Groundwater flow through till: tortoise, hare, or not in the race? · Groundwater flow through till: tortoise, hare, or not in the race? 1Jared Trost, 2William Simpkins,1,2Anna-Turi

Groundwater flow through till: tortoise, hare, or not in the race?

1Jared Trost, 2William Simpkins, 1,2Anna-Turi Maher, 2,3Alyssa Witt, 1Andrew Berg, 1,4James Stark, 5,6Bob Tipping, 6Justin Blum, 1Daniel Feinstein

1U.S. Geological Survey, 2Iowa State University, 3Golder and Associates, 4Legislative Water Commission, 5MN Geological Survey, 6MN Department of Health

This information is preliminary and is subject to revision. It is being provided to meet the need for timely best science. The information is provided on the condition that neither the U.S. Geological

Survey nor the U.S. Government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information.

Cromwell Fm., Cromwell, MN

Well nest, Litchfield, MN

Good Thunder Fm., Olivia, MN

A collaborative effort

• A 5-year collaborative project among:

• U.S. Geological Survey

• Iowa State University

• Cities of Litchfield, Cromwell, and Olivia

• Minnesota Depts. of Health and Natural Resources

• Minnesota Geological Survey

• University of Minnesota

• Major funding:

• MN Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund

• USGS Cooperative Water Fund Program

• Major in-kind support:

• Bill Simpkins, Iowa State University

A preview of today’s presentations

This talk:

• Study design

• Variability: geology, K, hydraulic relationships, isotope geochemistry, and contamination

• Interpretive modeling

Afternoon talk:

Justin Blum: a presentation about lessons learned from aquifer tests at each site.

Two Posters Hewitt Fm.near Akeley, MN

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

Motivation

• Confined aquifers supply drinking water to thousands of people

• How sustainable are these water supplies?

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

• How we like to conceptualize groundwater flow through till to confined aquifers

• But how realistic is this?

Contaminants

Water

Water WaterWater

Water

Motivation

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

• How we like to conceptualize groundwater flow through till to confined aquifers

• But how realistic is this?

ContaminantsWater

WaterWater

Water

Water

Motivation

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

Leakage? K?

• How does groundwater flow through till?

• How long does it take water to move through till?

• How susceptible are the aquifers to contamination?

Motivation-a focus on till

Project Goal

Better understand the sustainability of water supplies from confined aquifers.

Approach: for different glacial lobes and till units in Minnesota, we quantified:

• Variability of till hydraulic properties

• Leakage of water from till confining units to buried confined aquifers

Rotosonic coring in Olivia, MN, 2017

Study site selection

• Detailed hydrogeologic information available

• Physical setting characteristics

• Small number of high capacity pumping wells

• less than 300 ft below land surface

• High-capacity well construction integrity

• Logistical requirements

• Cooperative water operator

• Accessible with large drill rig Glacial Lobes and Sublobes of Late Wisconsin age (Jennings and Johnson, 2011)

Study sites

Glacial Lobes and Sublobes of Late Wisconsin age (Jennings and Johnson, 2011)

Site Lobe Popula-tion

Pumping (MGY)

UMN hydro-geology field camp (HFC)

Wadena ~30-40 for 3 weeks in July

NA, good for long-term aquifer tests

Cromwell Superior 231 6

Litchfield Des Moines

6,630 340

Olivia Pre-Illinoian

2,350 97

Well nest design and installation

Characterize profile with continuous core to place screens

Till

confinin

gunit

Aquifer

Hig

h-c

apacity

pum

pin

g w

ell

3-ft screen

Aquifer well: 2-in diameter; 5-10 ft screen (rotosonic or mud rotary)

Till wells: 1.25-in diameter, 3-ft screen (rotosonicor hollow-stem)

Continuous core collected to characterize profile and place screens


Core-section retrieved from screen interval and squeezed to get pore-water sample

Till

confinin

gunit

Aquifer

Hig

h-c

apacity

pum

pin

g w

ell

3-ft screen

Aquifer well: 2-in diameter; 5-10 ft screen (rotosonic or mud rotary)

Till wells: 1.25-in diameter, 3-ft screen (rotosonicor hollow-stem)

Characterize profile with continuous core to place screens


Ideally, a well nest would be installed near and far from a pumping well at a site

Data collection

•Hydrology• Water levels and precipitation• Slug tests on all wells• Aquifer tests at 4 sites (led by

Justin Blum)

•Geochemistry of groundwater and pore water• Major ions and nutrients• Stable isotopes (δ18O, δ2H)

• Enriched 3H (GW only)

Confined Aquifer

Till Confining Unit(a.k.a. Till Aquitard)

Till Characterization

Staley et al., 2018

Site Olivia Litchfield Cromwell HFC

Lobe Undetermined Des Moines Superior Wadena

Age Pre-Illinoian Late Wisc. Late Wisc. Late Wisc.

Formation Good Thunder New UlmVillard Mbr.

Cromwell Hewitt

Grain Size [Sand:Silt:Clay]

37:40:23 50:32:17 57:31:13 67:22:11

Texture Clay loam to loam

Loam to sandy loam

Sandy loam Sandy loam Loamy sand

Cromwell Fm.Outwash

Till -Cromwell

Fm.

Aquifer

Slate?

Aquifer

0

Aquifer

Till -New

Ulm Fm.VillardMbr.

Till -New

Ulm Fm.VillardMbr.

Site Stratigraphy

Deltaic and LacustrineSedimentNew Ulm Fm.

Olivia Litchfield 1 Litchfield 2 Cromwell

Univ. of MN Hydrogeology Field Camp (HFC)

Till -Good Thunder Fm.

Till -Hewitt Fm.

Clay loam till Sandy loam till

Staley et al., 2018

Box plots of Log K for all study sites

Data from slug tests

Units in feet/day

Olivia L1 L2 Cromwell HFC

N=5 N=2

N=5

N=5 N=4

Preliminary Information-Subject to Revision. Not for Citation or Distribution.

Olivia L1 L2 Cromwell HFC

Box plots of Log K for all study sites


Units in meters/sec

N=5 N=2

N=5

N=5 N=4


L1 L2 Dows Fm.

Box plots of Log K for Litchfield and the Dows Fm. in Iowa


Units in meters/sec

N=2

N=5

N=48


Mean hydraulic head measured in piezometers vs. depth at all sites


Hart et al., 2008. Ground Water 46(4): 518-520

Till i = 0.12

Blue (neg.) downward flowRed (pos.) upward flow


Till i=0.24


Till i =0.37


Till Sites from the Des Moines Lobe in Central Iowa

Beth Johnson and Jim Eidem, personal communication

Till i=0.025 up

Potentiometric high in the slate aquifer


Till i = 0.05


SiteALV from Kh (ft/d)

Bottom of Till (yrs)

ALV from Kv (ft/d)

Bottom of Till (yrs)

LF-1 7E-02 2 2E-03 91

LF-2 3E-04 1,026 2E-04 2,129

Olivia 3E-03 125 3E-04 1,588

HFC 9E-03 30 2E-03 147

Groundwater Velocity and Travel Time

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐴𝐿𝑉) =𝐾𝑖

𝑛n = 0.25


Chemistry to the Rescue

Groundwater Sampling

Core for Pore-Water Samples

Age Estimates from δ18OSource δ18O (‰)

VSMOW

Glacier Ice (Paterson and Hammer, 1987) -40 to -55

Lake Agassiz, southern Manitoba and North Dakota (Remenda et al., 1994 )

-19 to -25

Beneath Lake Agassiz sediments in ClayCounty-Geologic Atlas B (Berg, 2018)

-19 to -23

Oak Creek Fm. till, Southeast Wisconsin (Simpkins and Bradbury, 1992)

-18

This study: pore water and groundwater are not glacial age

-8.33 to -11.61


Radioactive Isotopes

Nuclear weapon test Bravo on Bikini Atoll, Feb. 28, 1954. USDOE, public domain.

3H

Litchfield 2 Site

Pre-bomb 1953

1953

Recent

Aquifer

Till –New Ulm Fm.

Till -Good Thunder Fm.

Higher K, Moderate head gradient Lowest K, Steepest head gradient

TU=Tritium units


1966?

Litchfield 1 Site

1967

Till –New Ulm Fm.

Till -Hewitt Fm.

Aquifer

Higher K, Steep gradient Highest K, Shallow gradient

TU=Tritium units


Anthropogenic Tracers

Photo credit: WKOW 27 News, Madison, WI

Photo credit: University of WI, Madison, extension

Aquifer

Sewer Pipe

Ground Surface

Well

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

18

33

57

82

111

DEP

TH (F

T)

Cl/Br Mass Ratio

GW Cl/Br PW Cl/Br

Depth

GroundwaterPore water

Indic

atio

n o

f anth

ropogenic

sourc

ein

MN

gro

undw

ate

r (Berg

, 2018)

Example


0 20 40 60 80 100

13

20

35

60

105

145

175

DE

PT

H (F

T)

Cl (mg/L)

GW-Cl PW-Cl

Olivia3H data suggest GW below 60 ft is older than 1953

Depth


*Estimate Br <.01

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

13

20

35

60

105

145

175

DEP

TH (F

T)

Cl/Br Mass Ratios

GW Cl/Br PW Cl/Br

Olivia3H data suggest GW below 60 ft is older than 1953

Olivia has some of the lowest Br concentrations

Depth


0 10 20 30 40 50

18

33

57

82

111

DEP

TH (F

T)Cl (mg/L)

GW-Cl PW-Cl

Litchfield 23H data suggest GW below 57 ft is older than 1953

Depth


0 50 100 150 200 250 300

18

33

57

82

111

DEP

TH (F

T)Cl/Br Mass Ratio

GW Cl/Br PW Cl/Br

Litchfield 2

3H data suggest GW below 57 ft is older than 1953

Depth


0 10 20 30 40 50 60

115

137

172

196

DEP

TH (F

T)Cl (mg/L)

GW-Cl PW-Cl

HFC3H data suggest GW from 115 and 196 ft is between 1953 and ~1967.

Depth


0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

115

137

172

196

DEP

TH (F

T)Cl/Br Mass Ratio

GW Cl/Br PW Cl/Br

HFC

*Estimate Br <.01

*Estimate Br <.01

250

3H data suggest GW from 115 and 196 ft is between 1953 and ~1967.

Depth


Summary

• Hydraulic head relationships suggest that groundwater in till “leaks” to the underlying confined aquifer (except Cromwell), but the “leak” magnitude reflects site-specific conditions− Travel times shorter than expected for “impermeable” till

• δ18O data suggest post-glacial groundwater age at all sites• 3H data suggest ~1960s age at Litchfield 1 and HFC sites

• Cl and Cl/Br ratio data suggest possible penetration of anthropogenic tracers (deicing salt?) to depth, particularly at urban sites

• Pore-water vs. groundwater geochemistry?−Possible explanations: sampling scale, crushing of grains with Cl,

sample contamination, and fracture/matrix interaction

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

K

Quick Review

• Field studies demonstrated:

• Groundwater does flow through till (groundwater is “in the race”)

• Till hydraulic properties are highly variable

KKK

K K K

Water Water

Water

K

KLow

High

Hydraulic conductivity

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

K

Quick Review

• Field studies demonstrated:

• Groundwater does flow through till (groundwater is “in the race”)

• Till hydraulic properties are highly variable

KKK

K K KWater

WaterWater

K

KLow

High


Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

K

Modeling challenges

• Till hydraulic properties are variable and often unknown

• The extents of and connections between buried aquifers is largely unknown

KKK

K K K?

K

KLow

High


Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

K

Questions for Modeling

• How does pumping affect groundwater flow through till?

• Where does the water enter the aquifer?

• Which model parameters are most important?

KKK

K K K?

K

KLow

High


Model construction

Explanation

• MODFLOW 2000• 500 x 500 ft cells• N-to-S hydraulic gradient

of 0.001• Vertical downward

gradient=0.15• Recharge = 4 in/yr• Local area used to

calculate fluxes20

mile

s

Rivers (RIV pkg)

Lakes (DRN pkg)

Pumping wells (MNW2 pkg)

Local areaBuried

aquifer

N

5 mi

Specified head boundary

Specified head boundary

No

-flo

w b

ou

nd

ary

No

-flo

w b

ou

nd

ary

Model construction

50 ft

10,000 ft

Surficial unit

Upper till (3 layers)

Middle unit and buried aquifer (2 layers)

Pumping wellsSouth

North

Buried aquifer

Lower till (Kvand Kh fixed at 0.05 ft/day

Local area

General description of model scenarios

Surficial unit

Upper till

Lower till

Middle unit and buried aquifer

Vary vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv) of upper till

Vary horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh) of the middle unit

Leakage (flux) into aquifer

The percent of the total volume of water entering the aquifer from:

Response variable

Above (downward flux)Laterally (lateral flux)

Below (upward flux)

Surficial unit

Upper till

Lower till


Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

Leakage (flux) into aquifer

• Vary Kv of till 0.001 – 2.0 ft/d

• Vary Kh of middle unit: 0.05 – 30 ft/d

• Wide range of relative fluxes into the aquifer

10 – 84 %

15 – 90 %

0.1 - 5%


Leakage (flux) into till from surficial unit

The percent of total surficial unit groundwater flux that flows into upper till

Response variable

Vdown

Vlat Vrech+ +Vind

Percent downward flux

= X 100 Vdown+

Surficial unit

Upper till

Lower till


25 mi2 “local area” of model

2%

16%

35%31%

34%

46%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

Aquifer size = 4.5 sq. miOverlying till Kv = 0.001 ft/dMiddle unit Kh = 0.05 ft/d

Pumping = 900 gpm


Puming = 900 gpm


Pumping = 900 gpm

Perc

en

t o

f Su

rfic

ial U

nit

G

rou

nd

wat

er F

lux

No Pumping

Pumping 900 gpm

Pumping-induced changes to groundwater flow into till from surficial aquifer

• Aquifer areal extent: 4.5 mi2

• Middle unit Kh: 0.05 ft/d

Scenario 32.0

Kv of Upper Till Unit (ft/d)

Scenario 10.001

Litchfield-like till Cromwell-like till

Varying till vertical hydraulic conductivity (Kv)

Surficial unit

Upper till

Middle unit and

buried aquifer

Scenario 20.05


2% 3%5%

31%

22%

14%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%


Pumping = 900 gpm

Aquifer size = 4.5 sq. miOverlying till Kv = 0.001 ft/d

Middle unit Kh = 5 ft/dPuming = 900 gpm

Aquifer size = 4.5 sq. miOverlying till Kv = 0.001 ft/d

Middle unit Kh = 30 ft/dPumping = 900 gpm

Perc

en

t o

f Su

rfic

ial U

nit

G

rou

nd

wat

er F

lux

No Pumping

Pumping 900 gpm

Pumping-induced changes to groundwater flow into till from surficial aquiferSurficial

unitUpper

till

• Aquifer areal extent: 4.5 mi2

• Upper till unit Kv: 0.001 ft/d

Scenario 330

KH of Middle Unit (ft/d)

Scenario 10.05

Aquitard-like Aquifer-like

Varying horizontal connectivity of aquifer

Middle unit and

buried aquifer

Scenario 25.0


Sensitivity Analysis

• Calculated the relative sensitivity of downward flux for all model runs compared to the base model

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

|𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|× 100

Surficial unit

Upper till

Lower till

Middle unit and buried

aquifer

Sensitivity Analysis

• Most sensitive parameters:• Kv of upper till unit• Areal extent of conductive materials:

• Buried aquifer• Lateral connectivity (middle unit Kh)

• Less sensitive parameters:• Aquifer Kh

• Pumping rate• Screen length (partial penetration)• Upper till thickness

Surficial unit

Upper till

Lower till

Middle unit and buried

aquifer

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer

Modeling conclusions

• Groundwater flows through till to a confined aquifer. Preliminary Information-Subject to Revision. Not for Citation or Distribution.

Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer


• Groundwater flows through till to a confined aquifer.

• Pumping increases the leakage of water into till


Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer




• Leakage into till induced by pumping is sensitive to hydraulic properties of till

K KKK

K K


Outwash

Till

Bedrock

Confined Aquifer




• Leakage into till induced by pumping is sensitive to hydraulic properties of till

• Leakage into aquifer dependent on hydraulic properties of till

K KKK

K K10 – 84 %

15 – 90 %

0.1 - 5%


Project Goal

Better understand the sustainability of water supplies from confined aquifers.

Approach: for different glacial lobes and till units in Minnesota, we quantified:

• Variability of till hydraulic properties

• Leakage of water from till confining units to buried confined aquifers

Rotosonic coring in Olivia, MN

Overall conclusions

• Groundwater in till is “in the race”; multiple lines of evidence for groundwater flow through till: • Hydraulic head relationships demonstrated primarily downward

flow with some faster than anticipated rates• Post-glacial groundwater found throughout till profiles• Anthropogenic tracers at depth at urban sites• Modeling showed that pumping can increase leakage rates

• Tortoise or hare? Both!• Evidence for wide-ranging leakage rates, even at a single site.


Implications

• Implications for sustainability:• Modeling suggests that hydraulic information about till is just

as important as aquifer mapping for understanding sustainable withdrawals.


Implications

• Implications for conceptualization of till:• Expect surprises! • Simple conceptual models are likely not applicable. • Till is not impermeable and velocities may be higher than

previously assumed.


Questions?

Jared TrostU.S. Geological Surveyjtrost<at sign>usgs.gov

Iowa State Field Crew

Olivia, MN field site

Bill SimpkinsIowa State Universitybsimp<at sign> iastate.edu

References Cited

• Berg, J.A., 2018, Geologic Atlas of Clay County, Minnesota County Atlas Series C-29 Part B, Hydrogeology. Report to accompany Plates 6,7,8. Accessed 4/1/2019 at https://files.dnr.state.mn.us/waters/groundwater_section/mapping/cga/c29_clay/clay_report.pdf.

• Jennings, C. E., and M.D. Johnson. 2011. The Quaternary of Minnesota. Developments in Quaternary Science.15: 499-511.

• Paterson, W.S.B and Hammer C.U., 1987. Ice core and other glaciological data. In: W.F. Ruddimanand H.E. Wright (Eds.), North America and Adjacent Oceans During the Last Glaciation. Geol. Soc. Am., Decade of North American Geology. Boulder, CO, K-3: 91-109.

• Remenda, V. H., J. A. Cherry, and T. W. D. Edwards. "Isotopic composition of old ground water from Lake Agassiz: implications for late Pleistocene climate." Science266, no. 5193 (1994): 1975-1978.

• Simpkins, W. W., and K. R. Bradbury. Groundwater flow, velocity, and age in a thick, fine-grained till unit in southeastern Wisconsin. Journal of Hydrology 132, no. 1-4 (1992): 283-319.

• Staley, A., Wagner, K., Nguyen, M., and Tipping, R. 2018. Core descriptions, borehole geophysics, and unit interpretations in support of phase I and II USGS hydrologic properties of till investigation. Minnesota Geological Survey Open File Report 18-03.

https://files.dnr.state.mn.us/waters/groundwater_section/mapping/cga/c29_clay/clay_report.pdf

Image references

https://scubasanmateo.com/explore/turtle-clipart-hare/

http://clipart-library.com/tortoise-clipart.html

http://clipart-library.com/snow-plowing-cliparts.html

https://publicdomainvectors.org/en/free-clipart/Vector-graphics-of-younger-oak-tree/24737.html

http://clipart-library.com/clipart/344789.htm

http://clipart-library.com/clipart/8cA6xxXXi.htm

https://scubasanmateo.com/explore/turtle-clipart-hare/

http://clipart-library.com/tortoise-clipart.html

http://clipart-library.com/snow-plowing-cliparts.html

https://publicdomainvectors.org/en/free-clipart/Vector-graphics-of-younger-oak-tree/24737.html

http://clipart-library.com/clipart/344789.htm

http://clipart-library.com/clipart/8cA6xxXXi.htm

Documents

Groundwater flow through till: tortoise, hare, or not in the race? · Groundwater flow through till: tortoise, hare, or not in the race? 1Jared Trost, 2William Simpkins,1,2Anna-Turi