Guide on Selection of Detection Equipment Vol1 2005

8/2/2019 Guide on Selection of Detection Equipment Vol1 2005

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Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and Toxic Industrial

Material Detection Equipment for Emergency First Responders,

2nd

Edition

Guide 10004Supersedes NIJ Guide 10000, Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and

Toxic Industrial Material Detection Equipment for Emergency First Responders,

Volume I, dated December 2001

Dr. Alim A. Fatah1Richard D. Arcilesi, Jr.2

Dr. James C. Peterson2

Charlotte H. Lattin2Corrie Y. Wells2

Coordination by:Office of Law Enforcement Standards

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

Prepared for:

Department of Homeland Security

Office of State and Local Government Coordination & PreparednessOffice for Domestic Preparedness

System Support Division

800 K Street, NWWashington, DC 20531

March 2005

This document was prepared under CBIAC contract number

SPO90094D0002 and Interagency Agreement M92361 between NIST andthe Department of Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC).

1National Institute of Standards and Technology, Office of Law Enforcement Standards.2Battelle Memorial Institute.


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This guide was prepared for the Office of State and Local Government Coordination &

Preparedness, Office for Domestic Preparedness, System Support Division by the Office of LawEnforcement Standards at the National Institute of Standards and Technology under InteragencyAgreement 94IJR004, Project No. 99060CBW. It was also prepared under CBIAC

contract No. SPO90094D0002 and Interagency Agreement M92361 between NIST and the

Department of Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC).

The authors wish to thank Ms. Kathleen Higgins of the National Institute of Standards and

Technology (NIST) for programmatic support and for numerous valuable discussions concerning

the contents of this document.

We also wish to acknowledge the InterAgency Board (IAB) for Equipment standardization and

Interoperability. The IAB (made up of government and first responder representatives) wasestablished to ensure equipment standardization and interoperability and to oversee the research

and development of advanced technologies to assist first responders at the state and local levels

in establishing and maintaining a robust crisis and consequence management capability.

We also sincerely thank all vendors who provided us with information about their products.

DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT I: Approved For Public Release; Distribution Is

Unlimited.

DISCLAIMER: Reference in this guide to any specific commercial product, process, or

service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not constitute or imply

the endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the Department of Homeland Security,

or any agency thereof. The views and opinions contained in this guide are those of the

authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Homeland Security or

any agency thereof.


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FOREWORD:

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of the Secretary, Office of State and Local

Government Coordination & Preparedness (SLGCP) develops and implements preparedness andprevention programs to enhance the capability of Federal, state and local governments, and the

private sector to prevent, deter and respond to terrorist incidents involving chemical, biological,radiological, nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) devices. SLGCP administers comprehensiveprograms of direct and grant support for training, exercises, equipment acquisition, technology

transfer, and technical assistance to enhance the nation's preparedness for CBRNE acts ofterrorism. The SLGCP Systems Support Division (SSD) works closely with other ODP

divisions and Homeland Security professionals gaining an intimate understanding of the

emergency responder technology needs and shortfalls. In addition, SSD conducts commercialtechnology assessments and demonstrations, and transfers equipment directly to the emergency

responders. As part of the Congressional FY03 funding, SSD was tasked with developing

CBRNE technology guides and standards for the emergency responder community. This is oneof several guides that will aide emergency responders in the selection of CBRNE technology.


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CONTENTS

FOREWORD................................................................................................................................. iiiCOMMONLY USED SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................... vii

ABOUT THIS GUIDE ................................................................................................................ viii

1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................12. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL AGENTS AND TOXIC INDUSTRIAL

MATERIALS.............................................................................................................................3

2.1 Chemical Agents (CAs)................................................................................................3

2.2 Toxic Industrial Materials (TIMs) ....................................................................................73. OVERVIEW OF CHEMICAL AGENT AND TIM DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES.....11

3.1 Point Detection Technologies.....................................................................................11

3.2 Standoff Detectors ..........................................................................................................203.3 Analytical Instruments....................................................................................................22

4. SELECTION FACTORS.........................................................................................................27

4.1 Chemical Agents Detected..............................................................................................27

4.2 TIMs Detected ................................................................................................................274.3 Sensitivity .......................................................................................................................27

4.4 Resistance to Interferants................................................................................................284.5 Response Time................................................................................................................28

4.6 Start-up Time ..................................................................................................................28

4.7 Detection States ..............................................................................................................28

4.8 Alarm Capability.............................................................................................................284.9 Portability........................................................................................................................28

4.10 Power Capabilities ..........................................................................................................28

4.11 Battery Needs..................................................................................................................284.12 Operational Environment................................................................................................29

4.13 Durability........................................................................................................................294.14 Procurement Costs ..........................................................................................................29

4.15 Operator Skill Level........................................................................................................29

4.16 Training Requirements....................................................................................................295. EQUIPMENT EVALUATION ...............................................................................................31

5.1 Equipment Usage Categories..........................................................................................31

5.2 Evaluation Results ..........................................................................................................33

APPENDIX ARECOMMENDED QUESTIONS ON DETECTORS ...................................A1

APPENDIX BREFERENCES................................................................................................B1

TABLES

Table 21. Physical properties of common nerve agents ..............................................................4Table 22. Physical properties of common blister agents..............................................................6

Table 23. Physical properties of TIMs ........................................................................................8

Table 24. TIMs listed by hazard index ......................................................................................10Table 41. Selection factor key for chemical detection equipment .............................................30

Table 51. Detection equipment usage categories ......................................................................32


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Table 52. Evaluation results reference table ..............................................................................33

Table 53. Handheld-portable detection equipment (CAs) .........................................................35

Table 54. Handheld-portable detection equipment (TIMs)........................................................36

Table 55. Handheld-portable detection equipment (CAs and TIMs).........................................42Table 56. Handheld-stationary detection equipment (CAs) .......................................................44

Table 57. Handheld-stationary detection equipment (TIMs). ....................................................46Table 58. Handheld-stationary detection equipment (CAs and TIMs) ......................................47Table 59. Vehicle-mounted Detection detection equipment ......................................................48

Table 510. Fixed-site detection systems.......................................................................................49Table 511. Fixed-site analytical laboratory systems ....................................................................51

Table 512. Standoff detection systems.........................................................................................53

Table 513. Detection systems with limited data...........................................................................54Table 514. Selection factor key for chemical detection equipment .............................................56

FIGURES

Figure 31. Advanced Portable Detection (APD) 2000, Smiths Detection..................................12

Figure 32. APACC Chemical Control Alarm Portable Apparatus, Proengin SA.......................14Figure 33. Innova Type 1312 Multigas Monitor, California Analytical Instruments.................15

Figure 34. Miran SaphIRe Portable Ambient Air Analyzer, Thermo Environmental

Products.....................................................................................................................15Figure 35. ToxiRAE Plus Personal Gas Monitor, RAE Systems...............................................16

Figure 36. Draeger CDS Kit, Draeger Safety, Inc......................................................................17

Figure 37. SAW MiniCAD mkII, Microsensor Systems ...........................................................18Figure 38. MiniRAE Plus, RAE Systems, Inc. ..........................................................................18

Figure 39. Portable Odor Monitor, Sensidyne, Inc....................................................................19

Figure 310. TVA-1000B (FID or FID/PID) Toxic Vapor Analyzer,Thermo Environmental Products ..............................................................................19

Figure 311. Cyranose 320, Cyrano Sciences.............................................................................20

Figure 312. HAWK Long Range Chemical Detector, Bruker Daltonics ....................................21

Figure 313. HazMatID, SensIR Technologies.............................................................................21Figure 314. Safeye Model 400 Gas Detection System (UV), Spectrex, Inc................................22

Figure 315. Inficon Hapsite

Field Portable System, INFICON.................................................23Figure 316. Agilent 6890-5973 GC/MSD,Agilent Technologies ..............................................23

Figure 317. Voyager Portable Gas Chromatograph, Photovac, Inc.............................................24

Figure 318. Scentograph Plus II, Sentex Systems, Inc. ..............................................................24Figure 319. HP1000 HPLC System, Agilent Technologies .......................................................24

Figure 320. LC-10 HPLC System, Shimadzu Scientific Instruments ........................................24Figure 321. Metrohm Model 761 Compact IC System, Metrohm-Peak, Inc. ............................25Figure 322. Bio-Rad BioFocus 2000 CZE System, Bio-Rad Laboratories ................................26


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ABOUT THIS GUIDE

The Office of State and Local Government Coordination & Preparedness, System SupportDivision of the Department of Homeland Security is the focal point for providing support to

State and local law enforcement agencies in the development of counterterrorism technology and

standards, including technology needs for chemical and biological defense. In recognizing theneeds of State and local emergency first responders, the Office of Law Enforcement Standards

(OLES) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), supported by the

Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the Technical Support Working Group (TSWG), the

U.S. Army Edgewood Chemical and Biological Center (ECBC), and the Interagency Board forEquipment Standardization and Interoperability (IAB), has developed chemical and biological

defense equipment guides. The guides focused on chemical and biological equipment in areas of

detection, personal protection, decontamination, and communication. This document is anupdate of the Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and Toxic Industrial Material Detection

Equipment for Emergency First Responders (NIJ Guide 10000) published in June 2000 and

developed to assist the emergency first responder community in the evaluation and purchase of

chemical detection equipment.

The long range plans continue to include two goals: (1) subject existing chemical detectionequipment to laboratory testing and evaluation against a specified protocol, and (2) conduct

research leading to the development of a series of documents, including national standards, user

guides, and technical reports. It is anticipated that the testing, evaluation, and research processes

will take several years to complete; therefore, the Department of Homeland Security willcontinue to maintain this guide for the emergency first responder community in order to facilitate

their evaluation and purchase of chemical detection equipment.

In conjunction with this program, the additional published guides and other documents, including

biological agent detection equipment, decontamination equipment, personal protectiveequipment, and communications equipment used in conjunction with protective clothing and

respiratory equipment, will be periodically updated.

The information contained in this guide has been obtained through literature searches and market

surveys. The vendors were contacted multiple times during the preparation of this guide to

ensure data accuracy. In addition, the information is supplemented with test data obtained fromother sources (e.g., Department of Defense) if available. It should also be noted that the purpose

of this guide is not to provide recommendations but rather to serve as a means to provide

information to the reader to compare and contrast commercially available detection equipment.

Technical comments, suggestions, and product updates are encouraged from interested parties.They may be addressed to the Office of Law Enforcement Standards, National Institute of

Standards and Technology, 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8102, Gaithersburg, MD 208998102. It isanticipated that this guide will continue to be updated periodically.

Questions relating to the specific devices included in this document should be addresseddirectly to the proponent agencies or the equipment manufacturers. Contact information

for each equipment item included in this guide can be found in Volume II, appendix F.


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GUIDE FOR THE SELECTION OF CHEMICAL AGENT AND TOXIC

INDUSTRIAL MATERIAL DETECTION EQUIPMENT FOR

EMERGENCY FIRST RESPONDERS

This second edition guide includes information intended to be useful to the emergency firstresponder community in the selection of chemical agent (CA) and toxic industrial material (TIM)

detection techniques and equipment for different applications. It includes an updated marketsurvey of chemical agent and toxic industrial material technologies and commercially available

detectors known to the authors as of July 2004. Brief technical discussions are presented that

consider the principles of operation of the various technologies. These may be ignored by

readers who find them too technical, while those wanting additional technical information canobtain it from the extensive list of references that is included in appendix B and the equipment

data sheets provided in Volume II, appendix F.

1. INTRODUCTION

The primary purpose of the Guide for the Selection of Chemical Agent and Toxic Industrial

Material Detection Equipment for Emergency First Responders is to provide emergency firstresponders with information to aid them in the selection and utilization of chemical agent (CA)

and toxic industrial material (TIM)3 detection equipment. The guide is intended to be more

practical than technical and provides information on a variety of factors that should be

considered when purchasing and using detection equipment, including sensitivity, detectionstates, and portability to name a few.

Due to the large number of chemical detection equipment items identified in this guide, the guideis separated into two volumes. Volume I represents the actual guide and Volume II serves as a

supplement to Volume I since it contains the detection equipment data sheets only.

The remainder of this guide (i.e., Volume I) is divided into five sections. Section 2 provides an

introduction to CAs and TIMs. Specifically, it discusses nerve and blister agents by providingoverviews, physical and chemical properties, routes of entry, and symptoms. It also discusses

the 98 TIMs that are considered in this guide. Section 3 presents an overview of the identified

CA and TIM detection technologies. For each technology, a short description is provided alongwith photographs of specific equipment that falls within the technology discussed. Section 4

discusses various characteristics and performance parameters that are used to evaluate the CAand TIM detection equipment in this guide. These characteristics and performance parameters

are referred to as selection factors in the remainder of this guide. Sixteen selection factors have

been identified. These factors were compiled by a panel of experienced scientists and engineerswith multiple years of experience in CA and TIM detection and analysis, domestic preparedness,and identification of emergency first responder needs. The factors have also been shared with

the emergency first responder community in order to obtain their thoughts and comments.

Section 5 presents several tables that allow the reader to compare and contrast the differentdetection equipment utilizing the 16 selection factors.

3 Toxic industrial materials are also referred to as toxic industrial chemicals (TICs).


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Two appendices are also included within this guide. Appendix A lists questions that could assist

emergency first responders with selecting detection equipment. Appendix B lists the documents

that were referenced in this guide.


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2. INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL AGENTS AND TOXIC

INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

The purpose of this section is to provide a description of chemical agents (CAs) and toxic

industrial materials (TIMs). Section 2.1 provides the discussion of CAs and sec. 2.2 provides the

discussion of TIMs.

2.1 Chemical Agents

Chemical agents are chemical substances that are intended for use in warfare or terroristactivities to kill, seriously injure, or seriously incapacitate people through their physiological

effects. A CA attacks the organs of the human body in such a way that it prevents those organs

from functioning normally. The results are usually disabling or even fatal.

Chemical agents, when referred to in this guide, refer to nerve and blister agents only. The most

common CAs are the nerve agents, GA (Tabun), GB (Sarin), GD (Soman), GF, and VX; the

blister agents, HD (sulfur mustard) and HN (nitrogen mustard); and the arsenical vesicants, L(Lewisite). Other toxic chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide (characterized as a chemical blood

agent by the military) or phosgene (characterized as a choking agent) are included as TIMs under

sec. 2.2 of this guide.

2.1.1 Nerve Agents

This section provides an overview of nerve agents. A discussion of their physical and chemicalproperties, their routes of entry, and descriptions of symptoms is also provided.

2.1.1.1 Overview

Among lethal CAs, the nerve agents have had an entirely dominant role since World War II.

Nerve agents acquired their name because they affect the transmission of impulses in the nervoussystem. All nerve agents belong to the chemical group of organo-phosphorus compounds; many

common herbicides and pesticides also belong to this chemical group. Nerve agents are stable,

easily dispersed, highly toxic, and have rapid effects when absorbed both through the skin andthe respiratory system. Nerve agents can be manufactured by means of fairly simple chemical

techniques. The raw materials are inexpensive but some are subject to the controls of the

Chemical Weapons Convention and the Australia Group Agreement.

2.1.1.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

The nerve agents considered in this guide are described below. The term volatility refers to asubstances ability to become a vapor at relatively low temperatures. A highly volatile

(nonpersistent) substance poses a greater respiratory hazard than a less volatile (persistent)

substance.

GA: A low volatility persistent CA that is taken up through skin contact andinhalation of the substance as a gas or aerosol.

GB: A volatile nonpersistent CA that is mainly taken up through inhalation.


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GD: A moderately volatile CA that can be taken up by inhalation or skin contact. GF: A low volatility persistent CA that is taken up through skin contact and

inhalation of the substance either as a gas or aerosol.

VX: A low volatility persistent CA that can remain on material, equipment, andterrain for long periods. Uptake is mainly through the skin but also through inhalation

of the substance as a gas or aerosol.

Nerve agents in the pure state are colorless liquids. Their volatility varies widely. The

consistency of VX may be likened to motor oil and is therefore classified as belonging to the

group of persistent CAs. Its effect is mainly through direct contact with the skin. Sarin is at the

opposite extreme; being a highly volatile liquid (comparable with, for example, water), it ismainly taken up through the respiratory organs. The volatilities of GD, GA, and GF are between

those of GB and VX. Table 21 lists the common nerve agents and some of their properties.

Water is included in the table as a reference point for the nerve agents.

Table 21. Physical properties of common nerve agents

Property GA GB GD GF VX Water

Molecular weight 162.3 140.1 182.2 180.2 267.4 18

Density, g/cm3* 1.073 1.089 1.022 1.120 1.008 1

Boiling point, F 464 316 388 462 568 212

Melting point, F 18 -69 -44 -22 < -60 32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg *

0.07 2.9 0.4 0.06 0.0007 23.756

Volatility, mg/m3

* 610 22 000

3 900

600

10.5

23 010

Solubility in

water, % *

10 Miscible

with water

2 ~2 Slightly NA

* at 77 FNA: not applicable

2.1.1.3 Route of Entry

Nerve agents, either as a gas, aerosol, or liquid, enter the body through inhalation or through theskin. Poisoning may also occur through consumption of liquids or foods contaminated with

nerve agents.

The route of entry also influences the symptoms developed and, to some extent, the sequence of

the different symptoms. Generally, the poisoning works fastest when the agent is absorbed

through the respiratory system rather than other routes because the lungs contain numerous bloodvessels and the inhaled nerve agent can rapidly diffuse into the blood circulation and thus reach

the target organs. If a person is exposed to a high concentration of nerve agent (e.g., 200 mg

sarin/m3), death may occur within a couple of minutes.

The poisoning works slower when the agent is absorbed through the skin. Because nerve agents

are somewhat fat-soluble, they can easily penetrate the outer layers of the skin, but it takes longerfor the poison to reach the deeper blood vessels. Consequently, the first symptoms do not occur


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until 20 min to 30 min after the initial exposure but subsequently, the poisoning process may berapid if the total dose of nerve agent is high.

2.1.1.4 Symptoms

When exposed to a low dose of nerve agent, sufficient to cause minor poisoning, the victimexperiences characteristic symptoms such as increased production of saliva, a runny nose, and afeeling of pressure on the chest. The pupil of the eye becomes contracted (miosis), which

impairs night-vision. In addition, the capacity of the eye to change focal length is reduced and

short-range vision deteriorates, causing the victim to feel pain when trying to focus on nearby

objects. This is accompanied by headache. Less specific symptoms are tiredness, slurredspeech, hallucinations, and nausea.

Exposure to a higher dose leads to more dramatic developments and more pronouncedsymptoms. Bronchoconstriction and secretion of mucus in the respiratory system leads to

difficulty in breathing and to coughing. Discomfort in the gastrointestinal tract may develop into

cramping and vomiting, and there may be involuntary defecation and discharge of urine. Theremay be excessive salivating, tearing, and sweating. If the poisoning is moderate, typical

symptoms affecting the skeletal muscles may be muscular weakness, local tremors, or

convulsions.

When exposed to a high dose of nerve agent, the muscular symptoms are more pronounced and

the victim may suffer convulsions and lose consciousness. The poisoning process may be so

rapid that symptoms mentioned earlier may never have time to develop.

Nerve agents affect the respiratory muscles and cause muscular paralysis. Nerve agents also

affect the respiratory center of the central nervous system. The combination of these two effects

is the direct cause of death. Consequently, death caused by nerve agents is similar to death bysuffocation.

2.1.2 Blister Agents (Vesicants)

This section provides an overview of blister agents (vesicants). A discussion of their physical

and chemical properties, their routes of entry, and descriptions of symptoms is also provided.

2.1.2.1 Overview

There are two major families of blister agents (vesicants): sulfur mustard (HD) and nitrogenmustard (HN), and the arsenical vesicants (L). All blister agents are persistent and may be

employed in the form of colorless gases and liquids. They burn and blister the skin or any other

part of the body they contact. Blister agents are likely to be used to produce casualties rather thanto kill, although exposure to such agents can be fatal.

2.1.2.2 Physical and Chemical Properties

In its pure state, mustard agent is colorless and almost odorless. It earned its name as a result ofan early production method that resulted in an impure product with a mustard-like smell.


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Mustard agent is also claimed to have a characteristic odor similar to rotten onions. However,the sense of smell is dulled after only a few breaths so after initial exposure the odor can no

longer be distinguished. In addition, mustard agent can cause injury to the respiratory system in

concentrations that are so low that the human sense of smell cannot distinguish them.

At room temperature, mustard agent is a liquid with low volatility and is very stable duringstorage. Mustard agent can easily be dissolved in most organic solvents but has negligiblesolubility in water. In aqueous solutions, mustard agent decomposes into nonpoisonous products

by means of hydrolysis but, since only dissolved mustard agent reacts, the decomposition

proceeds very slowly. Oxidants such as chloramine, however, react violently with mustard

agent, forming nonpoisonous oxidation products. Consequently, these substances are used forthe decontamination of mustard agent.

Arsenical vesicants are not as common or as stable as the sulfur or nitrogen mustards. Allarsenical vesicants are colorless to brown liquids. They are more volatile than mustard and have

fruity to geranium-like odors. These types of vesicants are much more dangerous as liquids than

as vapors. Absorption of either vapor or liquid through the skin in adequate dosage may lead tosystemic intoxication or death. The physical properties of the most common blister agents are

listed in table 22. Water is included in the table as a reference point for the blister agents.

Table 22. Physical properties of common blister agents

Property HD HN-1 HN-2 HN-3 L Water

Molecular

weight

159.1 170.1 156.1 204.5 207.4 18

Density, g/cm3

1.27

at 68 F

1.09

at 77 F

1.15

at 68 F

1.24

at 77 F

1.89

at 68 F

1

at 77 F

Boiling-point, F 421 381 167 at 15mm Hg

493 374 212

Freezing-point, F 58 -61.2 -85 -26.7 64.4 to

32.18

32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg

0.072

at 68 F

0.24

at 77 F

0.29

at 68 F

0.0109

at 77 F

0.394

at 68 F

23.756

at 77 F

Volatility, mg/m3

610at 68 F

1520at 68 F

3580at 77 F

121at 77 F

4480at 68 F

23,010at 77 F

Solubility in

water, %


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gives no immediate symptoms upon contact, a delay of between 2 h and 24 h may occur beforepain is felt and the victim becomes aware of what has happened. By then, cell damage has

already occurred. The delayed effect is a characteristic of mustard agent.

2.1.2.4 Symptoms

In general, vesicants can penetrate the skin by contact with either liquid or vapor. The latentperiod for the effects from mustard is usually several hours (the onset of symptoms from vapors

is 4 h to 6 h and the onset of symptoms from skin exposure is 2 h to 48 h). There is no latent

period for exposure to Lewisite.

Mild symptoms of mustard agent poisoning may include aching eyes with excessive tearing,

inflammation of the skin, irritation of the mucous membranes, hoarseness, coughing, and

sneezing. Normally, these injuries do not require medical treatment.

Severe injuries that are incapacitating and require medical care may involve eye injuries with

loss of sight, the formation of blisters on the skin, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea together withsevere difficulty in breathing. Severe damage to the eye may lead to the total loss of vision.

The most pronounced effects on inner organs are injury to the bone marrow, spleen, and

lymphatic tissue. This may cause a drastic reduction in the number of white blood cells 5 d to10 d after exposure, a condition very similar to that after exposure to radiation. This reduction of

the immune defense will complicate the already large risk of infection in people with severe skin

and lung injuries.

The most common cause of death as a result of mustard agent poisoning is complications afterlung injury caused by inhalation of mustard agent. Most of the chronic and late effects from

mustard agent poisoning are also caused by lung injuries.

2.2 Toxic Industrial Materials

This section provides a general overview of TIMs as well as a list of the specific TIMsconsidered in this guide. Since the chemistry of TIMs is so varied, it is not feasible to discuss

specific routes of entry and descriptions of symptoms.

Toxic industrial materials are chemicals other than chemical warfare agents that have harmfuleffects on humans. Toxic industrial materials, often referred to as toxic industrial chemicals

(TICs) are used in a variety of settings such as manufacturing facilities, maintenance areas, and

general storage areas. While exposure to some of these chemicals may not be immediatelydangerous to life and health (IDLH), these compounds may have extremely serious effects on an

individuals health after multiple low-level exposures.

2.2.1 General

A TIM is a specific type of industrial chemical, that is, one that has a LCt50 value (lethal

concentration for 50 % of the population multiplied by exposure time) less than 100 000


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mg-min/m3

in any mammalian species and is produced in quantities exceeding 30 tons per yearat one production facility. Although they are not as lethal as the highly toxic nerve agents, their

ability to make a significant impact on the populace is assumed to be more related to the amount

of chemical a terrorist can employ on the target(s) and less related to their lethality. None ofthese compounds are as highly toxic as the nerve agents, but they are produced in very large

quantities (multi-ton) and are readily available; therefore, they pose a far greater threat than CAs.For instance, sulfuric acid is not as lethal as the nerve agents, but it is easier to disseminate largequantities of sulfuric acid because of the large amounts that are manufactured and transported

every day. It is assumed that a balance is struck between the lethality of a material and the

amount of materials produced worldwide. Other toxic chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide

(characterized as a chemical blood agent by the military) or phosgene (characterized as a chokingagent) are included as TIMs.

Because TIMs are less lethal than the highly toxic nerve agents, it is more difficult to determinehow to rank their potential for use by a terrorist. Physical and chemical properties for TIMs such

as ammonia, chlorine, cyanogen chloride, and hydrogen cyanide are presented in table 23.

Water is included in the table as a reference point for the TIMs. The physical and chemicalproperties for the remaining TIMs identified in this guide can be found in International TaskForce 25: Hazard From Industrial Chemicals Final Report, April 1998. (See detailed reference

in app. B).

Table 23. Physical and chemical properties of toxic industrial materials

Property Ammonia ChlorineCyanogen

Chloride

Hydrogen

CyanideWater

Molecular weight 17.03 70.9 61.48 27.02 18

Density, g/cm3 0.000 77

at 77 F

3.214

at 77 F

1.18

at 68 F

0.990

at 68 F

1

at 77 F

Boiling-point, F -28 -30 55 78 212

Freezing-point, F -108 -150 20 8 32

Vapor pressure,

mm Hg at 77 F

7408 5643 1000 742 23.756

Volatility, mg/m3 6 782 064

at 77 F

21 508 124

at 77 F

2 600 000

at 68 F

1 080 000

at 77 F

2010

at 77 F

Solubility in

water, %

89.9 1.5 Slightly Highly

soluble

NA

2.2.2 Toxic Industrial Materials Rankings

TIMs are ranked into one of three categories that indicate their relative importance and assist inhazard assessment. Table 24 lists the TIMs with respect to their Hazard Index Ranking (High,

Medium, or Low Hazard).4

4 International Task Force 25: Hazard From Industrial Chemicals Final Report, April 1998.


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2.2.2.1 High Hazard

High Hazard indicates a widely produced, stored, or transported TIM that has high toxicity and is

easily vaporized.

2.2.2.2 Medium Hazard

Medium Hazard indicates a TIM that may rank high in some categories but lower in others such

as number of producers, physical state, or toxicity.

2.2.2.3 Low Hazard

Low Hazard indicates that this TIM is not likely to be a hazard unless specific operational factors

indicate otherwise.


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Table 24. Toxic industrial materials listed by hazard index

High Medium Low

Ammonia Acetone cyanohydrin Allyl isothiocyanate

Arsine Acrolein Arsenic trichlorideBoron trichloride Acrylonitrile Bromine

Boron trifluoride Allyl alcohol Bromine chloride

Carbon disulfide Allylamine Bromine pentafluoride

Chlorine Allyl chlorocarbonate Bromine trifluoride

Diborane Boron tribromide Carbonyl fluoride

Ethylene oxide Carbon monoxide Chlorine pentafluoride

Fluorine Carbonyl sulfide Chlorine trifluoride

Formaldehyde Chloroacetone Chloroacetaldehyde

Hydrogen bromide Chloroacetonitrile Chloroacetyl chloride

Hydrogen chloride Chlorosulfonic acid Crotonaldehyde

Hydrogen cyanide Diketene Cyanogen chloride

Hydrogen fluoride 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine Dimethyl sulfate

Hydrogen sulfide Ethylene dibromide Diphenylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate

Nitric acid, fuming Hydrogen selenide Ethyl chloroformate

Phosgene Methanesulfonyl chloride Ethyl chlorothioformate

Phosphorus trichloride Methyl bromide Ethyl phosphonothioic dichloride

Sulfur dioxide Methyl chloroformate Ethyl phosphonic dichloride

Sulfuric acid Methyl chlorosilane Ethyleneimine

Tungsten hexafluoride Methyl hydrazine Hexachlorocyclopentadiene

Methyl isocyanate Hydrogen iodide

Methyl mercaptan Iron pentacarbonyl

Nitrogen dioxide Isobutyl chloroformate

Phosphine Isopropyl chloroformate

Phosphorus oxychloride Isopropyl isocyanate

Phosphorus pentafluoride n-Butyl chloroformate

Selenium hexafluoride n-Butyl isocyanate

Silicon tetrafluoride Nitric oxide

Stibine n-Propyl chloroformate

Sulfur trioxide Parathion

Sulfuryl chloride Perchloromethyl mercaptan

Sulfuryl fluoride sec-Butyl chloroformate

Tellurium hexafluoride tert-Butyl isocyanaten-Octyl mercaptan Tetraethyl lead

Titanium tetrachloride Tetraethyl pyroposphate

Trichloroacetyl chloride Tetramethyl lead

Trifluoroacetyl chloride Toluene 2,4-diisocyanate

Toluene 2,6-diisocyanate


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contamination level of each person (i.e., highly contaminated personnel, lightly contaminatedpersonnel, and uncontaminated personnel) with the idea that allcontaminated people need rapid

decontamination while noncontaminated people do not need to be decontaminated. This allows

for conservation of decontamination resources and prevents wasted effort on noncontaminatedpersonnel. The following point detection techniques were identified

Ionization/Ion Mobility Spectrometry18 items identified. Flame Photometry7 items identified. Infrared Spectroscopy5 items identified. Electrochemistry 63 items identified. Colorimetric24 items identified. Surface Acoustic Wave4 items identified. Photoionization Detection8 items identified. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity2 items identified. Flame Ionization1 item identified. Polymer Composite Detection Materials1 item identified.

3.1.1 Ionization/Ion Mobility Spectrometry

A detector using ionization/ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) technology is typically a stand-alone detector that samples the environment using an air pump. Contaminants in the sampled air

are ionized by a radioactive source, and the resultant ions traverse the drift tube through a weak

electric field toward an ion detector. The flight time, or the time it takes the ions to traverse thedistance, is proportional to the size and shape of the ionized chemical species and is used for

identification of the species. Analysis time ranges from several seconds to a few minutes.

Ionization of gaseous species can be achieved at atmospheric pressure. Using proton transfer

reactions, charge transfer, dissociative charge transfer, or negative ion reactions such as iontransfer, nearly all chemical classes can be ionized. However, most IMS portable detectors use

radioactive Beta emitters to ionize the sample.

Because IMS requires a vapor or gas sample for analysis, liquid samples must first be volatilized.

The gaseous sample is drawn into a reaction chamber by a pump where a radioactive source,generally Ni63 (Nickel 63) or Am241 (Americium 241), ionizes the molecules present in the

sample. The ionized air sample, including any ionized CA, is then injected into a closed drift

tube through a shutter that isolates the contents of the drift tube from the atmospheric air. Thedrift tube has a minor electrical charge gradient that draws the sample towards a receiving

electrode at the end of the drift tube. Upon ion impact, an electrical charge is generated and

recorded with respect to a travel time. The travel time is measured from the introduction gate tothe receiving electrode. The ions impact the electrode at different intervals providing a series ofpeaks and valleys in electrical charge that is usually graphed on Cartesian Coordinates. The Y-

axis corresponds to the intensity of the charge received by impact of the various species that have

respective travel times in the drift tube. This travel time in the drift tube and the strength of thecharge gives a relative concentration of species in the sample. An example of a handheld

detector using IMS technology is the Advanced Portable Detector (APD) 2000, manufactured by


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Smiths Detection. This detector is shown in fig. 31. The market assessment identified 19detection equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 31. Advanced Portable Detector (APD) 2000, Smiths Detection

The M8A1 Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm System is another example of an IMS technology

CA detection and warning system. It incorporates the M43A1 detector to detect the presence ofnerve agent vapors or inhalable aerosols. The M43A1 detector is an ionization product

diffusion/ion mobility type detector. Air is continuously drawn through the internal sensor by apump at a rate of approximately 1.2 L/min. Air and agent molecules are first drawn past aradioactive source (Am241) and a small percentage are ionized by the beta rays. The air and

agent ions are then drawn through the baffle sections of the cell. The lighter air ions diffuse to

the walls and are neutralized more quickly than the heavier agent ions that have more momentumand are able to pass through the baffled section. As a result, the collector senses a greater ion

current when nerve agents are present compared to the current when only clean air is sampled.

An electronic module monitors the current produced by the sensor and triggers the alarm when a

critical threshold of current is reached.

3.1.2 Flame Photometry

Flame photometry is based on burning ambient air with hydrogen gas. The flame decomposes

any CAs or TIMs present in the air, and the characteristic radiation emitted by the particularexcited molecular species during its transition to the ground state can be measured. Sulfur- and

phosphorous-containing compounds introduced in a hydrogen-rich flame decompose, giving rise

to excited S2* and HPO* molecular species respectively, where * represents the excited atomicor molecular state. At the elevated flame temperature, the phosphorus and sulfur emit light of

specific wavelengths. These chemiluminescent emissions are isolated by appropriate narrow

band optical filters and converted into measurable electrical signals by a photomultiplier tube,which produces an analog signal related to the concentration of the phosphorus- and sulfur-

containing compounds in the air. Since the classical nerve agents all contain phosphorus and

sulfur and mustard contains sulfur, these agents are readily detected by flame photometry. Flamephotometry is sensitive and allows ambient air to be sampled directly. However, it is also proneto false alarms from interferants that contain phosphorus and sulfur. The number of false

positives due to interference can be minimized using algorithms. Using a flame photometric

detector (FPD) in cooperation with a gas chromatograph will further reduce the likelihood offalse alarms. There are a number of gas chromatographs that use FPDs for detection purposes.

Gas chromatographs are discussed in sec. 3.3.


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An example of a handheld detector using this technology is the APACC Chemical Control AlarmPortable Apparatus, manufactured by Proengin SA. This detector is shown in fig. 32. The

market assessment identified seven detection equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 32. APACC Chemical Control Alarm Portable Apparatus, Proengin SA

3.1.3 Infrared Spectroscopy

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy is the measurement of the wavelength and intensity of the absorption

of mid-infrared light by a sample. Mid-infrared light, bandwidth (2.5 m to 50 m) andfrequency (4000 cm-1 to 200 cm-1), is energetic enough to excite molecular vibrations to higher

energy levels. The wavelengths of IR absorption bands are characteristic of specific types of

chemical bonds and every molecule has a unique IR spectrum (fingerprint). Infrared

spectroscopy finds its greatest utility for identification of organic and organometallic molecules.There are two IR spectroscopy technologies employed in point detectors: photoacoustic infrared

spectroscopy (PIRS) and filter-based infrared spectroscopy. These two technologies and specific

detector examples are discussed in the remainder of this section.

3.1.3.1 Photoacoustic Infrared Spectroscopy

Photoacoustic infrared spectroscopy (PIRS) detectors use the photoacoustic effect to identify anddetect CA vapors. Infrared (IR) radiation is pulsed into a sample that selectively absorbs specific

IR wavelengths characteristic of target gases. When the gas absorbs infrared radiation, its

temperature rises, which causes the gas to expand and produces an acoustical wave that can bedetected by microphones mounted inside the sample cell. Various filters are then used to

selectively transmit specific IR wavelengths absorbed by the CA being monitored. Selectivity

can be increased by sequentially exposing the sample to several wavelengths of light. Usingmultiple wavelengths to identify the unknown decreases the chance of contaminants that cause

false positives and fewer interferants will be observed. Chemical agents are distinguished from

interferants by the relative signal produced when several different wavelengths are sequentiallytransmitted to the sample.

When CA is present in the sample, an audible signal (at the frequency of modulation) is

produced by the absorption of the modulated infrared light. Quantitation is possible because theacoustical wave is directly proportional to the concentration of the gas inside the cell. Although

photoacoustic detectors are sensitive to external vibration and humidity, as long as the detector is

calibrated in each operating environment immediately prior to sampling, selectivity will be veryhigh. One mobile laboratory unit that utilizes photoacoustic IR spectroscopy technology is the

Innova Type 1312 Multigas Monitor, from California Analytical Instruments, shown in fig. 33.


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The market assessment identified four detection equipment items that utilize IR radiationtechnology.

Figure 33. Innova Type 1312 Multigas Monitor,

California Analytical Instruments

3.1.3.2 Filter-Based Infrared Spectrometry

Filter-based infrared spectrometry is based on a series of lenses and mirrors that directs a narrow

bandpass infrared beam in a preselected path through the sample. The amount of energyabsorbed by the sample is measured and stored in memory. The same sample is examined at as

many as four additional wavelengths. This multiwavelength, multicomponent data is analyzed

by the microprocessor utilizing linear matrix algebra. Concentrations of each component, ineach sample, at each station, are used for compiling time weighted average (TWA) reports and

trend displays. The data management and control software (DMCS) retains data for further

analysis and longer term storage and retrieval. Thermo Environmental Products produces aportable ambient air analyzer, the Miran SaphIRe Portable Ambient Air Analyzer that is shown

in fig. 34. The market assessment identified one detection equipment item that utilizes this

technology.

Figure 34. Miran SaphIRe Portable Ambient Air Analyzer,

Thermo Environmental Products

3.1.4 Electrochemistry

Electrochemical detectors monitor the resistance of a thin film that changes as the film absorbs

chemicals from the air or monitors a change in the electric potential of an electrode when

chemicals in solution or in air are absorbed. Although electrochemical detectors are selective,they are not as sensitive as technologies such as IMS and flame photometry. Hot and cold

temperatures change the rates of reactions and shift the equilibrium point of the various


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reactions, which affects sensitivity and selectivity. Several of the fielded electrochemicaldetectors encounter problems when exposed to environmental extremes.

The inhibition of cholinesterase by nerve agents is an example of one type of reaction that can bedetected by this technique. A solution containing a known amount of cholinesterase is exposed

to an air sample that may contain nerve agent. If nerve agent is present, a percentage of thecholinesterase will be inhibited from reaction in the next step, that is, the addition of a solutioncontaining a compound that will react with uninhibited cholinesterase to produce an

electrochemically active product. The resulting cell potential is related to the concentration of

uninhibited cholinesterase, which is related to the concentration of nerve agent present in the

sampled air. Another type of electrochemical detector monitors the resistance of a thin film thatincreases as the film absorbs CA from the air. An example of a handheld detector using this

technology is the ToxiRAE Plus Personal Gas Monitor manufactured by RAE Systems (fig. 3

5). The market assessment identified 64 items that utilize this technology.

Figure 35. ToxiRAE Plus Personal Gas Monitor, RAE Systems

3.1.5 Colorimetric

Colorimetric chemistry is a wet chemistry technique formulated to indicate the presence of a CA

by a chemical reaction that causes a color change when agents come in contact with certain

solutions or substrates. The color change can be detected either visibly or with

spectrophotometric devices. Detection tubes, papers, or tickets are common and can be used todetect nerve, blister, and blood agents. Detection paper is the least expensive and sophisticated

technique for detection and can be used to quickly detect liquids and aerosols when defining a

contaminated area, but it lacks specificity and can result in false-positive determinations withcommon chemicals such as antifreeze, brake fluid, or insect repellant. Normally, two dyes and

one pH indicator are used, which are mixed with cellulose fibers in a paper without special

coloring (unbleached). When a drop of chemical warfare agent is absorbed by the paper, itdissolves one of the pigments. Mustard agent dissolves a red dye and nerve agent a yellow. In

addition, VX causes the indicator to turn blue that, together with the yellow, will become

green/green-black.

Detector papers are generally used for testing suspect droplets or liquids on a surface. For

gaseous or vaporous CAs, colorimetric tubes are available. The colorimetric tubes consist of a

glass tube that has the reacting compound sealed inside. Upon use, the tips of the tubes arebroken off and a pump is used to draw the sample across the reacting compound (through the

tube). If a CA is present, a reaction resulting in a color change takes place in the tube.

Colorimetric tubes are typically used for qualitative determinations, to verify the presence of a


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CA after an alarm is received from another monitor. They can also be used to test drinking waterfor contamination. Draeger Safety, Inc., manufactures a number of colorimetric tubes. A picture

of the Draeger CDS Kit is shown in figure 36. The market assessment identified 24 detection

equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 36. Draeger CDS Kit, Draeger Safety, Inc.

3.1.6 Surface Acoustic Wave

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) detectors consist of piezoelectric crystals coated with a filmdesigned to absorb CAs from the air. The SAW sensors detect changes in the properties of

acoustic waves as they travel at ultrasonic frequencies in the piezoelectric materials. Target

gases are absorbed onto chemically selective surfaces, which cause a change in the resonantfrequency of the piezoelectric crystal. The SAW detectors use two to six piezoelectric crystals

that are coated with different polymeric films. Each polymeric film preferentially absorbs a

particular class of volatile compound. For example, one polymeric film will be designed to

preferentially absorb water, while other polymer films are designed to preferentially absorb

different types of chemicals such as trichloroethylene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, or formaldehyde.The piezoelectric crystals detect the mass of the chemical vapors absorbed into the different,

chemically selective polymeric coatings. The change in mass of the polymeric coatings causesthe resonant frequency of the piezoelectric crystal to change. By monitoring the resonant

frequency of the different piezoelectric crystals, a response pattern of the system for a particular

vapor is generated. This response pattern is then stored in a microprocessor. When the system isoperating, it constantly compares each new response pattern to the stored response pattern for the

target vapor. When the response pattern for the target vapor matches the stored pattern, the

system alarm is activated.

Arrays of these sensors are used to simultaneously identify and measure many different CAs. A

preconcentration tube can be used to further increase detection sensitivity. These relativelyinexpensive devices can be hand-held and have several advantages, including rapid response(about 2 s), 100 % reversible recovery in 5 s to 100 s, parts per trillion (ppt) sensitivity in

quantitative determinations, and a long lifetime (>1 yr) for the polymer coatings. The selectivity

and sensitivity of these detectors depends on the ability of the film to absorb only the suspectCAs from the sample air. Operation is simple and involves very little training or expertise.

Many SAW devices use preconcentration tubes to reduce environmental interferences andincrease the detection sensitivity. A detector manufactured by Microsensor Systems, Inc., that is


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based upon the SAW technology is the SAW MiniCAD mkII (fig. 37). The market assessmentidentified four detection equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 37. SAW MiniCAD mkII, Microsensor Systems

3.1.7 Photoionization Detection

Photoionization detection (PID) works by exposing a gas stream to an ultraviolet light of awavelength with enough energy to ionize an agent molecule. If agents are present in the gas

stream, they are ionized, and an ion detector then registers a voltage proportional to the number

of ions produced in the gas sample, which is the concentration of the agent. Specificity of thesedetectors is a function of how narrow the spectral range of the exciting radiation is and on how

unique that energy is to ionizing only the molecule of interest. RAE Systems, Inc., produces the

MiniRAE 2000, a handheld detector that utilizes the PID technology, shown in fig. 38. Themarket assessment identified eight detection equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 38. MiniRAE 2000, RAE Systems, Inc.

3.1.8 Thermal and Electrical Conductivity

Thermal and electrical conductivity detectors use metal oxide thermal semiconductors that

measure the change in heat conductivity that occurs as a result of gas adsorption on the metal

oxide surface. In addition, the change in resistance and electrical conductivity across a metal foilin the system is measured when a gas adsorbs onto the surface of the metal film. Contaminants

in the atmosphere being measured will result in measurable electrical differences from the

clean or background atmosphere. However, since different contaminants will have different


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thermal conductivities and, therefore, different electrical responses from the detector, thistechnology is relatively nonselective. An example of a handheld detector using this technology

is the Portable Odor Monitor, manufactured by Sensidyne, Inc., (fig. 39). The market

assessment identified two detection equipment items that utilize this technology.

Figure 39. Portable Odor Monitor, Sensidyne, Inc.

3.1.9 Flame Ionization

A flame ionization detector (FID) is a general-purpose detector used to determine the presence of

volatile carbon-based compounds that are incinerated in a hydrogen-oxygen or hydrogen-air

flame. When the carbonaceous compounds burn, ions are generated that cause an increase in theflames baseline ion current at a collection electrode in proximity to the flame. The FIDs are not

specific and require separation technology for specificity, such as a gas chromatograph.

Identification of compounds is generally determined by comparison of the chromatographicretention time of a compound to that of a known standard, or to chromatographic retention

indices for a series of known compounds using a standard set of chromatographic conditions.

Thermo Environmental Products manufactures a unit, the TVA-1000B (FID or FID/PID) ToxicVapor Analyzer for the specific determination of GA at 0.61 ppm (v) (above IDLH) and HD at

0.29 ppm (v) (no IDLH). The TVA-1000B is shown in fig. 310. The market assessment

identified one detection equipment item that utilizes this technology.

Figure 310. TVA-1000B (FID or FID/PID) Toxic Vapor Analyzer,

Thermo Environmental Products


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3.1.10 Polymer Composite Detection Materials

Polymer composite detection materials consist of individual thin-film carbon-black/polymer

composite chemi-resistors configured into an array. The detection materials are deposited as thinfilms on an alumina substrate across two electrical leads, creating conducting chemi-resistors.

The output from the device is an array of resistance values measured between each of the twoelectrical leads for each of the detectors in the array. Nerve agent simulants, such asdimethylmethylphosphonate (DMMP) and diisopropylmethylphosponate (DIMP), could be

resolved from test analytes, including water, methanol, benzene, toluene, diesel fuel, lighter

fluid, vinegar, and tetrahydrofuran, by using standard data analysis techniques to assess the

collective output of the array. The Cyranose

320, from Cyrano Sciences, pictured in fig. 311,is a polymer composite detection materials device. The market survey identified one detection

equipment item that utilizes this technology,

Figure 311. Cyranose

320, Cyrano Sciences

3.2 Standoff Detectors

Standoff detectors are used to give advance warning of a CA cloud. Standoff detectors typically

use optimal spectroscopy and can detect CAs at distances as great as 5 km. Agent-free spectra

are used as a baseline to compare with freshly measured spectra that may contain CA. Standoffdetectors are generally difficult to operate and usually require the operator to have some

knowledge of spectroscopy in order to interpret results. Passive standoff detectors collect

infrared radiation emitted and/or measure infrared radiation absorbed from the background todetect CA and TIM vapor clouds. The following standoff techniques were identified.

Fourier Transform Infrared and Forward Looking Infrared6 items identified. Ultraviolet Spectroscopy1 item identified.

3.2.1 Fourier Transform Infrared and Forward Looking Infrared

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and forward looking infrared (FLIR)spectrometers remotely

monitor an area by either collecting infrared radiation emitted or measuring infrared radiationabsorbed from the background to detect CA and TIM vapor clouds. In order to detect the various

wavelengths emitted from the vapor clouds, FTIR spectroscopy uses an interferometer to process


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the infrared radiation and FLIR spectroscopy uses a series of optical filters. Through the use ofcomputer-based Fourier signal processing, rapid scan rates of wide ranges of wavelength and a

spectrum with characteristic fingerprint peaks that can be used to identify the detected

chemical can be generated. An example of a handheld detector using this technology is theHAWK Long Range Chemical Detector, manufactured by Bruker Daltonics (fig. 312). Another

portable detector using this technology is the HazMatIDfrom SensIR Technologies, shown infig. 313. The market assessment identified six detection equipment items that utilize thistechnology.

Figure 312. HAWK Long Range Chemical

Detector, Bruker Daltonics

Figure 313. HazMatID, SensIR

Technologies

3.2.2 Ultraviolet Spectroscopy

Certain compounds have the ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) light. Ultraviolet spectroscopyinvolves passing a monochromatic light through a dilute solution of the sample in a

nonabsorbing solvent. The UV spectrum is generally taken by placing a dilute solution of the

analyte in a silica cell and preparing a matching cell of pure solvent. The cells are placed in thespectrometer, and each cell is scanned with UV radiation. Ultraviolet spectra usually show only

one broad peak indicating absorption. The intensity of the absorption is measured by the percent

of the incident light that passes through the sample. The spectrum is determined by comparing

the intensities of the transmitted light of the sample and the pure solvent. Characteristic UVabsorptions can be useful in identifying species or assisting in determining structure. Ultraviolet

spectroscopy equipment, such as the Safeye 400 Gas Detection System by Spectrex, Inc., (fig.3

14), have several advantages, including direct fast response to changes in gas concentrations,capability of large area surveillance, good cost effectiveness, and ability to remain unaffected by

environmental conditions such as heat, humidity, snow, or rain. Disadvantages of standoff

detectors such as the Safeye include the inability to indicate the precise concentration at a givenpoint and dependence on an unobstructed line of sight between beam emitter and detector. The

market assessment identified one detection equipment item that utilizes this technology.


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Figure 314. Safeye Model 400 Gas Detection System (UV), Spectrex, Inc.

3.3 Analytical Instruments

The analytical instruments described in this section can be used to analyze samples as small as a

few microliters or milligrams. They are designed to differentiate between and accuratelymeasure the unique chemical properties of different molecules. Accuracy and reliability requires

that only very pure reagents be used, very rigid protocol and operating procedures be followed,

and careful handling be employed to prevent contamination and malfunction. Since theinstruments do not display the measured data in a straightforward manner, interpretation of themeasured data generally requires a technical background and extensive formal training. This

typically precludes their use outside of a laboratory environment, which is staffed by technically

trained people. However, some analytical instruments have been developed for fieldapplications. The following analytical techniques were identified.

Mass Spectrometry15 items identified. Gas Chromatography14 items identified. High Performance Liquid Chromatography4 items identified. Ion Chromatography1 item identified. Capillary Zone Electrophoresis1 item identified.

3.3.1 Mass Spectrometry

Mass spectrometry (MS)is a technique that can positively identify a CA at very low

concentrations. In this technique, a volatilized sample is introduced into a vacuum chamber andionized by an electron beam. This electron impact ionization generates a molecular ion of the

compound and also causes the molecule to split into a number of fragment ions characteristic of

the sample. The ionized molecules and fragments are mass analyzed by rapidly scanning a

quadrupole mass filter across a wide mass range, resulting in a spectrum of intensity versus ionmass to charge ratio (equivalent to mass for the singly charged ions usually observed). The

identity of the substances can then be determined by comparing the mass spectrum with libraryspectra and computer searching or by detailed interpretation of the ion masses and ratios. Sinceeach molecule forms a unique set of fragments, mass spectroscopy provides positive and

unambiguous identification of pure compounds. However, mixed samples may be problematic

and complicate spectral interpretation. To simplify interpretation of the mass spectrum, it isoften necessary to separate the components in the sample, such as in GC/MS, in which the gas

chromatograph column exit is connected directly to the inlet of the mass spectrometer to permit

MS analysis of mixtures separated by the GC. Two instruments that use mass spectrometry are


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Figure 317. Voyager Portable Gas

Chromatograph, Photovac, Inc.

Figure 318. Scentograph Plus II,

Sentex Systems, Inc.

3.3.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is most useful in the detection and identification oflarger molecular weight CAs, or chemicals such as BZ or LSD, and in the detection and identification

of biological agents. With HPLC, compounds that do not easily volatilize can be analyzed without

undergoing chemical derivatization. A solution of the sample is passed through a narrow bore columnat high pressure, and species are separated based on their differential affinity for the stationary phase

packing in the column. The time spent (retention time) for each component of a mixture to flow

through the column length will differ depending on the components respective affinities, resulting in

separation of the sample into discrete components. As with GCs, HPLC instruments can be equippedwith a variety of detectors such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectrometers, mass spectrometers,

fluorescence spectrometers, and electrochemical detectors. Limitations to the fielding of HPLCs and

their detectors are the need for a 120 V ac source, the need for high purity solvents, and the size of theinstruments. Currently there is no portable HPLC unit available. The HPLC instrumentation is

available from a variety of vendors such as HP1000 HPLC System from Agilent Technologies and the

LC-10 HPLC System from Shimadzu Scientific Instruments. The instruments are shown in fig. 319and fig. 320, respectively. The market assessment identified four detection equipment items that

utilize this technology.

Figure 319. HP1000 HPLC System,

Agilent Technologies

Figure 320. LC-10 HPLC System,

Shimadzu Scientific Instruments


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3.3.4 Ion Chromatography

A chromatographic technique closely related to HPLC is ion chromatography (IC). In this technique,

ionic species can be separated, detected, and identified. Limitations to the fielding of ICs and theirdetectors are similar to the limitations associated with fielding HPLC instrumentation, that is, IC

instruments require power requirements (120 V ac source), high purity water, and high purity chemicalreagents for the preparation of buffering solutions. Like HPLC, IC instruments can use UV-VISspectrometers, mass spectrometers, and electrochemical detectors. ion chromatography has been

successfully used in the U.S. Army Materiel Commands Treaty Verification Laboratory in the analysis

of several chemical nerve agents and their degradation products. The Metrohm Model 761 Compact IC

System from Metrohm-Peak, Inc., is shown in fig. 321. The market assessment identified onedetection equipment item that utilizes this technology.

Figure 321. Metrohm Model 761 Compact IC System,

Metrohm-Peak, Inc.

3.3.5 Capillary Zone Electrophoresis

Capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE or CE) is a chromatographic technique that can be thought

of as a hybridization of gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, and ion chromatography.

Rather than using a temperature gradient or a solvent gradient (as in GC or HPLC, respectively),a mobile phase containing an ionic buffer is used (as in ion chromatography). A high voltage

electric field (either fixed potential or a gradient) is applied across a fused silica column similar

to capillary columns used in GC.

The CZE instruments are typically configured with either a UV-VIS spectrometer or an

electrochemical detector, but they can be interfaced to a mass spectrometer. The CZEinstrumentation shares the same electrical requirements as HPLC and IC instruments. High

purity water and chemical reagents are required but inmuch smaller quantities. Bio-RadLaboratories manufactures the BioFocus 2000 CZE System (fig. 322). The market assessmentidentified one detection equipment item that utilizes this technology.


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Figure 322. Bio-Rad BioFocus 2000 CZE System,

Bio-Rad Laboratories


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4. SELECTION FACTORS

Section 4 provides a discussion of 16 selection factors that are recommended for consideration

by the emergency first responder community when selecting and purchasing CA and TIM

detection equipment. These factors were compiled by a panel of experienced scientists and

engineers with multiple years of experience in CA and TIM detection and analysis, domesticpreparedness, and identification of emergency first responder needs. The factors have also been

shared with the emergency first responder community in order to obtain their thoughts and

comments.

It is anticipated that, as additional input is received from the emergency first responder

community, additional factors may be added or existing factors may be modified. These factorswere developed so that CA and TIM detection equipment could be compared and contrasted in

order to assist with the selection and purchase of the most appropriate equipment. It is important

to note that the evaluation conducted using the 16 selection factors was based upon vendor-

supplied data and no independent evaluation of equipment was conducted in the development of

this guide. The vendor-supplied data can be found in its entirety in Volume II. The results of theevaluation of the detection equipment against the 16 selection factors are provided in section 5.

The remainder of this section defines each of the selection factors. Details on the manner inwhich the selection factors were used to assess the detectors are presented in table 41.

4.1 Chemical Agents Detected

This factor describes the ability of the equipment to detect CAs. Chemical agents, when referred

to in this guide, are nerve and blister agents. Nerve agents primarily consist of GB and VX.Other nerve agents include GA, GD, and GF. Blister agents primarily consist of HD, HN, and L.

4.2 Toxic Industrial Materials Detected

This factor describes the ability of the equipment to detect TIMs. The TIMs considered in the

development of this guide are discussed in sec. 2.2 and identified in one of three hazard indices

(table 24).

4.3 Sensitivity

Sensitivity is the lowest concentration a CA or TIM can be detected at by a detector or

instrument. This is also referred to as the detection limit or level of detection (LOD). Detection

limits may be dependent upon the CA or TIM, the environmental conditions, or operationalconditions.

Immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) is defined as the concentration at which self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) or respirators must be worn or immediate-life threatening

effects will occur. The purpose of establishing an IDLH exposure level is to ensure that the

worker can escape from a given contaminated environment in the event of a failure of therespiratory protection equipment. The IDLH values for the CAs and most of the 98 TIMs that

are listed in table 24 are provided in Volume II, appendix D.


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This guide bases its assessment of the sensitivity evaluation factors on the IDLH of CAs andTIMs versus the detection range of a detector. This factor does not apply to M8 and M9 paper

since they require liquid contact to determine the presence of CAs or TIMs.

4.4 Resistance to Interferents

An interferent is a compound that causes a detector to either false alarm (false positive) or fail to

alarm (false negative). Resistance to Interferents describes the ability of a detector or instrument

to resist the effects of interferants.

4.5 Response Time

Response Time is defined as the time it takes for an instrument to collect a sample, analyze thesample, determine if an agent is present, and provide feedback.

4.6 Start-Up Time

The Start-Up Time is the time required for setting up and initiating sampling with an instrument.

4.7 Detection States

Detection States factor indicates the sample states that an instrument can detect. The sample

states include vapor, aerosol, and liquid.

4.8 Alarm Capability

Alarm Capabilityindicates if an instrument has an audible, visible, or audible/visible alarm.

4.9 Portability

Portability is the ability of the equipment to be transported, including any support equipment

required to operate the device. Two important things to consider under portability are the

equipment dimensions and its weight. They determine if a single person can transport theequipment or if the equipment requires vehicular transport.

4.10 Battery Needs

Battery Needs describes if the equipment is powered by batteries with an operating life capableof sustaining activities throughout an incident. The number of batteries required for operation is

also an important consideration.

4.11 Power Capabilities

Power Capabilities indicate whether specific equipment components can operate on a battery

and/or ac electrical power.


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4.12 Operational Environment

Operational Environment describes the type of environment required by the equipment to operate

optimally. For example, some equipment is designed to operate in the field under commonoutdoor weather conditions and climates (i.e., extreme temperatures, humidity, rain, snow, fog,

etc.). However, other equipment may require more climate-controlled conditions such as alaboratory environment.

4.13 Durability

Durability describes how rugged the equipment is, that is, how well can the equipment withstand

rough handling and still operate.

4.14 Unit Cost

Unit Cost is the cost of the piece of equipment, including the cost of all support equipment andconsumables.

4.15 Operator Skill Level

Operator Skill level refers to the skill level and training required for the operation of an

instrument.

4.16 Training Requirements

Training Requirements is the amount of time required to instruct the operator to become

proficient in the operation of the instrument. For example, higher-end equipment such as ionmobility spectrometers or SAW device requires more in-depth training such as specialized

classes for operation, maintenance, and calibration of the equipment.


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5. EQUIPMENT EVALUATION

The market survey (refer to section 2 of Volume II) conducted for CA and TIM detectionequipment identified 186 different pieces of detection equipment. The details of the market

survey to include data on each piece of equipment are provided in Volume II of this guide.

Section 5 documents the results of evaluating each equipment item versus the 16 selectionfactors. Section 5.1 defines the equipment usage categories and section 5.2 discusses theevaluation results.

5.1 Equipment Usage Categories

In order to display the evaluation results in a meaningful format, the detection equipment was

grouped into seven categories based on the prospective manner of usage by the emergency firstresponder community. These usage categories included the following:

Handheld-portable detection equipment. Handheld-stationary detection equipment. Vehicle-mounted detection equipment. Fixed-site detection systems. Fixed-site analytical laboratory systems. Standoff detection systems. Detection systems with limited data.

The definitions for the six usage categories were extracted from the Final Report onChemicalDetection Equipment Market Survey for Emergency Responders. (See detailed reference in

appendix B). The definitions for each of the usage categories are in the following sections.

5.1.1 Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment

Equipment defined as being human portable for mobile operations in the field. The instrument is

light enough to be carried by an emergency first responder and operated while moving through a

building.

5.1.2 Handheld-Stationary Detection Equipment

Equipment defined as being human portable for stationary operations. The instrument is lightenough to be carried by an emergency first responder but can only be operated while stationary.

5.1.3 Vehicle-Mounted Detection Equipment

Equipment defined as being used in or from a mobile vehicle and generally uses vehicle battery

for power requirements. The equipment is designed for monitoring inside or within the generalvicinity of a vehicle.


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5.1.4 Fixed-Site Detection Systems

Equipment defined as stand-alone detection systems specifically designed to operate inside a

building. The duration of operation for these instruments is indefinite, and the powerrequirements are met through the building infrastructure. Consumables required for continuous

operation of the detection instruments (i.e., compressed gas cylinders) would need to be providedby the building management.

5.1.5 Fixed-Site Analytical Laboratory Systems

Equipment defined as stand-alone detection systems requiring a means of delivering a sample tothe equipment for analysis. This equipment generally requires a trained technical operator as

well as extensive labor to assemble and disassemble inside a building for short duration

monitoring of an area. This equipment typically performs low level monitoring of an area buthas not been specifically designed for use outside a laboratory.

5.1.6 Standoff Detection Systems

Equipment specifically designed to monitor the presence of CAs and TIMs that may be present

in the atmosphere up to three miles away. These systems typically require one or twoindividuals for monitoring operations. Depending on the technique employed and the

environmental conditions, these detectors can have high or low selectivity. Standoff detectors

usually require vehicle transport and special setup.

5.1.7 Detection Systems with Limited Data

The equipment usage category for each detection item included in this section may by handheld-

portable detection equipment, handheld-stationary detection equipment, vehicle-mounted

detection equipment, fixed-site detection systems, fixed-site analytical laboratory systems, or

standoff detection systems. These equipment items either have too limited data to be thoroughlyevaluated or were identified too late to have the data verified by the vendors.

The results of categorizing the CA and TIM detection equipment are detailed in table 51.Equipment was also categorized by its detection capability (CAs, TIMs, or both).

Table 51. Detection equipment usage categories

Detection CapabilityDetection Type

CAs TIMs Both Not Specified Total

Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment 8 67 17 92Handheld-Stationary Detection Equipment 12 9 10 31

Vehicle-Mounted Detection Equipment 2 0 3 5

Fixed-Site Detection Systems 3 5 8 16

Fixed-Site Analytical Laboratory Systems 8 5 13

Standoff Detection Systems 2 0 2 4

Detection Systems with Limited Data 7 7 2 9 25

Total 42 88 47 9 186


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5.2 Evaluation Results

The evaluation results for the CA and TIM detection equipment are presented in tabular format for

the 186 pieces of detection equipment identified at the time of the writing of this guide. A table ispresented for each of the six usage categories with the handheld-portable and handheld-stationary

detectors subdivided by detection capability. Each table includes the specific equipment and thesymbol that corresponds to how the equipment item was characterized based upon each of theselection factor definitions. If data are not available to characterize a specific selection factor,

TBD (to be determined) is displayed in the appropriate cell. If a selection factor is not appropriate

for a specific equipment item, (NA) not applicable is used to characterize that selection factor.

Table 52 provides the table number and associated table pages for each of the usage categories.

Table 52. Evaluation results reference table

Table Name Table Number Page(s)

Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment(CAs) 53 35

Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment(TIMs) 54 3641

Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment(Both) 55 4243

Handheld-Stationary Detection Equipment(CAs) 56 4445

Handheld-Stationary Detection Equipment(TIMs) 57 46

Handheld-Stationary Detection Equipment(Both) 58 47

Vehicle-Mounted Detection Equipment 59 48

Fixed-Site Detection Systems 510 4950

Fixed-Site Analytical Laboratory Systems 511 5152

Standoff Detection Systems 512 53

Detection Systems with Limited Data 513 5455

Selection Factor Key 514 56

5.2.1 Handheld-Portable Detection Equipment

There were 92 handheld-portable detection equipment items identified in the development of this

guide. These 92 detection equipment items were further divided into three subcategoriesidentifying their detection capability. Eight handheld-portable detection equipment items were

capable of detecting CAs only. Sixty-seven handheld-portable detection equipment items

Documents

Guide on Selection of Detection Equipment Vol1 2005