Growing Up Global:

Can Education

Reduce

Gender Inequality

and Poverty?

Cynthia B. Lloyd

Iowa State University

October 30, 2007

Outline

• Global Context

• Criteria for successful transitions to adulthood

• Past trends in education

• Current realities

• Challenges for the future: freeing constraints/

surmounting traps

Global context

• Changing demography of youth

• Globalization and democratization

• The impact of global change on youth and

transitions to adulthood

• Criteria for successful transitions to adulthood

Africa

Asia

Latin America/Caribbean

1.1 billion

1.6 billion

1.7 billion

Source: UN World Population Prospects, 2006 Revision Population Database

Demographic profile of young people (10-24)

in developing countries

Source: UN World Population Prospects, 2006 Revision Population Database

• Pervasiveness of market-led economic change

• Technological change

• Democratization and the rise of civil society

• Changes in population size and distribution

• Rapid spread of formal schooling

• Changes in the health environment

• Cultural diffusion and ideational change

• Emergence of systems of international governance

Rapid global change

Source: NRC/IOM (2005)

Rapid

Global

Change

Changing

National

Context

Changing Local

CommunityContext

Changes in

Education/

Human

Capital/

Learning

Outcomes

Changes

in the

Transition to

Adulthood

Conceptual framework

Source: NRC/IOM (2005)

Rapid

Global

Change

What do young people need to achieve

successful transitions?

• Good health, including knowledge and means to sustain

health

• An appropriate stock of human and social capital to become

a productive adult

• Prosocial values and the ability to contribute to the collective

well-being

• Adequate preparation for the assumption of adult social roles

and obligations

• The capability to make choices

Source: NRC/IOM (2005)

Primary completion ratios of boys and girls combined by region,

1990–2000, population weighted

0

20

40

60

80

100

1990 Most Recent Year

Source: Bruns et al. 2003

Percent completing primary school, 30 African countries

late 1960s early 1970s late 1970s early 1980s late 1980s early 1990s late 1990s

Source: Hewett and Lloyd (2005)

Individual country trends, percentage completing 6+ grades

Africa

Asia

Latin America/

Caribbean

Middle East

Source: Demographic and Health Surveys data

Age Age

Tanzania (2004)

Age

Ethiopia (2005)

Age

Bangladesh (2004)India (1998-00)

Ghana (2003)

Age

Pakistan (2001-02)

Age

Percent completed 6+ years, 6 countries

Boys Girls

Source: DHS and AYP data

Highlights – Past Trends

• Unprecedented progress in educational

attainment, particularly for girls

• Gender gaps closing

• Universal primary completion still elusive in

much of Africa, parts of Asia

• Diversity persists

Percentage of 10-14 year olds currently attending, by region & country

Africa

Asia

Latin

America

Middle East

Overall population “Poor” population

Girls BoysSource: Demographic and Health Surveys data

Guatemala: Differences in going to and staying in school among

cohorts 7-12, 15-19, and 20-24 years old, by ethnicity and genderP

erc

en

tage

Source: Hallman and Peracca (2007)

Pakistan: 15–19 year olds who ever attended school,

based on residence and socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status

Rural Urban

Pe

rcen

tage

*

Urban low not included; too few casesSource: Lloyd, Mete, Grant 2007

*

Source: Demographic and Health Surveys data

Percent of 15 year olds who did NOT reach level 1 competence level in Pisa Assessment Test s

Reading

Math

Source: Filmer, Hasan, and Pritchett (2006)

Low & Middle Income countries High Income countries

Reaching

advanced

benchmark

Reaching

high

benchmark

Reaching

intermediate

benchmark

Reaching

low

benchmark

Not reaching

low benchmark

Results of TIMSS 2003: Mathematics achievement of Grade 8 students

Note: Countries sorted in increasing order of proportion not reaching low benchmark

Source: Mullis et al. (2004), p. 64

100

80

60

40

20

0

20

40

60

80

100

% o

f stu

de

nts

at e

ach

in

tern

atio

nal b

en

ch

ma

rk

Esto

nia

Hu

ng

ary

Latv

ia

Mala

ysia

Ru

ssia

n F

ed

.

Slo

vakia

Lit

hu

an

ia

Arm

en

ia

Bu

lgari

a

Serb

ia/M

on

t

Ro

man

ia

Mo

ldo

va

Leb

an

on

Maced

on

ia

Jo

rdan

Ind

on

esia

Iran

Tu

nis

ia

Eg

yp

t

Mo

rocco

Ch

ile

Ph

ilip

pin

es

Bo

tsw

an

a

Sau

di A

rab

ia

So

uth

Afr

ica

Gh

an

a

Sin

gap

ore

Can

ad

a

Ho

ng

Ko

ng

Rep

Ko

rea

Jap

an

Neth

erl

an

ds

Can

ad

a

Belg

ium

Sw

ed

en

Au

str

alia

US

A

UK

Sco

tlan

d

UK

En

gla

nd

Slo

ven

ia

New

Zeala

nd

Isra

el

Italy

No

rway

Cyp

rus

Bah

rain

Pakistan

Malawi

Current Realities

• Cross-country and within country inequalities in

school attendance

• Need to expand access for “excluded” groups:

poor, minorities, child of conflict

• Crisis in school quality; abysmal test scores on

reading and math

Source: Psacharopoulos and Patrinos (2004)

Percent NOT attending secondary school (15-19)

Africa

Asia

Latin

America

Middle East

Source: Demographic and Health Surveys data

FEMALE

Source: Buvinic, Guzman, Lloyd 2007

Labor force participation rates , regional averages

MALE

Paradox

• High and rising returns for girls attending

secondary school

• Low levels of participation in secondary school

in many countries

• Barriers to girls’ participation in secondary

school and to girls’ employment

Challenges for the futureFreeing constraints and surmounting traps

• Reaching the marginalized

• Improving school quality

• Increasing access to secondary school

• Creating variety and choice in learning

opportunities

• Surmounting the digital/language divide

• Combating employment discrimination

Reach the marginalized

• Eliminate tuition fees

• Bring schooling to the geographically

isolated/children of conflict

• Combat discrimination against minority groups

• Provide conditional cash transfers for the poor

• Invest in infrastructure to reduce domestic

drudgery

Improve primary school quality

• Provide incentives for performance

• Create systems of accountability/transparency

to parents/ community

• Provide gender training for teachers

• Recruit and train para-teachers

• Create safe spaces for girls

Increase access to secondary school

• Provide girls’ only scholarships/stipends

• Enlist alternative schools for girls (.e.g.,

madrassas in Bangladesh)

• Prohibit discrimination in admission criteria for

girls

Create variety and choice for learning

during adolescence

• Non-formal alternatives for girls left behind

• Accelerated learning programs to support

school re-entry

• Livelihoods programs to enhance employability

both within and outside schools

• Part-time learning programs combining school

and work

Surmount the digital/language divide

• Invest in connectivity outside major urban areas

• Train teachers in use of technologies for

learning (e.g., radios, videos, computers)

• Create public/private partnerships for

technology investments

• Teach international language

Combat employment discrimination

• Enforce equal pay for equal work

• Reduce labor market regulations

• Change gender norms through media

messages, political leadership

• Promote policies that ensure property/

inheritance rights, legal identity, eligibility for

loans/savings

Reduce gender inequality and poverty

• Education for all is a necessary but not sufficient

condition

• Quality of education matters

• Culture/legal context matters

• Employment/entrepreneurship opportunities to

match skills are critical