hydrogen,
it provided a satisfying, fun-to-drive, and familiar driving
experience in every respect.
STAIRSTEPS TO THE FUTURE
Several decades of fuel cell research and development at Honda
have led to milestone achievements enabling this seamless
operation on hydrogen. Honda’s first-generation FCX fuel cell
hatchback introduced in 2002 gained extensive real-world
testing with government fleets and select individuals, paving the
way for the consumer friendly FCX Clarity. The next-generation
Honda fuel cell vehicle coming in 2015 benefits from the Clarity’s
real-world experience and that of the earlier FCX.
Along the way, Honda refined its fuel cell technology to operate
in hot and sub-freezing temperature extremes and damp coastal
environments. Additional breakthroughs were achieved in fuel
cell stack size, efficiency, and packaging, plus fuel cell vehicle
assembly line production. The FCX Clarity benefited from these
advancements, proving that hydrogen fuel cell technology could
be successfully integrated into a sedan in ways invisible to a driver.
In contrast to the incremental development curve of electric
car batteries, the pathway to hydrogen fuel cells is more a series
of ‘stairsteps’ in technology leaps. These leaps include Honda’s
amazing 33 percent reduction in fuel cell stack size and 60 percent
improvement in power density compared to the FCX Clarity that now
make it possible to package and integrate hydrogen fuel cell technology
in the engine bay of a sedan, with assembly line speed and precision as
is done today at Honda automobile production plants around the world.
These leaps will continue and are being supported with development
programs like Honda’s recently announced joint research work with
General Motors, which aims at fuel cell component cost reductions and
further improvements at the materials science level.
Honda is leading the way toward sustainable mobility with its coming
next-generation fuel cell electric vehicle and continuing electric
drivetrain development. As government, industry, stakeholders, and
consumers step up to drive the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell electric
vehicles and be pioneers in this evolving field, we’ll reach the goal of
low carbon and sustainable transportation sooner than imagined.
Honda FCX Clarity
For more information on Honda’s hydrogen fuel cell activities see world.honda.com/FuelCell
FUEL CELL HISTORY AT HONDA
Honda debuts world’s first Hydrogen Fuel Cell vehicle prototype – Honda FCX-V1
Honda FCX becomes first Fuel Cell vehicle certified by U.S. government for commercial use
Honda increases FCX range to an EPA estimated 210 miles
Honda delivers FCX Clarity to first retail customer
Honda plans to bring to market an all-new Fuel Cell vehicle
Research on Fuel Cell powered vehicles begins at Honda R&D
Honda delivers FCX to world’s first individual Fuel
Cell customer
Honda and GM collaboration advances Fuel Cell technologies
toward the future
Honda debuts new Fuel Cell Concept at L.A. Auto Show
Honda debuts all-new FCX Clarity sedan, which delivers performance, driving range,
and comfort on par with a four-cylinder Accord Sedan
1999
2002
2006
2008
2015
1986
2005
2013thru
2020
2013
2007
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 31
VOICES :: By Dr. Alan Lloyd
>ELECTRIC DRIVE CAN GET US THEREIt is an exciting time to be involved with the auto industry, or to be in the market for a new car. The auto
industry has responded splendidly to the challenge of new emission, fuel economy, and safety standards. The
public is offered a greater than ever selection of vehicles with different powertrains, lightweight materials,
hybrids, and electric drive vehicles across many platforms. We see increasing numbers of clean diesel vehicles
and natural gas is making a resurgence, especially in the heavy-duty sector.
The positive response by the auto industry to the ever-tightening pollutant emission and fuel economy
standards includes tactics such as the use of aluminum in the Ford F-150 and the increased use of carbon
fiber by BMW, among many innovations introduced across many models and drivetrains. These evolutionary
changes are a major tribute to the automobile engineers who are wringing out the most they can in efficiency
and reduced emissions from gasoline and diesel engines. I view this evolutionary change as necessary, but not
sufficient to meet our greenhouse gas goals by 2050.
New car ownership is currently down in Europe and is leveling off in the U.S.
For global automotive manufacturers, however, this trend is offset by the dramatic
growth in places like China and India. The potential for dramatic growth in the
developing world is clearly evident: In the U.S., there are about 500 cars per thousand
people, compared to about 60 and 20 in China and India, respectively.
How can these trends be reconciled with the environmental and health concerns
due to climate change and adverse air quality in the developing world? The evidence
for climate change accumulates by the day. Hazardous air quality in many major cities in China has drawn
global attention, providing a visual reminder of how far the developed world has come and how much envi-
ronmental protection needs to be accelerated in the developing world. Damaging air pollution is increasingly
seen as a regional and even worldwide challenge. Dramatic economic growth in many developing countries is
generating pollution that knows no boundaries. Air pollution from China, for example, fumigates Korea and
Japan and is even transported across the Pacific to impact air quality in California and other Western states.
It will take a revolutionary change to provide personal mobility without unacceptable energy and envi-
ronmental consequences. As a recent National Academy of Sciences (NAS) document states, it is likely that
a major shift to electric drive vehicles would be required in the next 20 to 30 years. Electric drive vehicles,
coupled with renewable energy, can achieve essentially zero carbon and conventional pollutant emissions.
The NAS report also predicted that the costs of both battery and fuel-cell electric vehicles would be less than
advanced conventional vehicles in the 2035-2040 timeframe.
This transition will not occur overnight and we will be driving advanced conventional vehicles for many
years to come. In a study for the International Council on Clean Transportation, Dr. David Greene calculated
that the transition could take 10 to 15 years, requiring sustained investment in infrastructure and incentives
in order to achieve sustained penetration. While this investment is not inexpensive, it is projected that the
benefits of this investment will be 10 times greater than the costs.
I have little doubt that if we are serious about our energy, environmental, and greenhouse gas goals the revolu-
tion in technology will occur. All the major automobile companies seem to recognize this in their technology road-
map, which includes advanced conventional vehicles, plug-in hybrid vehicles, battery and fuel cell electric vehicles.
In conclusion, the next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years. I
have little doubt that the automobile engineers are up to the task ahead, but whether we have the political
fortitude to stay the course to achieve the necessary air pollution and GHG reductions is far less certain.
— Dr. Alan Lloyd is President Emeritus of the nonprofit International Council on Clean Transportation, www.
theicct.org. He formerly served as Secretary of CalEPA and Chairman of the California Air Resources Board.
The next 25 years promise to be equally as challenging and exciting as the last 25 years.
Finalists Announced for 2015 Award Program
B Y G R E E N C A R E D I T O R S
he need for increasingly efficient and more environmentally positive
vehicles is an imperative. Automakers have stepped up to meet the chal-
lenge in a big way, transcending early efforts that focused primarily
on a few select hybrid models and smaller vehicles to a more inclusive approach
that now includes hybrids, electric vehicles, clean diesel, high efficiency gasoline,
and alternative fuel models in wide-ranging vehicle classes. Their use of innova-
tive ‘green’ technologies and efficiency measures is making a real difference in
reducing CO2 and tailpipe emissions and reducing environmental impact. These
achievements deserve to be recognized.
Green Car Journal has been honoring vehicles and technologies that raise the
bar in more environmentally positive mobility for a decade now, beginning with
the very first Green Car of the Year® award presented at the L.A. Auto Show in
late 2005. This program has now expanded to five awards at three North American
auto shows – the L.A. Auto Show in California, the San Antonio Auto & Truck Show
in Texas, and the Washington Auto Show in DC – illustrating just how far this
field has come and how important ‘green’ vehicles are to the automotive market.
Here, then, are the finalists for Green Car Journal’s five high-profile awards for
the 2015 model year.
TGreen Car Journal has been honoring vehicles
and technologies that raise the bar in more
environmentally positive mobility
for a decade now.
32 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 33
2015 GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS
Audi A3 TDIBMW i3
Chevrolet Impala Bi-FuelHonda FitVW Golf
*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 20 AT THE LOS ANGELES AUTO SHOW
2015 GREEN TRUCK OF THE YEAR FINALISTS
Chevrolet ColoradoFord F-150
GMC CanyonRam 1500 EcoDiesel
Ram 1500 HFE
*WINNER ANNOUNCED NOVEMBER 6 AT THE SAN ANTONIO AUTO & TRUCK SHOW
2015 GREEN CAR TECHNOLOGY AWARD FINALISTS
BMW i8 Plug-In Hybrid PowertrainBMW i3 REx Range Extender
Chevrolet CNG Bi-Fuel PowertrainFord F-150 Aluminum BodyFord 2.7-liter EcoBoost V-6
Honda 1.5-liter Earth Dreams EngineKia Soul Electric Powertrain
Tesla Dual Motor AWDVolvo Drive-E Powertrain
VW e-Golf Electric Powertrain
2015 GREEN SUV OF THE YEAR FINALISTS
Honda CR-VHyundai Tucson Fuel Cell
Jeep Grand Cherokee EcoDieselLexus NX 300h
Mazda CX-5
2015 LUXURY GREEN CAR OF THE YEAR FINALISTS
Audi A8 TDIBMW i8
Cadillac ELRPorsche Panamera S E-Hybrid
Tesla Model S
*WINNERS ANNOUNCED JANUARY 22 AT THE WASHINGTON AUTO SHOW
34 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
he Accord lineup that won
Green Car Journal’s 2014
Green Car of the Year® award
is sleek, stylish, and sophisticated in an
unassuming way. It’s also packed with
technology and comes with an array of
efficient powertrain choices including
high mpg gasoline, hybrid, and plug-in
hybrid variants, starting out at a very
approachable MSRP just over $22,000
with the hybrid a reasonable $29,900.
The fully-loaded $36,600 Accord Hybrid
Touring is the one we tapped for a year-
long test to experience daily life with
Honda’s 50 mpg sedan.
Unique design features distinguish the
Accord Hybrid from the already-pleas-
ingly aggressive style of the standard,
new-for-2014 Accord. These include LED
daytime running lights and blue-accents
on front light lenses, grille, and rear LED
tail lamps, plus a decklid spoiler and
unique wheels. Our tester is further dis-
tinguished with a dealer-installed Honda
aero package with front, rear, and aide
underbody spoilers.
Power is supplied by Honda’s Two-
Motor Hybrid Intelligent Multi-Mode
Drive (i-MMD) system, a mouthful-of-a-
name that earns its ‘intelligent’ designa-
T
LONG-TERM TEST>
2014 HONDAACCORD HYBRID
DRIVING 10,000 MILES IN OUR 2014 GREEN CAR OF THE YEARPhotography by Ian BillingsB Y R O N C O G A N
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 35
tion. The 196 horsepower hybrid system
achieves optimum efficiency through
intelligent and seamless transitions
between all-electric drive, internal com-
bustion drive, and hybrid drive depend-
ing on driving circumstances.
The hybrid sedan is responsive and
confident on the road with ample
power at the ready, delivered through a
capable electric continuously variable
transmission (E-CVT). Eco mode can
be selected to tone down performance
a bit to enhance fuel efficiency. The
Accord Hybrid’s regenerative braking
system feeds electricity back to the car’s
lithium-ion batteries immediately upon
lifting off the accelerator, rather than
starting when braking is applied.
All this brings a very impressive 50
mpg city fuel economy rating and 45 mpg
on the highway. With the Accord’s 12.2
gallon fuel tank, filling up always shows
a whopping miles-to-empty read of well
over 600 miles. This considerable driv-
ing range has come in handy many times
during extended road trips, including a
trek from California’s Central Coast to
San Diego and back on a single tank.
These drives are often made with the
Accord’s adaptive cruise control engaged,
a feature that automatically keeps a safe
driving distance from the car ahead. It
works seamlessly in adapting to traf-
fic speed and flow and is actually quite
amazing. Drives are smooth and comfort-
able both on the open road and in traffic.
Time spent in the Accord Hybrid
Touring’s accommodating cabin comes
with an immersion of advanced electron-
ics complemented by an 8-inch multi-
information display and an audio touch
screen compatible with smart phone
features. Its electronics user interface
is easy to use and driver assistive tech-
nologies invaluable, including Forward
Collision Warning, Lane Departure
Warning, and rear view camera with
LaneWatch blind spot display.
The bottom line: Great styling, a bevy
of advanced electronics, and impressive
efficiency – all wrapped in an aggres-
sively handsome design –make Honda’s
award-winning Accord Hybrid truly
hard to beat.
36 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
Our Favorite ‘Green’ Concepts Over The YearsB Y G R E E N C A R J O U R N A L E D I T O R S
he inspiring concept vehicles introduced at auto shows are windows to our
driving future. Some will never make it beyond their wild concept stage,
while others will lead directly to production models. All offer hints of future
styling direction or innovative on-board electronics and propulsion. We’ve appreciated
many concepts over the past 25 years and thought we’d share some of our favorites.
T
IMAGININGTHE ROAD AHEAD
Peter Horbury, head designer at Volvo and now VP of design at Volvo parent
Geely, designed the transformational Volvo Environmental Concept Car (ECC) we test
drove in 1992.
Volvo’s ECC championed hybrid power as an answer to California’s Zero Emission Vehicle mandate while sharing a revolutionary design
language that would influence future Volvo models.
Honda’s hydrogen-powered FCX concept presents an ideal example of how a concept car can lead directly to a limited production car with few changes. The FCX also previewed Honda’s design language in coming years.
Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars 37
Audi’s low-slung, carbon fiber e-tron Spyder is powered by a bi-turbo, 3.0-liter V-6 TDI at the rear and a pair of front-mounted electric
motors up front.
The gull-winged Ford Reflex concept showcased diesel-electric hybrid power up front and an
additional electric motor at the rear, with early integration of advanced lithium-ion batteries.
GM’s milestone Impact electric car prototype debuted at the 1990 L.A. Auto Show, leading the way to the modern
electric car age and the production EV1.
The swoopy Renault DeZir offered super car looks and efficient electric operation, with a 150 hp electric motor mounted mid-ship and a KERS kinetic energy recovery system for quick launches.
Cadillac’s Urban Luxury Concept combines aggressive crossover styling with a 1.0-liter engine and electric motor for efficiently driving crowded urban environments.
The ECC’s innovative HSG powerplant used a high-speed turbine generator to create electricity for driving an electric motor, a predictor of future hybrid power back in 1993.
Driving a concept car is a rare experience, but one we enjoyed between auto show appearances in Audi’s aggressively-styled diesel-electric e-tron Spyder.
38 Green Car Journal Special Edition / 25 Years of Green Cars
Darth Vader meets crossover in the Nissan Mixim, a gull-winged concept conceived to
appeal to the computer generation with electric power and controls that mimic a game controller.
We could imagine a successor to the ubiquitous VW Microbus with VW’s Bulli concept, which
brings waves of nostalgia along with lithium-ion electric power and a purported 185 mile range.
The Volt concept car that led to the production Chevrolet Volt shared new GM design language and hot rod influence with its
top-chop style roofline.
Saab makes fighter jets as well as automobiles, something clearly illustrated by the automaker’s sensuous Aero X concept. Bioethanol powered its 400 horsepower, 2.8-liter V-6.While whimsical, the Ford Airstream concept
forwarded serious thought that a vehicle could be powered by a hybrid powertrain with lithium-ion batteries and an on-board fuel cell generator.
Hyundai showed how wickedly cool a crossover could be with its Nuvis concept, which incorporated gull wing doors and a sharp body design with hybrid power.
Collaboratively designed by Italdesign-Giugiaro and Toyota, the Alessandro Volta supercar concept integrated a 3.3-liter V-6 to create electricity for charging batteries and powering front and rear motors.
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