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Social Context at a Group Level Group context involves more than individual interactions, but less than organizational culture. Much has been written about group processes, whether as teams (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993) or communities (Wenger et. al., 2002 and Saint-Onge and Wallace, 2003), with a focus on work processes and group productivity. This section uses the phrase “group dynamics” to distinguish group behavior from that of individuals or the enterprise as a whole. Groups, communities, or committees generally consist of small numbers of people, such that most or all members typically know and relate to all other members. Consequently, many of the individual context criteria described in Section 3.1 can be scaled up to groups. Conversely, when several people gather and work collectively, the overall dynamics of the group become important. Therefore, many of the organizational context criteria described in Section 3.3 can also be scaled down to groups. This section focuses on criteria specifically related to group dynamics. A total of 190 terms related to the group scale context found in the literature were classified into five criteria: positive group dynamics, negative group dynamics, formal group structure, informal group structure, and social networks (Figure2). Table 2 provides a detailed framework for the group context criteria and their associated indicators and management actions. Each criterion is briefly described below.

Figure 2. Group Context Scale

Positive group dynamics is desired group behavior and interaction that facilitates group productivity, increases the quality and quantity of outputs, and enhances outcomes. Attributes include shared values, common interests, and mutual respect. Positive group dynamics indicators include reciprocity, dialogue, and meritocracy of ideas. Management actions include promoting shared values, acknowledging all contributions, and listening before speaking. Negative group dynamics is undesired group behavior and interaction that impedes group productivity,

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reduces the quality and quantity of outputs, and lessens outcomes. Attributes of negative group dynamics include dominance and power, conflicting goals and purpose, and authority. Negative group dynamics indicators include debating and arguing, dominance and exclusion, and inflexibility. Management actions include providing procedural rules, creating a code of conduct, and establishing participation standards. Formal group structure is associated with groups that are established by and accountable to a business unit that assigns a group mandate. Formal group attributes include specified business objectives, assigned membership, and directed development. Formal group indicators include goal orientation, a formal agenda, and selected representatives. Management actions include establishing work groups, providing a mandate, and assigning resources.

Informal group structure is associated with groups that are self-organized, define their own mandate, and are responsible to themselves. Informal group attributes include member-defined objectives, self-joining, and organic development. Informal group indicators include self-governed, voluntary participation, and flexible evolution. Management actions include promoting communities of practices, enabling self-determined norms, and providing for multiple participant levels. Social networks are large numbers of individuals, groups, or organizations that are interconnected based on one or more interdependencies, common interests, relationships, or knowledge. Attributes of social networks include large numbers of participants, unknown trust among participants, diverse participants, and value that is created and shared by all. Social network indicators include leveraging work, non-linear response, synergy and emergence, and volatility. Management actions include recognizing and rewarding participants, protecting long incubations, preparing for volatility, and capturing network value.

Table 2. Group Social Context Framework

Table 2 provides a detailed framework for the group scale context, including criteria, indicators, and management actions. There are five criteria: positive group dynamics, negative group dynamics, formal group structure, informal group structure, and social networks.

Criteria Indicators* Management*

Positive Group Dynamics

Shared values, goals

Common Interests , purpose

Self-governed, self-directed

Good chemistry

Compatibility, coherence

Autonomy, voluntarism

Delegation / dependence

Diversity

Alternatives / initiate change

Facts, objectivity, authenticity

Question assumptions

Organizational influence

Mutual respect

Conversation, dialogue

Meritocracy of ideas

Consensus, agreement

Listening, receptivity

Team building

Synergy, emergence

Participant equality

Flexibility, accept change

Teamwork, reciprocity

Intensity

Cooperation, collaboration

Growth

Seeking outliers

Clarify expectations

Promote shared values

Agreed group norms

Acknowledge all contributions

Don’t criticize, blame others

Give credit freely

Keep commitments

Address difficult issues

Be Accountable, Responsible

Listen before speaking

Understand other views

Don’t presume knowledge

Harvest group outputs

Negative Group Dynamics

Dominance, power

Incompatibility, incoherence

Conflicting goals, purpose

Agenda, assignment

Authority, control

Deterrence

Debate

Argument

Groupthink

Majority voting

Reaction

Exclusion

Procedural rules

Code of conduct

Participation standards

Appropriate penalties

Consistent penalties

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Alliances, cliques

Harmfulness

Overreaching

Manipulation

Dominance

Lack of consensus

Decay

Inflexibility

Formal Group Structure

Business objectives

Assigned membership, task

Management sponsorship

Sponsor-defined mandate

Directed development

Business benefits

Sponsored activity

High visibility

Accomplish objectives

Selected representatives

Accountable to sponsor

Goal-oriented

Formal agenda

Predetermined goals

Committed resources

Performance evaluation

Establish committees

Establish task ,work groups

Provide mandate, goals

Assign resources

Develop norms

Provide guidelines

Capture group outputs

Informal Group Structure

Discussion Forum

Self-joining

No sponsor

Member-defined mandate

Organic development

Member benefits

Low visibility

Create knowledge

Support members

Dialogue & creativity

Voluntary participants

Responsible to members

Self-selected goals

Flexible evolution

Personal interests

Limited resources

Self-evaluated

Self-governed, organized

Communities of practice

Self-determined norms

Permit evolution

Multiple participant levels

Public & private spaces

Combine familiarity & newness

Match pace to participants

Social Networks

Large numbers

Unknown trust

Unknown safety

Unknown participants

Diverse participants

Large, global scale

Strong / weak links

Value proportional to size Value

created, shared by all

Value external to members

Uneven capture of value

Providers / recipients

Leveraging work

Positive feedback

Non-linear response

Biological growth

Synergy, emergence

Clustering / differentiation

Volatility, rapid response

Unpredictability

Word spreads very fast

Change is normal

Cross domain boundaries

Weak links are important

Ensure participant safely

Recognize, reward participants

Respect network norms

Protect long incubations

Prepare for volatility

Harvest network outputs

Capture network value

Interact with stakeholders

Connect clients, stakeholders

Leverage clients, stakeholders

Explore network opportunities

Measure, analyze network activity

* (/) indicates contrasting terms; (,) indicates similar terms; (-) indicates sequential terms