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Guaraní apuka I laugh repuka you (sg) laugh opuka he laughs japuka we laugh ropuka we laugh pepuka you (pl) laugh opuka they laugh

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Add morphology depending on related temporal (time) properties Past, future, present ▪ mangerai (Frn); sings

Remoteness is specified in some languages Not just verbs in some languages ▪ tupus (Lus)

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Add morphology depending on properties related to time intervals Continuous, ongoing Perfective (completed) Temporarily interrupted, habitual

e.g. sang vs. (have) (been) singing учиться/научиться

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Add morphology based on the function of the sentence Declarative: makes a statement Interrogative: asks a question Imperative: gives an order, command Irrealis: communicates improbability Conditional: communicates conditionality

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Derivational 1. Reflexive (-n, -il) 2. Reciprocal (-iş) 3. Causative (-dir, -t) 4. Passive (-il) 5. Repetitive (-iştir)

Inflectional 1. Negation (-ma) 2. Tenses

1. Past (-di) 2. Future (-yacak)

3. Mood 1. Potential (-ebil) 2. Inferential (-miş) 3. Conditional (-sa) 4. Interrogative (-mi)

4. Person, number

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Nouns verbs (-la) “make”: ev (house) ev-le-mek (marry) Ev-le-n-dir-il-diğ-im-den

“because I was forced to marry” Verbs nouns “Niçin” diy-eceğ-im geliyor

“I feel like asking: why?” Evle- -n-iş-tir-il- -eme-yebil-ecek-di-k

root d1 d2 d3 d4 i1 i2 i3 i3 i4

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Ev-le-n-dir-il-diğ-im-den “because I was forced to marry”

“Niçin” diy-eceğ-im geliyor “I feel like asking: why?”

Evle--n-iş-tir-il- -eme-yebil-ecek-di-k root d1 d2 d3 d4 i1 i2 i3 i3 i4

How morphology interacts with syntax

Inflect verb based on how much it transfers the action, and to whom Transitive: action is transferred Intransitive: action isn’t transferred Causative: some entity is made/caused to

do something e.g.

Ditransitive ▪ Double object construction

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Add morphology depending on nature of action Passive: subject receives action Active: subject does, accomplishes the action Middle: in between (to step on)+trx+trx+pass+ooc+pass

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Word (usually V) compounds with another word (usually direct object or adverbial modifier)

Original syntactic function is retained (i) t+pelarkn qoran

I + leave reindeer `I'm leaving the reindeer'

(ii) t+qora+pelarkn (same) (Chukchee)

Replace a lexical NP object with a bound lexical morpheme

. [He] washed [his] hand[s].

. [He] washed [his] hand[s].

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Verb with an argument that expresses the cause of the action described by the verb (i) John let Bill eat grass (ii) John made Bill eat grass (iii) John caused Bill to eat grass

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Verbal affixation process Morphological marking increases number of

internal arguments Mumbanda w-a-temesha mali kudi mukwawu

woman SP-PST-send money to her friend 'The woman sent money to her friend.‘

Mumbanda w-a-temesh-ela mukwawu mali woman SP-PST-send-APPL her friend money 'The woman sent her friend money.'

Mumbanda w-a-mu-tamesh-ela-yu woman SP-PST-him-send-APPL-it 'The woman sent him it.‘ (Lunda)

Frequent and annoying confusion of three morphemes: plural possessive present tense clitic

*Tomato’s 89¢/lb. It’s hot outside. *The dog ate it’s breakfast. John’s going to the store.

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