Haiti, South Carolina, Florida, and Texas: Amerindias Negotiating for their Lives

7/21/2019 Haiti, South Carolina, Florida, and Texas: Amerindias Negotiating for their Lives

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Haiti, South Carolina, Florida, and Texas: Amerindias Negotiating for their

Lives1

Paper prepared for the !"!LA Panel

#$n Sear%h of Forgotten &omen in Pre'1()) $*eria and the Ameri%as+for the )1- "odern Language Asso%iation "eeting.an%ouver, /C

0eanne L illespie, Ph2The 3niversit4 of Southern "ississippi

$n earl4 Spanish a%%ounts of %onta%t in the Ameri%as, man4 Amerindian

5omen negotiated 5ith the !uropean for%es traveling through their regions

Some su6ered unimagina*le %ruelt4 and 5hile others negotiated safe

passage, allian%es, and7or marriages *et5een their %ommunities and the

!uropeans to improve their situations and that of their people Still others

5ere single'handedl4 responsi*le for the survival of !uropean %ampaigns

Taino %a%i%a, Ana%aona, from the island of Haiti, staged a spe%ta%le to

impress the Spanish administrators Her tragi% end at the hands of Spanish

authorities resonated in the earliest %hroni%les The 2ama de Co8ta%he9ue

o6ered the Hernando de Soto expedition in%redi*le treasures, and her sillful

departure from the expedition left a mar on the narrative Timu%ua %a%i%a

"aria "enende; en ?Summer )1>@ (-'1)and #$n the Shado5 of Coatli%ue=s Smile, or Be%onstru%ting $ndigenousFemaleSu*


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illespie Amerindias"LA

north5estern ulf Coast, Angelina of the Hainai Caddo guided Spanish

priests and Fren%h explorers safel4 through the Pine4 &oods These 5omen

are rarel4 mentioned in %olonial studies, *ut the4 left their mars in the

Spanish ar%hives This presentation examines the 5ords and deeds of these

four Amerindian 5omen from regions not traditionall4 studied in %olonial

s%holarship, highlighting their intera%tions 5ith the Spanish administrations

and their resour%efulness in the fa%e of the so%ial and %ultural upheaval

Haiti: Anacaona (Taino)

The earliest !uropean a%%ounts of female Amerindian rulers= dis%ourse

o%%urred on the island of Ai4ti HaitiG, 5hi%h Christopher Colum*us named

!spaola HispaniolaG The cacica leaderG Ana%aona hailed from the

provin%e of 0aragua, the farthest 5est of the cacica#gos%ommunitiesG

Ana%aona, 5hose name means #olden Flo5er+ in Ara5a, o%%upies

signi8%ant narrative spa%e in the earliest en%ounters Several earl4 a%%ounts

of Spanish exploration and %oloni;ation of the Cari**ean do%umented

Ana%aona=s parti%ipation in %olonial %onversations as 5ell as her violent

death in the aftermath of the "assa%re of 0aragua &hen /artholome5

Colum*us visited the island to negotiate tri*ute in 1>IJ, the Taino=s staged

an extraordinar4 performan%e for the pleasure of their guests on;alo

FernKnde; de viedo attri*uted this performan%e, %alled an areito in Ara5a,

dire%tl4 to Ana%aona


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$n el tiempo %ue""" &icol's (e )van(o go*ern+ esta isla, hi#o un

areito ant-l Anacaona.y an(a*an en la (an#a m's (e

trescientas (oncellas, to(as cria(as suyas, mu/eres por casar

por%ue no %uiso %ue hom*re ni mu/er casa(a o %ue hu*iese

conoci(o var+n2 entrasen en la (an#a a areito$n the time 5hen

M Ni%holKs de vando governed the islandMAna%aona made an

areito.and more than three hundred virgins parti%ipated in the

dan%e, all her servants, 5omen to *e married, *e%ause the4 did

not 5ant a man or a married 5oman ?or one 5ho had no5n a

man@ to parti%ipate in the dan%ing of an areitoG?J)@

&e learn from FernKnde; de viedo that Ana%aona exhi*ited

su*stantial talent in the %omposition of areitos, a Taino oral performan%e

narrative, *ut his a%%ount also ree%ts a spe%i8% agenda regarding the

!uropean ga;e on Amerindian 5omen This spe%ta%le %omposed and

produ%ed for visiting dignitaries and attri*uted to Ana%aona sets three

hundred 5omen dan%ing The staging of the event in%luded singing, dan%e,

and musi%al a%%ompaniment 2espite FernKnde; de viedo=s assertion that

all of the performers 5ere #untou%hed+ *4 males, premarital and

extramarital sexual relations 5ere not ta*oo in man4 Amerindian

%ommunities Another a%%ount of the areito indi%ates that these 5omen are

all the #5ives+ of Ana%aona=s *rother, /ehe%hio, so the vera%it4 of the

parti%ipants= virginit4 seems du*ious &hile FernKnde; de viedo ma4 have

*een impressed *4 the performers= virginit4, this ma4 not *e the entire

O


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message that the Taino ruler desired to %ommuni%ate As 5e %onsider the

spe%ta%le of O)) dan%ing #virgins+ performing for the !uropean politi%al elite,

5e must also %onsider the motivation for su%h an event &hat 5ould *e the

*ene8t of staging su%h a performan%e

$n his examination of dan%ing pra%ti%ed in the Ameri%as, Paul S%olieri

suggests that the areitoin 0aragua o6ers an example of Ana%aona=s attempt

at politi%al %ontrol sin%e the spe%ta%le 5as staged *efore Ana%aona and

/ehe%hio 5ere to negotiate 5ith the Spanish authorities S%olieri postulates

that Ana%aona used this spe%ta%le to s5a4 the negotiations in her favor *4

#leveraging $ndian sexualit4+ for e%onomi% *ene8t ?I'O)@ For S%olieri, this

event represents an attempt to 5in favor 5ith the ne5 po5er *roers

&hether to use sexualit4 to attain politi%al and e%onomi% gains, or to merel4

entertain and o6er pleasure for their guests, this message is literall4

%ommuni%ated 5ith and a*out 5omen=s *odies

/artolomQ de Las Casas=s e4e5itness a%%ount do%umented the horri8%

treatment of Ana%aona and her people *4 the Spanish administration The

Spanish governor of !spaola, Ni%holas de vando, had summoned Taino

dignitaries and their retinues to a meeting &ith the dignitaries inside,

vando ordered the stru%ture 5here the4 had gathered to *e *urned, illing

man4 of the attendees Ana%aona and some of her entourage es%aped, *ut

the4 5ere hunted, %aptured and exe%uted for %rimes against the Spanish

government This event served as one of the %ornerstones of Las Casas=s

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%ondemnation of the Spanish en%omienda s4stem and the %ruelt4 of

!uropean intera%tions 5ith the Amerindian %ommunities

$n 3rev4sima relaci+n (e la (estrucci+n (e las n(iasLas Casas

summari;es the event:

A%u4 lleg+ una ve# el go*erna(or %ue go*erna*a esta isla con

sesenta (e ca*allo y m's trecientos peones, . lleg'ronse m's

(e trescientos se6ores a su llama(o. (e los cuales hi#o meter

(entro (e una casa (e pa/a muy gran(e los m's se6ores por

enga6o, e meti(os les man(+ poner 7uego y los %uemaron vivos"

A to(os los otros alancearon e metieron a espa(a . e a la

se6ora Anacaona, por hacerle honra, ahorcaron"Here 5hen the

governor 5ho governed this island arrived 5ith R) on horse*a%

and more than O)) on footMO)) leaders arrived upon his

summonsM of those he made those of the highest ran enter

into a large that%h stru%ture *4 de%eit, and on%e inside, he

ordered that it *e set on 8re and *urned them alive All the

others 5ere illed 5ith lan%es or put to the s5ord M and for the

leader Ana%aona, to sho5 her honor, the4 hanged herG ?f Ir@

The honor signaled *4 Las Casas in hanging Ana%aona appears a

striing %ontrast to the *lame FernKnde; de viedo la4s on her in %ausing

the destru%tion of her o5n people FernKnde; de viedo used the

%omportment of Ana%aona and the Taino 5omen as the


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$sta 7u- una mu/er %ue tuvo algunos actos seme/antes a los (e

a%uella Sem4ramis, reina (e los asirios, no en los gran(es 7echos

%ue cuenta 8ustino, ni tampoco en hacer matarlos muchos con

%uien se ayunta*a, ni en ha9er traer ' sus (oncellas pa6os

menores en sus vergon#o#as partes, como (e a%uella reyna

escri*e 8ohan 3oca9io. 7u-, como tengo (icho, a*soluta se6ora e

muy acata(a (e los in(ios pero muy (eshonesta en el acto

ven-reo con los cristianos, e por esto e otras cosas seme/antes,

%ue(+ reputa(a y teni(a por la m's (isoluta mu/er %ue (e su

manera ni otra ho*o en esta isla This one, she 5as the 5oman

5ho had several similar a%ts lie that Semiramis, 9ueen of the

Ass4rians, not in the great deeds that 0ustinian tells, nor in the

ordering the illing of man4 5ith 5hom she had inter%ourse, nor

in maing her maidens 5ear small hander%hiefs in their

shameful parts lie that 9ueen as 5ritten *4 /o%%a%%io M she

5as, as $ have said, a*solute femaleG ruler and ver4 respe%ted *4

the $ndians *ut ver4 dishonest in the venereal a%t 5ith the

Christians, and for this and for similar things, she 5as reno5ned

and taen for the most dissolute 5oman that %ould *e found on

the entire islandG?1O'OO@

As the referen%e to /o%%a%%io indi%ates, for FernKnde; de viedo,

Ana%aona=s la% of sexual %ontrol dire%tl4 %aused the do5nfall and su6ering

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of her people as 5as the %ase of her North Afri%an %ounterpart, Semiramis

Aldo Al*ni%o explains that man4 historians have adopted FernKnde; de

viedo=s misog4nist attitude to5ard Ana%aona, inferring that the li*idinous

a%ts of the 5omen of 0aragua %aused the do5nfall of the Taino po5er

stru%ture rather than the Taino=s protest *e%ause of their dissatisfa%tion 5ith

the ma%hinations of the governor, vando, that Las Casas details ?p 1@ $f

the areito5as o6ered as an expression of female sexualit4 as FernKnde; de

viedo indi%ates, perhaps it %ommuni%ated Ana%aona=s invitation to the

Spaniards to


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entleman from !lvas, and ar%ilaso de la .egamention this event

This investigation relies heavil4 on the detailed a%%ount of Peruvian

mesti;o %hroni%ler, ar%ilaso de la .ega !l $n%a ar%ilaso=s narrative

ree%ts a meditation on the expedition from the perspe%tive of the son

of an $n%a coya?elite 5oman@ and a Spanish soldier

$n this most detailed of the events at Co8ta%he9ui, ar%ilaso

explained that the Spanish for%es had learned of this region from an

Amerindian translator, #Fran%is%o de Chi%ora,+ 5ho had *een %aptured

*4 Spanish slave raiders along the %oast of 5hat is present da4 South

Carolina and *rought to Cu*a A%%ording to the translator, the

po5erful territor4 inland from the pla%e of his %apture no5n as 2uhare

or 2atha 5as 5ealth4 and traded in pre%ious metals ?Hudson OO'O-@

&hile the Soto expedition spent the 5inter of 1->) in Apala%hee,

along the ulf Coast in 5hat is toda4 the Florida Panhandle, other

Native interpreters indi%ated the4 had no5ledge a*out a land that

Fran%is%o had des%ri*ed and that it 5as %alled Co8ta%he9ui 3pon

hearing this, Soto de%ided to turn north and see this land n "a4 1,

1->) the expedition entered the territor4 The leaders of this region

alread4 ne5 of the !uropean presen%e and had anti%ipated the

expedition=s arrival As the !uropeans %amped along the &ateree

Biver, a 5oman, %arried on a litter %overed 5ith 8ne, 5hite %loth,

traversed the river, a%%ompanied *4 a su*stantial entourage This

5oman, %alled the #Lad4 of Co8ta%he9ui+ in the a%%ounts, pro%eeded

(


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to %harm the !uropeans She invited them to lodge in the near*4

village, and then removed a long strand of pearls from her ne% and

o6ered it to Soto ?Bangel np@

Although the cacicare%ounted the hardships of the past several

4ears in 5hi%h the %rops had failed and the region had su6ered from

disease, she 5el%omed the !uropeans gra%iousl4 She o6ered them

food and lodging in one of her tri*utar4 villages, and she sho5ed them

the *urial tom*s of her people 5here the !uropeans %olle%ted several

hundred pounds of fresh 5ater pearls Also among the Co8ta%he9ui

*urials, Soto and his for%es found Spanish axes and trade *eads,

%on8rming that this polit4 had trade routes that extended to the

%oastal savannah 5here Fran%is%o had *een %aptured Not %ontent 5ith

the o6ering of pearls, the !uropeans demanded to see 5hat metals

existed in the %ommunit4 The cacicaprodu%ed %opper and mi%a, *ut

none of the silver and gold rumored to a*ound in the region ?ar%ilaso

1>'-@

Soto pla%ed the cacicaunder guard and pro%eeded to travel to

the piedmont 5ith her as hostage to assure safe passage The cacica

and the expedition 5ere re%eived 5ell in ea%h village and to5n, and

the expedition traveled safel4 through the territor4 At the edge of

Co8ta%he9ui, the cacicaout5itted her %aptors After feigning the need

to relieve her *odil4 fun%tions, she es%aped into the forest 5ith a *ox

of her pearls and a mem*er of her retinue The entleman from !lvas

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also indi%ated that she sele%ted one of the Afri%an slaves 5ho had also

es%aped from the expedition as her hus*and ?np@ &hile 5e did not

hear the a%tual voi%e of the Lad4 of Co8ta%he9ui, nor did 5e 8nd out

her name, ar%ilaso=s a%%ount of an adept and resour%eful female ruler

highlights the agen%4 ena%ted *4 Amerindian people in the fa%e of the

!uropean %on9uest This a%%ount, pu*lished in Lis*on in 1J),

appeared at a time 5hen the enterprise of Florida 5as in


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to the *ene8t of the Amerindian %ommunities and the !uropean

settlements ?"Qnde; de Can%io 1OJ@

2oa "arDa married a Spanish soldier, Clement .ernal &hile the

Spanish hoped to gain a%%ess to the Timu%ua elite through this

allian%e, it appears that the Timu%ua, and 2oa "arDa, derived

signi8%ant gains from the Spanish allian%e $n 1-IR'I(, a %onfederation

of uale %ommunities rose up against the Spanish and illed 8ve

missionaries 2oa "arDa and her neigh*or, uale mico?leader@ 2on

0uan %onsolidated for%es and 5ere a*le to e6e%t pea%e again $n

response to these e6orts, the re%entl4'arrived governor of Florida,

on;alo "Qnde; de Can%io 5rote to Uing Felipe $$$ that 1 leaders,

in%luding 2oa "arDa and 2on 0uan, %ame to him to o6er their

allegian%e to the Uing, and that the governor had ad


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5ith the overnor of these Provin%es, pla%es me under the

ne%essit4 of asing 4our "a


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our, %lothing, and other expenda*le items and the

*e%ause of their needs and the povert4 that 4ou 5itnessed

in some of the %ommunities of said AmerindiansG 4ou

ad


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report stated that the purpose of the trip 5as to engage in dis%ourse

and to o6er gifts on *ehalf of the Spanish ing so that the %ommunities

5ould #pra%ti%e Christian a%ts to preserve the faith ?1JJ@+ Additionall4,

the visit 5as to ensure the %ommunities maintained pea%e 5ith one

another and the Spanish administration, that the4 o*e4ed the prin%ipal

leaders, and that %ontinued the Christiani;ation of uale Finall4, the

Spanish administration 5anted to o6er gifts and to assure the good

treatment of the missionaries 5oring in the region

The narratives of the a%%ounts do not 9uote the Amerindians, *ut

the reported dis%ourse signals an unexpe%ted po5er d4nami% ne of

the expressed goals of the endeavor 5as to assure that the caci%ues

5ere treating #their su* $n the narrative, the Timu%ua region,

headed *4 2oa "arDa, 5as re%ogni;ed for its man4 Christian su*


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and 5hether those Spanish people #had *othered or mistreated them

or had *othered or mistreated an4one=s 5ives or daughters+ ?1JJ@

The Spanish also ased if the %ommunities had seen or tried to re%over

an4 #foreign *oats+ A%%ording to the report, this line of 9uestioning

5as designed to impress on the %ommunities that an4one 5ho %aused

harm to them 5ould *e punished, and that the4 #should live

pea%efull4Mand %ompl4 5ith the ing=s de%rees and the4 5ould *e 5ell

treated+ ?1JJ@

After touring the region, the delegation arrived in San Pedro, the

main to5n 5here 2oa "arDa resided $n a similar %onversation, the

governor re%ogni;ed the role of the Fran%is%an missionar4 Pedro BuD;

and ased the cacicaif she had an4 issues 5ith the lo%al leaders, man4

of 5hom 5ere listed in the do%ument ?1R>@ She responded that she

had no %omplaints, and the leaders also responded that the4 had no

9uarrels 5ith the cacicaand that no one of Spanish origin had %aused

them pro*lems either ?1R>'1R-@ After this, the delegation passed out

goods and supplies to the assem*led dignitaries n the same da4, the

cacicaof the to5n of Vufera, on Cum*erland $sland, met 5ith the

governor, explaining that she and her %ommunit4 5ere not vassals of

2oa "arDa, *ut she %onsidered herself a #sister at arms+ 5ith the

Timu%ua leader This cacicahad *rought her hus*and and her heir to

meet 5ith the governor and the cacica and to o6er her allian%e to

2oa "arDa and to the ing ?1RJ@

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The do%umentation of 2oa "arDa=s role in this event and the

eviden%e that female rulers lie the cacica of Vufera indi%ate that,

despite a general assumption that 5omen held seats of po5er onl4

5hen their hus*ands %ould not, is at least partiall4 in%orre%t in the

region of Florida Amerindian 5omen expressed their agen%4 and

parti%ipated in the %olonial administration as e9uals in some %ases The

matriar%hal and matrilineal so%ieties of ;a @,

2iane Cor*in explains that in Texas lore, the Spanish missionar4

2amian de "assanet, 5ho traveled 5ith explorer Alonso de Len

throughout Coahuila and !ast Texas from 1JI)'I1, met a 4oung

1J


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5oman 5ho 5as eager to learn Spanish ?1-@ Some a%%ounts mention

that the girl=s famil4 relo%ated to Coahuila 5hen the San Fran%is%o de

Te


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AmerindiansG to follo5 the dail4 routine that dis%iplined

the lives of Christian %iti;ensM&hen this


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un%overed t5o Fren%h and three Spanish mentions of a 5oman 5ho

%ould have *een Angelina ?1O@ The earliest mention of a female

Hainai guide appears in The Annals o7 ;ouisiana*4 AndrQ PQni%aut

?1((O@ PQni%aut %laimed that he a%%ompanied St 2enis on his

expedition from the Fren%h %olonial %it4 of "o*ile through Spanish

Texas to San 0uan /autista, Coahuila, in 1R1> to esta*lish trade

allian%es 5ith the Spanish The expedition 5as re%eived in a Hainai

village in !ast Texas 5here St 2enis o6ered gifts to the %ommunit4

and ased for guides through the region $n this village a 5oman 5ho

spoe Spanish %ame for5ard and, sin%e St 2enis also spoe Spanish,

she translated for him ?PQni%aut -))@ &hile H4att and erland

maintain that PQni%aut 5as not a parti%ularl4 relia*le narrator,

espe%iall4 sin%e he %laimed to have *een on expeditions 5ith *oth

d=$*erville and /ienville that too pla%e at the same time, the stories

a*out a Hainai 5oman 5ho spoe Spanish 5ith St 2enis in !ast Texas

did permeate the narratives of the time ?H4att and erland 1-@

3pon arrival in Coahuila, St 2enis met 5ith 2iego Bamn, the

%ommander of the Presidio San 0uan /autista, and %onvin%ed him to

mount an expedition to !ast Texas to esta*lish missions to strengthen

the Spanish presen%e against the Fren%h in Louisiana $n 1R1J,

Bamn=s son 2omingo led the expedition to return to !ast Texas The

missionar4 priest from the College of Santa Cru; de EuerQtaro, $sidro

Felix de !spinosa, a%%ompanied the expedition, and in his


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!spinosa related the events in the Te


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he 5as read4 to return to the !uropean 5orld, this 5oman o6ered her

t5o %hildren to guide him to Nat%hito%hes H4att and erland point out

that man4 s%holars %riti9ue its vera%it4 *e%ause, lie PQri%aut, /ellisle=s

narrative lends to5ard the fan%iful ?H4att and erland 1-'1J@ The

stor4, ho5ever, is 9uite %aptivating

0uan Antonio de la Pea, %haplain of the expedition to reopen the

!ast Texas missions led *4 the "ar9uQs de San "iguel de Agua4o,

re%orded the onl4 mention of a 5oman 5hose name 5as Angelina 5ho

lived among the Hainai and spoe Spanish This Agua4o expedition left

Coahuila in late 1R) and 5as *eleaguered the entire trip /4 the time

the4 rea%hed !ast Texas in the spring of 1R), the Trinit4 Biver 5as so

ooded the4 had to 5ait more that t5o 5ees to %ross ?Agua4o 1R1@

Pea %on8rmed the Hainai leader=s %on%ern for the expedition and the

presen%e of Angelina among those 5ho %ame to greet the Spanish

%onvo4:

n the -th Agua4o 5as met *4 the %a;i9ue of the A4na4

HainaiG tri*e, re%ogni;ed as head of the Assinais HasinaiG

nations, and at 5hose village the mission of La Purisima

Con%ep%in 5as founded in 1R1J He 5as a%%ompanied *4

eight of the %hief $ndians and four 5omen, among 5hom

5as one Angelina, 5ho had *een raised on the Bio rande

and spoe *oth the Spanish and the TQxas languages The

A4na4 %a;i9ue re%eived the Spaniards 5ith tears of


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sa4ing that he had heard of their *eing at the Trinit4 8fteen

da4s *efore, and, impatient at their dela4, had %ome to

meet them ?/u%le4 >O@

The PurDsima Con%ep%in "ission 5as lo%ated on the *ans of a river

that aspar 0osQ de SolDs %alled the Angelina Biver for the 8rst time in

his diar4 in 1RJ( ?J@

The intelligent, pro'a%tive Amerindian 5omen studied a*ove

en%ountered !uropean soldiers and traders in their homelands

Ana%aona perished in her attempts to negotiate 5ith the Spanish

administration, despite attempts to negotiate 5ith the po5er*roers in

the manner %ommon to the region

$n the %ase of Co8ta%he9ui, the demands the Soto expedition put

on the 4oung ruler proved too great &hile the cacica attempted to

house and feed the Spanish soldiers, the4 did not demonstrate mu%h

gratitude for her e6orts and the en%ounter ended 5ith the ruler maing

her es%ape She did, ho5ever, appear to have taen at least one of

the expedition=s slaves for her o5n purposes Spanish and other

!uropean expeditions 5ould %ontinue to visit Co8ta%he9ui for the next

1-) 4ears

2oa "arDa "elQnde; used her 5its, her 5ords, and her marital

situation to gain favor and support from the Spanish government in St

Augustine, Florida From a hum*le *eginning in a village near the

presi(io, her allian%e gre5 to rea%h from Cum*erland $sland in South


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Carolina to the mid'Atlanti% %oast of Florida, 5ith even the Uing of

Spain %orresponding 5ith her

Angeli%a7Angelina, a Hainai 5oman 5ho lived along the Texas

river that 5ould *ear her name, reportedl4 helped Fren%h and Spanish

explorers, traders, and missionaries su%%essfull4 negotiate the lands

and the %ommunities of !ast Texas &hile 5e %annot *e %ompletel4

sure that she did intera%t 5ith ea%h of the !uropeans 5ho told of her,

5e %an no5 that Amerindian 5omen parti%ipated a%tivel4 as go'

*et5eens in the intera%tions that shaped the to5ns, %ities, and states

of the ulf of "exi%o These are onl4 four of the man4 5omen 5ho

appear in the reports, the stories, the a%%ounts, and the visitas

%ompiled *4 Spanish and Fren%h operatives &ith the te%hnolog4 no5

at our %ommand and the num*er of resour%es availa*le ele%troni%all4,

it is mu%h easier to sear%h for and explore the voi%es of these 5omen

and others 5ho ma4 have *een lost to the ages

Besour%es

Aldo Al*ni%o, XAna%aona, reina de 0araguK, en las %rni%as deldes%u*rimiento 4 en la literatura o%ho%entista= Cari*ana 1 ?1II)@n1), p 1

/iedma, Lu4s HernKnde; de =elation o7 the slan( o7 istoricalAssociation1- ?0ul4 1I11@

Casas, /artolome de las ;as )*ras (el o*ispo o Casaus, o*ispo %ue7ue (e la ciu(a( =eal (e Chiapa en las n(ias""", ?ed AntonioLa%aualleria, 1--1@

O
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CQli;, Fra4 Fran%is%o iary o7 the Alarc+n $xpe(ition into Texas, 1?1!@1?1, trans F L Ho6man Los Angeles: Euivira So%iet4, 1IO-GNe5 Vor: Arno Press, 1IJR

Ciudad Beal, Antonio de =elaci+n *reve y ver(a(era (ealgunas cosas(e las muchas %ue suce(ieron al Ba(re istorical Quarterly>> ?%to*er 1I>)@Chang'Bodrigue;, Ba9uel 3eyon( 3ooEs an( 3or(ers: Farcilaso (e la

Gega an( La Florida del $n%a Le5is*urg: /u%nell 3P, ))JClendinnen, $ngaAm*ivalent Con%uests: Haya an( Spaniar( in

Iucatan, 151?15?0" ))O2Da; Serrano, Ana #La Bep[*li%a de Tlax%ala ante el Be4 de !spaa

durante el Siglo \.$+ >istoria Hexicana J1O ?)1>@ 1)>I'11)R!lvas, !l Hidalgo de 0ohn &orth, transhttp:77555oridahistor4%om7elvas'html

ar%ilaso de la .ega, !l $n%a ;a ernan(o (eSoto an( the Souths Ancient Chie7(oms Athens: 3 of eorgia P,1IIR

Hudson, Charles, and Carmen Chaves Tesser The


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PQni%aut, AndrQ de #Les premiers postes de la Louisiane: Belation dePQni%aut+in Pierre "argr4 -couvertes et -ta*lissements (es7ran9ais (ans lMouest et (ans le su( (e lMAm-ri%ue Septentrionale1N1L1?5L2 H-mories et (ocuments originaux recueillis et pu*".ol, - Paris: 2 0ouaust, 1((O P OR-'-(J

Bangel, Bodrigo deAccount o7 the &orthern Con%uest an( iscoveryo7 >ernan(o (e Soto Part 0ohn &orth, transhttp:77555oridahistor4%om7rangel'html

S%olieri, Paul ancing the &eD Worl(: A#tecs, Spaniar(s, an( theChoreography o7 Con%uest, Austin: 3 Texas ?)1O@ p I'O)

SolDs, aspar 0osQ #2iar4 of a .isit of $nspe%tion of the Texas "issionsmade *4 Fra4 aspar 0osQ de SolDs in the Vear 1RJR'J(+"argaret Uenn4 Uress, trans "attie Austin Hat%her, introSouthDestern >istorical QuarterlyO-1 ?1IO1@ ('RJ

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