The Roma live all over the coun-try in an uneven distribution. Romapeople live in around 2,000 ofHungary's 3,200 settlements. With

regard to regional distribution, cen-sus data suggest the highest concen-trations are in the regions ofNorthern Hungary and the

Northern Alföld (Great HungarianPlain). Although the proportion ofRoma living in towns and cities hasincreased considerably in compari-son to the 1970's, the majority stilllive in villages (60 per cent) and,within this category, in the most dis-advantaged small rural settlements.

Social position - a historical review

Linguistic research suggests thatthe Roma's ancestors arrived in theterritory of today's India duringmigration waves in the second mil-lennium BC. Gypsy tribes left Indiain the 9th and 10th centuries as aresult of Muslim attacks in areasthey inhabited. The name of this

MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS BUDAPEST, 2004 • www.kum.hu

GYPSIES/ROMA* IN HUNGARY

* Both terms are used in this publication. The custom in Hungary is for members of this ethnic minority to define themselves as Roma or Gypsy.

According to estimates, there are some 12 million Roma people livingaround the world. The European Gypsy population, thought to amountto at least 8 million people, includes communities of various sizes inalmost every state in Europe. Around 70 per cent of the EuropeanGypsy population lives in Central and Eastern Europe, and in somecountries in the region their share of the overall population exceeds 5 per cent. In terms of estimated figures for the number of Gypsies res-ident in 38 European countries, Hungary lies in the fourth place, afterRomania, Bulgaria and Spain. The Gypsy population forms the largest ethnic minority in Hungary,with authoritative estimates putting their number at between 400,000and 600,000. Demographic change in Hungary is characterised by an ageing, fallingpopulation while the number of people of Gypsy origin is rising and theage composition of the Gypsy population is much younger than that ofthe overall population.

The paintings of Magda Szécsi painter, writer and poet

22

ethnic group developed in thecourse of migrations, starting withthe Greek word 'atsinganos', mean-ing 'heretic sect', and later cominginto the Latin language as 'cingarus',into German as 'Zigeuner' andHungarian as 'cigány'.

They first appeared in Hungaryin the 14th and 15th centuries flee-ing the conquering Turks in theBalkans. A significant numbermigrated further to West Europeancountries. Since they were thoughtto be Egyptian pilgrims in someplaces, they are still known by theterm gypsy in these areas today. Thisrace with an alien culture and unfa-miliar with agricultural productionwas soon expelled and deportedfrom Western Europe, sometimesbrutally. Some tribes managed tohold onto homes in theMediterranean region but themajority retreated to Central andEastern Europe.

Between the 15th and 17th cen-turies during the wars foughtagainst the Turkish conquerorsGypsies played a considerable rolein Hungarian society. Constant mi-litary preparation and the lack ofcraftsmen provided opportunity towork. Fortification and construc-tion works, metalwork, weapons'production and maintenance, horsetrading, postal services, wood carv-ing and blacksmithing at a ratecheaper than that of the guilds'craftsmen enabled them to make aliving and were important activitiesfor the country. Some Gypsy groupswere even granted privileges, firstunder King Sigismund (1387-1437)and King Matthias (1458-1490),right up to the beginning of the18th century.

Many landlords made efforts toprovide permanent home to 'compa-

nies' in order to acquire their ser-vices. Around this time a lot ofGypsy family communities aban-doned their itinerant lifestyle for asafer life. However, from the end ofthe 17th century when the Turkswere driven out of Hungary, mostactivities carried out by theGypsy popula-tion werer e n d e r e dunnecessaryby farmers,a n i m a lbreeders ,craftsmena n dtraders,

who had begun to settle in Hungary.In the mid-18th century Maria

Theresa (1740-1780) and Joseph II(1780-1790) dealt with the Gypsyquestion by the contradictory meth-ods of enlightened absolutism.Maria Theresa enacted a decreeprohibiting the use of the name'Gypsy' and requiring the terms 'newpeasant' and 'new Hungarian' to beused instead. She later placedrestrictions on Gypsy marriages, andordered children to be taken awayfrom Gypsy parents, so that theycould be raised in 'bourgeois or

peasant' families. Finally Joseph IIeven prohibited use of the Gypsylanguage in 1783.

The forced assimi-lation essential-

ly proved successful - in the 19thand 20th centuries the vast major-ity of the Gypsy population, whohad settled hundreds of years earl-ier and held onto their customsand culture for a long time, gaveup, even forgetting their nativelanguage and assimilating inHungarian society. A significantnumber worked as blacksmiths,wood-carvers, nail makers andmakers of sun-dried bricks whichactivities provided a living for100,000 Roma and their families atthe end of the 19th century.

Pál Rácz violin builder

3

However, the best opportunity forsocial advance was through music -in 1893, Hungary had around17,000 registered Gypsy musicians.

A new wave of Gypsy immigra-tion occurred in the second half ofthe 19th century, following theemancipation of peasants and capi-talist development. The arrival fromthe east and south of Gypsies whohad held onto their traditions andlanguage and mostly continued theiritinerant lifestyle led to many con-flicts. As a result of this wave of newsettlers, a census of the country'sGypsy population was ordered.According to the 1893 census, whichis one of the most important docu-ments in the history of HungarianGypsies, 280,000 Gypsies lived inHungary at that time.

The divisions in Hungary's Gypsypopulation developed in the early20th century. The largest group, whoarrived earlier and lost their lan-guage and culture, are known as the'Romungro' or Hungarian (Gypsy)people distinguish themselves fromthe rest of the Gypsy populationtoday. The vast majority of the sec-

ond group arrived from Romanianland in the second half of the 19thcentury. They speak the Gypsy lan-guage, and are called ‘VlachGypsies’ by virtue of their origin.There is also a third, smaller group,the ‘Beas’ Gypsies, who mainly set-tled in South-West Hungary andspeak archaic Romanian-languagedialects. A low level of Gypsy immi-gration continued right up to theoutbreak of the Second World War.

Prior to the German occupationof March 19, 1944, decrees on polic-ing and epidemics that were used torepress the Gypsy population ofsome 200,000, were primarily direct-ed against itinerant groups. Fromspring 1944 however, ‘resolving theGypsy question’ lead to genocide. Atleast 5,000 people were killed in theRoma holocaust, but there are esti-mates of as many as 30,000 victims.

The democratic era between 1945and 1948 brought about positivechanges in the relationship betweenthe Gypsy population and the rest ofsociety. However, in economic termsthe position of the Gypsy populationdeteriorated as a result of the reallo-

cation of large estates, which effect-ively involved a loss of employmentopportunities on the part of theGypsy population. The majority wereleft out of the land reform program,although many had previously madea living from agricultural work.Employment levels improved duringthe reconstruction after the SecondWorld War and later in the course offorced industrialisation but the vastmajority were able to find onlyunskilled jobs.

The Cultural Federation ofGypsies in Hungary was founded onthe model of other nationalities'federations in 1957 with the objec-tive of creating and renewing origin-al Gypsy literature, music and otherart forms, and assisting in pre-serving the ancient language. TheDeed of Foundation also containeda general requirement to improvejob creation, schooling, health careand living conditions. In effect theaim of the foundation was to havethe minority status for Gipsiesaccepted but the authorities viewedit with suspicion. Therefore theactivities of the federation werelimited to dealing with individualcomplaints which showed the needfor an organisation for the protec-tion of Roma interests. Yet the fed-eration only lasted until 1961.

A decree issued in 1961 by theHungarian Socialist Workers' Partydeclared the fundamental prin-ciples of Gypsy policy for the nextfew decades. The decree describedthe Gypsy question as a social prob-lem rather than a minority issue:'Policy directed at the Gypsy popula-tion shall start from the principle thatdespite certain ethnographical char-acteristics they do not constitute anationality.' 'Many people see this asa minority issue and recommendFerenc Snétberger guitarist

4

developing the 'Gypsy language' andsetting up Gypsy-language schoolsand colleges, Gypsy agriculturalcooperatives, etc. These views are notonly mistaken but also harmful asthey preserve the segregation ofGypsies and slow down their integra-tion into society.' The decree reflect-ed the communist party's attemptsat assimilation expressed in theform of 'social crisis management'.

After a long wait the first reli-able data on Gypsies' living condi-tions were provided by the nation-wide research conducted in 1971.320,000 Roma were living inHungary in 1971. 71 per cent werenative Hungarian speakers, 21 percent spoke the Gypsy language astheir mother tongue, and almost 8 per cent were Romanian speakers.Two thirds of the Gypsy populationlived in settlements on the outskirtsof towns and villages. As a result ofindustrialisation in the 1950's and1960's 85 per cent of Gypsy men ofworking age were in employment by1971. Although a political decisionwas taken to accelerate the removalof Gypsy settlements, separate resi-dential areas inhabited only byGypsies were still establishedthrough the construction of newhomes with a lower level of comfort.The state home construction pro-gram slowed down in the 80's, andeventually came to an end withouthaving resolved the housing prob-lems of the Gypsy population.

In 1971 around 60 per cent ofGypsy children attended nurseryschool, 50 per cent had alreadycompleted primary schooling. Anincreasing number of these childrenwere learning a trade, and the num-bers attending secondary schoolswere also rising. However, Gypsychildren were often taught in separ-

ate classes, or subjected to specialeducation in view of their 'handi-cap'. The first generation of Gypsyintellectuals appeared and achievedsuccess primarily in arts and folkculture. Alongside these positivechanges direct and indirect preju-dice remained with the means ofmass communication maintainingthe stereotype of the work-shy andcriminal Roma.

This progress, which startedspectacularly but was laid on un-stable foundations, collapsed duringthe social and political changes of1990. The construction industry andmining, providing employment formost of the Gypsies, fell into crisis.

And Gypsies, who were largelyemployed as unskilled workers andcarried out tasks requiring the low-est level of expertise, were the firstto be made redundant at privatisedcompanies. Within a short space oftime the majority of Gypsy familieshad fallen back to the level of previ-ous decades. Their lack of educa-tion continually reduced theirchances for employment and, more-over, prejudice against the Gypsypopulation was gaining strengthamong certain social groups. In the

first half of the 1990's the incidenceof discrimination increased in thefield of education, employment andaccess to housing. Gypsies living inHungary became targets of attacksby anti-democratic groups emergingat this time. The Gypsy populationbegan to get organized and under-went a political awakening ataround the time of the social andpolitical changes. In the first parlia-mentary cycle after 1990 three rep-resentatives openly admitted theirGypsy origin. There was a hearten-ing increase in the number of Gypsycivilian organisations with 96 offi-cially registered organizations bythe end of 1991. Although theiroperation was often hindered byfinancial difficulties the number ofcivil Roma organizations rose to 260by 2001.

Governmental political efforts

After the social and politicalchanges the first democraticallyelected parliament and govern-ment faced up to the requirementfor immediate action concerningthe issue of ethnic minoritiesincluding the unsolved problems ofthe Roma which had beensqueezed into the background fordecades. The constitution and lawsproclaimed full equal rights but dif-ficulties arose in practical enforce-ment. Direct governmental actionseemed to be urgent since massesof the Roma lost their jobs as aresult of the economic restructur-ing and privatisation that followedthe social and political changes.The Roma were the biggest losersin the accelerated modernisation ofthe 1990s and the new economicenvironment. Solidarity diminishedwhile intolerance and indifference

László Gargya police sergeant-major

towards other people's problemsgained ground. Political decision-makers realised that there was nochance of dealing with the situationwithout special state assistancepromoting the social integration ofthe Roma.

Legislation and new institutions

The government led by the lateJózsef Antall (1932-1993) estab-lished a new, nationwide institutionas early as 1990 - the Office forNational and Ethnic Minorities'(ONEM), the primary task of whichwas to prepare government deci-sions on minorities' policy, coordin-ate and set out the fundamentalprinciples for policies towardsminorities. The ONEM was chargedwith the task of regularly monitoringthe situation of ethnic minorities,making analyses and maintainingcontacts with representatives of eth-nic minorities. From the mid-1990sonwards the office played a decisiverole in working out short and medi-um-term programs affecting theGypsy population. A separate vice-president has coordinated Romaaffairs within the office since 1998.

The most important measureaffecting ethnic minorities is ActLXXVII of 1993 on the Rights ofNational and Ethnic Minorities,which regulates the institutionalframework and was adopted by par-liament by a majority of 96 per cent.In a manner unique in Europe, thisAct grants individual and collectiverights to the 13 minorities recog-nized in Hungary, including theRoma, allowing for personal auton-omy and the establishment of localor nationwide self-governing bodies.The minority self-government bodieswere granted the right to decide,

within the scope of their powers, onestablishing, taking over and main-taining institutions especially in thefield of local education, the writtenand electronic media, preservingtraditions and cultural matters.

The Minorities Act is of historicalimportance for the Gypsy populationin Hungary as it was the first measureto recognise this group of people asan ethnic minority thereby assuring,apart from individual rights, theopportunity for Gypsies to organizecollectively and set up local andnationwide minority self-govern-ments. In 1994 and 1995 477 localGypsy self-government bodies wereestablished. The share of minorities

is indicated by the fact that the other12 national minorities had estab-lished a combined total of 261 localbodies by this time. In Budapest, thedistrict minority self-governing bod-ies established the Budapest GypsyMinority Self-Government by meansof indirect elections, and foundedthe National Gypsy Minority Self-Government (NGMS) with 53 rep-resentatives.

As a result of the second minor-ity self-government elections held in1998 there was a significant increase

in the number of local Gypsy self-governing bodies, with successfulelections in 764 settlements, thoughthe establishment of the Budapestself-government failed due tointernal conflicts. Some 3,000 Romaparticipated in the work of theminority bodies in this cycle.

As a result of the third electionsin 2002 Gypsy minority governmentswere formed in 998 settlements,namely in around every third settle-ment nationwide, and the Budapestbody was re-established.

The NGMS, formed for the thirdtime in spring 2003, represents theGypsy population at the nationallevel and voices opinions on allissues affecting the Roma as a part-ner to the parliament and the gov-ernment.

The Minorities Act makes provi-sion for public service programming,languages of recognised minorities,opportunities for establishing cultur-al institutions, legal foundations forminority schooling and education,the rights of minorities to be repre-sented in parliament, and the insti-tution of a parliamentary commis-sioner for minority rights.

Experience over more than adecade since the Minorities Act wasadopted and other legal regulationson minorities entered legal effectsuggest that amendments to andclarification of certain legal provi-sions is essential to making the sys-tem operate more efficiently.

With regard to being a memberof a minority, the Act starts from theprinciple of voluntary identification,relying on self-assessment and notrequiring a register of electors to bedrawn up. However, the problem oflegitimacy arises in the election ofminority self-governing bodies fromthe fact that in the absence of accur-

5

Péter Lakatos Greek Catholic priest

ate data not only members of thegiven minority are entitled to votefor minority candidates but anyother resident of the settlement withvoting rights. For this reason severalpeople including the minorities'ombudsman have proposed theintroduction of some form of elect-oral registration and the clarifica-tion of membership of a communityas preconditions for the exercise ofminority community rights, andpressed for changes in the legalregulations on minority elections.

In March 2004 the governmentput forward a bill with regard to theelection of minority self-governmentrepresentatives and the amendmentof certain acts on national and eth-nic minorities. The bill, which is onthe agenda of Parliament, intro-duces the register of minority voters,re-regulates the duties, the sphere ofauthority of minority self-govern-ments and numerous issues relatedto their operation and financing(founding and maintaining institu-tions, the relationship between theself-governing bodies of settlementsand minorities, protecting the nativelanguage, etc.).

The assurance of parliamentaryrepresentation for minorities hasbeen one great failing of the legisla-ture although there are some repre-sentatives belonging to ethnicminorities in parliament who wereadmitted from individual con-stituencies or from party lists. Draftshave been completed on the parlia-mentary representation for minori-ties, and agreement on such drafts isin progress.

Compared to the priorities of otherminorities' self-governing bodies,improving the social and employ-ment situation is more urgent for theGypsy population than enforcing

cultural rights. Some governmentalagencies involve minority self-gov-ernments in implementing programsin this area. A good example is thepractice of county job centres carry-ing out targeted labour market pro-grams. The social integration of theRoma also imposes a considerableburden on civilians and civil organi-sations.

Despite initial difficulties andoperational errors, the minority self-government model has producedsome reassuring values and results.In terms of the future, one import-ant experience is that the minorityself-governing bodies are most suc-cessful in areas where their activitiesare based on civil organization, andon minority activities that existedearlier. Positive experiences showthat the minority self-governmentsystem has contributed to the con-solidation of national and ethnicminorities and enlivened the minor-ities' community life. The ability ofthe Gypsy population to enforce itsinterests has clearly improved. Theoperation of Gypsy minority self-governments promotes the socialintegration of the Gypsy populationand regular dialogue and co-opera-tion between the Roma and non-Roma population.

Over the past few years theminority self-government systemhas confirmed its right to existbecause it is a viable and effectiveway of enforcing interests, whichassures the participation of minor-ities in local and national issuesaffecting them. Those who belongto a minority have started accept-ing their identity with a greaterdegree of awareness and openness.This is reflected in the census dataof 2001 showing that in 1990142,683 people claimed to be

Gypsy while a decade later this fig-ure had reached 189,984, althoughthis is still below the estimatedactual size of the Gypsy popula-tion. The answers given to ques-tions first posed in 2001 about lan-guage use and attachment tocultural values also confirm accept-ance of identity by the Roma, with

some 50,000 having designated aGypsy language (Romany or Beas)as their native language in the 2001census, and 130,000 havingdeclared commitment to the Romacultural values and traditions.

An important legal regulationdirectly affecting the position of theGypsy population in Hungary is ActLXXIX of 1993 on PublicEducation, which was amended in1996 and 2003 to provide the nation-al and local minority self-governingbodies with the opportunity offounding and maintaining educa-tional institutions, and whichdefined the fight against segregationin schools as an objective.

Act LIX of 1993 on theParliamentary Commissioner forNational and Ethnic Minority

6

Rights is a law of particular signifi-cance for the Gypsy population. Itis the responsibility of the minor-ities' ombudsman, as defined inthe constitution, to investigate orensure the investigation of anyabuses of constitutional rightsbrought to his/her attention, andto initiate general or individualmeasures to remedy such

abuse. Based on the events ofrecent years and the ombudsman'sparliamentary reports, we can con-clude that the establishment of theinstitution was justified and abso-lutely essential. This activity isindispensable to a state founded onthe rule of law.

Governmental measures

Following the establishment ofthe minorities' institutional systemin 1995, individual and experiment-al programmes launched with thesupport of government agenciesand Hungarian and internationalcivil organisations, such as theestablishment of the GandhiSecondary School in Pécs, which

has acquired an interna-tional reputation,

were replaced byspecific govern-mental pro-

g r a m s

seeking to resolve the deteriorat-ing position of the Gypsy popula-tion. The Roma policy of govern-ments in office since the social andpolitical changes has been charac-terised in part by efforts to pro-mote social integration and toresolve the social problems arisingfrom deprivation and partly by par-ticular emphasis on preserving theidentity, cultural values and lan-guage of the Gypsy population.

The short-term program adoptedin 1995 defined the requirement todraw up a medium-term program toprovide additional governmentalfunds through a comprehensiveapproach. The government set upthe Gypsy Affairs CoordinationCouncil and created the Public

Foundation for Gypsies in Hungary(PFGH), which is still in operationtoday with the objective of coordin-ating the work of ministries andagencies with nationwide powers,and of supporting efforts to promoteequal opportunities. Based on reso-lutions issued in 1995 the first me-dium-term package of measures[Government Decree 1093/1997]reviewed and specified the necessarytasks for social integration of theGypsy population. This containedmeasures to be implemented in 1997and 1998, including in the area ofeducation and culture, furtherdevelopments in child protectionand tuition fees' subsidy, preventionof educational segregation, furtherdevelopment and expansion ofregional programs to nurture talent(e.g. the Gandhi Secondary Schooland College), and the establishmentof colleges to nurture talent.

In order to improve employmentand living conditions, measures weretaken to demolish some Gypsysettlements, develop employmentprograms or extend existing pro-grams, integrate Gypsy students intothe specialist-training scheme, andsupport agricultural activities. In thesocial field, the government set up acrisis management, so-called 'vismajor' fund, and launched compre-hensive crisis management pro-grams in settlements where disad-vantaged strata including the Gypsypopulation, represent a significantshare of the population.

In the context of action againstdiscrimination, awareness of theGypsy population has been built intopolice training.

The second part of the packageof measures set out the principlesfor tasks to be determined later.This relates to tasks such as

7

László Kosztics wood-carver

promoting higher education stud-ies for Gypsy students, the require-ment to support cultural institu-tions, defining the role of minorityself-governments in fighting unem-ployment, extending the network ofscreening and care to improve thestate of health of the Gypsy popu-lation, supporting offices protect-ing rights and developing a realisticGypsy image in the public servicemedia.

The government that enteredoffice in 1998 reviewed the medium-term package of measures and addedto it in a context of continuity. Theconcepts in Government Decree1047/1999 essentially followed onfrom the 1997 objectives but prioritywas given to tasks related to educa-tion and culture. Content develop-ment was designated as the objectivefor primary education (in addition toregular nursery school attendanceand a reduction in truancy numbers),for secondary and higher educationthe highlighted aim was avoidance ofdrop-out (colleges and scholarships),while in terms of culture the develop-ment of a public system of culturalinstitutions organized at group leveland further training of experts wereemphasized. In the field of employ-ment, requirements were set out forassisting the long-term and careerstarter unemployed, and organisingpublic works and non-profit pro-grams. The government also set theobjective of compiling a comprehen-sive regional development plan toimprove infrastructure in run-downresidential areas.

The Gypsy Inter-MinisterialCommittee was set up in 1999 toensure co-ordination between gov-ernment agencies and monitor theimplementation of the medium-term program. Within the frame-

work of the package of measures,the ministries have allocatedincreasing year-on-year sums toimplement their tasks (HUF 4.85billion in 2000, HUF 5.2 billion in2001, HUF 7.4 billion in 2002).

Pursuant to the 1999 GovernmentDecree a decision was taken on draw-ing up a long-term strategy for social

and minorities' policy and a three-level governmental program. On thisbasis: • specific programs and projects

appear in the annual plans ofaction of the relevant portfolios;

• governmental cycles' 3-4-yeartasks are specified in the medium-term package of measures;

• principles and comprehensiveobjectives covering 20-25 yearsare designated in the long-termstrategy. The strategy, in the form of a par-

liamentary resolution, would serve asa guideline spanning parliamentaryelectoral cycles to achieve objectives

related to the social integration of theGypsy population and founded onthe agreement of society at large. Inaddition to social solidarity, partner-ship (with Gypsy involvement), sub-sidiarity and decentralisation (solvinglocal problems at a local level), thenecessity to preserve and cultivatethe values of the Gypsy culture isdefined as a basic principle. Anotherrequirement is the development oflegal regulations prohibiting discrim-ination, openness, transparency andthe need for a comprehensive multi-faceted approach to the issue. Thestrategy requires a separate fund toprovide regular financing as a materi-al condition for program implemen-tation.

The strategy defined three sectorpriorities attached to the ministriesfor actual improvement in livingconditions of the Roma - improvingeducation, employment and familywelfare conditions. Furthermore,the program defines the preventionof social and political exclusion ofthe Roma and strengthening theirsocial and political role as generalpriorities.

The long-term strategy has beencompleted and the draft versionshould have been submitted to par-liament before the end of 2002.This failed to take place due to thechange of government, but the gov-ernment headed by PéterMedgyessy has put the issue backon the agenda.

The latest medium-term packageof measures adopted in March 2004(Government Decree 1021/2004) isin full harmony with the previousone with regard to necessary govern-mental steps for the sake of thesocial integration of the Roma. Thenovelty of the program is the intro-duction of a monitoring system for

8

A new generation of gypsy bandleaders is growing up

the tight control of the use of finan-cial resources.

From the viewpoint of the Gypsypopulation's protection of rights,great importance has been attachedto the Anti-Discrimination LegalAdvice Network, which was set up in2001 by the Ministry of Justice, theOffice for National and EthnicMinorities and the National GypsySelf-Government Body, and cur-rently operates 27 offices nation-wide. Lawyers in the offices providefree legal advice in cases whereclients suffered grievance as a resultof their Roma origin. The free ser-vice, in addition to legal consulting,extends to editing petitions and rep-resenting clients before courts andother authorities. Experience showsthat the network satisfies a signifi-cant demand though only a fractionof the applications are related to dis-crimination.

2002: Increasing participation in Hungary's politicaland community life

2002 produced major changesin the political role of the Roma.The Roma question appeared inthe parliamentary election cam-paign of spring 2002, and polit-icians who accepted their Romaorigin were included on the partylists both on the left and rightwings of the political spectrum.Four such politicians made it intoparliament. In autumn 2002 localGypsy minority self-governingbodies were elected in 998 settle-ments, and some 4,000 Roma areactively involved in the work ofthese bodies. In the local authorityelections 545 Roma local govern-ment representatives and 4 Romamayors were elected to serve set-tlement local governments.

Roma policy has also been re-defined at governmental level, withthe government coming into office inthe summer of 2002 defining the pro-motion of equal social opportunitiesfor the Roma as a priority task. Majororganisational changes have takenplace in this respect, Roma affairshave been placed back under thedirect control of the Prime Minister'sOffice, and a political undersecretaryhas been appointed for Roma affairs,with an associated Office for RomaAffairs. A political undersecretarywith Roma origins has been appoint-ed for the first time in Hungarianpolitical life. Strategically importantRoma political issues related to socialintegration and improving the socialposition of the Gypsy population havebeen subjected to the supervision andcontrol of the undersecretary andthe Office for Roma Affairs while theONEM continues to deal with tasks

9

'Romaniade' performed by the Talentum Gypsy Band and the Gyõr Ballet lead by Iván Markó

arising from the status of the Romaminority, primarily those related tothe minority self-government system,cultural autonomy and generalenforcement of rights specified in theMinorities Act of 1993.

The Council for Roma Affairs, aconsultation body consisting ofindependent Roma and non-Roma,as well as other highly regardedexperts and presided over by thePrime Minister, has been set up,and is charged with expressing opin-ions on strategic issues and formu-lating guidelines on behalf of thegovernment.

Implementation of a concept,under which as many Roma-originexperts as possible join the ranks ofcivil servants at the ministries, hasalready begun. Ministerial commis-sioners have started work at theMinistry of Education and at theMinistry of National CulturalHeritage. With the appointment of aMinister for Equal Opportunities(without portfolio) in May 2003 andwith the establishment of theGovernment Office for EqualOpportunities in January 2004 thescope of government agencies deal-ing specifically with improving theposition of the Roma was furtherextended.

In January 2004 the EqualTreatment and the Promotion ofEqual Opportunities Act (ActCXXV of 2003) came into force. Incompliance with EU legal regula-tions the act introduces a strongersystem of sanctions aimed at eradi-cating discrimination.

Education

Education is a key area from thepoint of view of creating equal oppor-tunities for the Roma. Presently 90

per cent of young Roma complete pri-mary school education, and 85 percent of those completing primaryschool go on to study in some form ofsecondary institution. In recent yearsthe proportion of Roma students atsecondary school institutions provid-ing a school-leaving certificate has

risen from 9 to 15 per cent. Oneunfavourable factor, however, is thatmost young Roma acquire qualifica-tions in professions where there is alittle chance of finding employment.There is great underachievement inhigher education, as just 0.3 per centof the Gypsy population holds a uni-versity or college degree.

The Ministry of Education andpublic foundations supportingnational and ethnic minorities assistyoung Gypsies by means of a schol-arship system. In recent years therehas been a sharp increase in thenumber of scholarships, from 750 in1998, to 12,000 in 2001, and 19,000in 2003. With subsidy from the edu-cation ministry, several higher edu-cation institutions run preparatorycourses to improve the chances ofyoung Roma gaining admission. The

extension of the college network,which has already begun, will furtherimprove progress in education.

The success of nursery andschool education, which forms thebasis of equal opportunities for theGypsy population, depends largelyon the professional quality of teach-

er training and further training.With subsidy from the educationministry, several higher educationinstitutions have introduced theteaching of Romology within theframework of faculty, special collegeor individual programs.

The work of the Ministry ofEducation's commissioner for theintegration of disadvantaged chil-dren, including Roma children, hascontributed to a new approach toteaching Roma children in the pub-lic education system from academ-ic year 2003/2004. So-called "catch-up" education, which has beenpreferred so far and resulted insegregation, has been replaced byan approach focussing on develop-ing abilities and integrative educa-tion (Roma and non-Roma stu-dents in one class), where the

10

Students of the primary school in Hernád Street, Budapest

purpose is to provide a commoneducation at an identical level forchildren in different social and cul-tural positions. The 1999 amend-ment to the Public Education Acttightened up the system for controlof 'auxiliary' schools, while the 2003amendment provides for the elim-ination of the segregating phenom-ena of 'auxiliary' education, andanti-discrimination elements havebeen added to ensure the successof disadvantaged school students.

Experiments at creating theopportunity for new initiatives todevelop Gypsy culture give us rea-son for hope. Alongside the GandhiSecondary School in Pécs, whichnow has a Europe-wide reputation,schools in Szolnok, Mánfa and Ózdare worth noting. A layer of well-trained young Gypsy intellectuals istaking shape, albeit slowly.

Civil organization and culture

Besides the Roma minority self-governments, Roma civil and legalprotection organizations play anactive role in Hungarian domesticpolitics. The best-known organiza-tions are the Forum of GypsyOrganisations in Hungary, theNational Federation of GypsyOrganisations, the Roma Civil LawFoundation, the Roma Parliamentand Lungo Drom.

As a result of subsidies from thegovernment, public foundationsand the EU, a system of GypsyCommunity Houses has been con-structed to provide scope forimplementing cultural, educationaland employment programs. TheMinistry of National CulturalHeritage and the PublicFoundation for Minorities, bymeans of funds available via ten-

ders, support Gypsy organisationsand minority self-governing bodiesin organizing cultural events, tradi-tion-preserving programs andintroducing and publishing Gypsyliterature, fine arts, music, folkloreand other branches of arts. Thedemand for Roma CommunityHouses to be connected up to theInternet arose in 1997, and theRoma Centre has partly fulfilledthis demand by launching a websiteat www.romacentrum.hu. In 2003Romaweb was launched throughthe Roma Social Integration PhareProgramme providing citizens withregular and up-to-date informa-tion, and continual and mutualexchange of information betweenGypsy minority self-governments,Roma organisations, governmentaland social organisations. ThePhare Office, founded in the Officefor National and Ethnic Minorities,started its activities in 2000, andone of its key elements was theinformation provision project.

Media and publications

In the current system of budget-ary subsidies of minorities' culture,there are no financial resources thatwould allow for minorities to regu-larly operate radio or TV channelsor programs based on the nationali-ties having access to favourable fre-quencies.

The independent 24-hour broad-caster Rádió © was launched upon acivil initiative in 2001, and as a com-mercial station it submitted an appli-cation for an individual frequency tothe National Radio and TelevisionBody (NRTB). Following experimen-tal transmissions, the NRTB board oftrustees granted broadcasting rightsto the radio station for 7 years.

The Roma minority's writtenpress receives subsidy from thePublic Foundation for Nationaland Ethnic Minorities in Hungary(PFNEM). The PFNEM providesfinancial cover to all ethnic minor-ity groups for the budget of at leastone national paper, but the largestminority, the Gypsy population,has the opportunity for severalpapers to be subsidized (LungoDrom, Világunk, Amaro Drom,Kethano Drom). The PublicFoundation invites tenders for pro-ducing and operating local minor-ity media and cable TV program,but experience shows that they areonly able to support 10 per cent ofdemand in this system.

The time content for "Gypsymagazine", broadcast on public ser-vice Hungarian TV, is 26 minutes aweek and since 2000 HungarianTelevision has screened 'Gypsyforum' for 52 minutes every quarterof a year. These are supplementedby magazine programmes aboutnationalities targeting Hungarian-speaking viewers, the televisionshows 'Együtt'(Together), which arebroadcast in Hungarian every twoweeks, for 52 and 26 minutes.Hungarian Radio (and the regionalstudios) broadcast programmes forGypsies for 180 minutes a week.

New tasks in the wake of EU accession

Hungary's first years of EUmembership after 1 May 2004 willbe associated with difficulties inadapting for the entire society.These difficulties will obviouslyaffect disadvantaged groups, andprimarily the Roma, to a greaterextent. Therefore the governmentwill have to face a greater degree of

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responsibility for protecting suchdisadvantaged groups from possibleshocks.

Hungary has made efforts to util-ize resources available under pre-accession funds to finance the socialintegration of the Roma. In additionto PHARE projects for vocationaltraining run by the Ministry ofEducation, the Office for RomaAffairs of the Prime Minister'sOffice is implementing a RomaSocial Integration Phare program.

As full member of the EUHungary may acquire nearly 8 000million HUF for development fromthe EU's Structural Funds and theCohesion Fund between 2004 and2008. The government is committedto providing assistance to - Romaand non-Roma - enterprises, localgovernments and civil organizations,among others, by running informa-tion campaigns and special trainingprograms so that they can successful-ly compete for financial resourcesavailable within the framework ofthe National Development Plan.

The Roma issue on the agendaof European international fora

According to the official figuresof the European Commission, EUenlargement will increase the num-ber of European citizens speakingminority languages in the Unionfrom 40 million to 46 million. Evenby moderate estimates enlargementwill raise the number of Roma liv-ing in the EU by 1,300,000 by theyear 2004. European political opin-ion is increasingly coming to recog-nise that the social integration ofRoma communities cannot beresolved merely by means ofnational governmental efforts, butthat international initiatives are

also required. This explains why theRoma issue is coming into the spot-light more and more at Europeaninternational fora.

There are currently three initia-tives running parallel to each other.Following an initiative fromFinland, the Council of Europe ismaking efforts to establish aEuropean Forum for the Roma,which would perform con-sultative functionsto the Council asan internation-al, democraticand represen-tative bodyfor Romacommu-nitiesin

European countries. The OSCE hasworked out a Roma Action Plan,which specifies in detail the tasksrequired to create social integrationand equal opportunities for theRoma people, covering all spheres

of government. The OSCE Councilof Ministers adopted the ActionPlan at its meeting in Maastricht onDecember 1 and 2, 2003. The thirdinitiative refers to 9 countries ofCentral and Eastern Europe. TheWorld Bank and the Open SocietyInstitute (OSI) are planning tolaunch a project entitled ‘theDecade of Roma Integration’ in

2 0 0 5 ,w h i c h ,

a m o n gothers,w i l ls tar t

educational and training programsfunded by the Roma EducationalFund yet to be established.

First love free of all prejudicies

Photos by Gyula Nyári