Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 104 675 SE 018 829
AUTHOR Hak, Abdul; And OthersTITLE Field Manual for Museums. Museums and Monuments,
XII.INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization, Paris (France).PUB DATE 70NOTE 168p.AVAILABLE FROM UNIPUB, Inc., P.O. Box 443, New York, NY 10016
($9.00)
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC Not Available from EDRS..PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Archaeology; Botany; *Educational Facilities;
Environmental Education; *Ethnology; Field Studies;Geology; *Guides; *Museums; Research Methodology;Science Education; Social Sciences; Social Studies
IDENTIFIERS UNESCO
ABSTRACTThis manual is intended to provide museum staff
throughout the world with basic information needed in organizingfield work and adding to their collections, to help museums bystimulating research, and to encourage research personnel to bring arigorously scientific approach to their investigations. Variousspecialists in archaeology, ethnography, and natural sciences havedescribed the techniques and methods they have devised andsuccessfully used themselves. This manual contains the following tenpapers: (1) Introduction; (2) General remarks concerning theorganization of expeditions; 13) Standard methods of fielddocumentation; (4) The techniques of archaeological excavation; (5)Prospecting methods in archaeology; (6) The recovery, removal andreconstruction of skeletal remains--some new techniques; (7) Hintsfor ethnographers; (8) Field work techniques in geology andmineralogy; (9) Field work techniques in botany; and (10) Field worktechniques in zoology. Illustrations, photographs, tables, andbibliographies are also included. (TK)
U.S.DEPARTMENTOF HEALTH.EDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EOU CATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN.ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE,SENT OFFICIALNATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY
museums and monuments xii
I I
1Field manual2 for museums
e-rgGO unesco0tu
"'PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
COPYRIGHTEO MATERIAL BY MICRO.
ONFICHE Y HAS DEEN GRANTEO BY
manUNESCO
TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERAT
ING UNOER AGREEMENTSWITH THE NA
TIONAL INSTITUTE OF EOUCATI0NFURTHER R EPROOUCTION OUTSIOE
THE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMIS
SION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER ''
museums and monuments xi'
3
Titles in this series:
I Sites and monuments: problems-of today.zoo pages, 1 i5 illustrations, plans, index, and cd., 1953 (bilingual), out of print.
ii The are of paintings.164 pages, 87 illustrations, diagrams, index, znd cd., 1952 (bilingual), out of print.
iii Cuzco: reconstruction of the town and restoration of its monuments.64 illustrations and maps, 1952 (also in French and Spanish), out of print.
iv Saint Sophia of Ocbrida: preservation and restoration of the building and its frescoes.z8 pages, 37 illustrations and maps, 1953 (also in French), out of print.
V Manual of travelling exhibitions.1 i z pages, 18 diagrams, 7o illustrations, 1951 (also in French), out of print, sec number X below.
vi Lebanon: suggestions for the plan of Tripoli and fir the surroundings of the Baalbeck Acropolis.48 pages, i map, 7 diagrams, 44 illustrations, 1954 (out of print).
VII Syria: problems of preservation and presentation of sites and monuments.sz pages, 6t illustrations, 3 maps, 1954 (also in French and Arabic), out of print.
VIII Protection of cultural property in the event of a-med conflict.346 pages, 124 figures, 137 illustrations, 1)58 (French cdition is out of print).
ix The organization, of museum: practical advice.188 pages, 18 figures, 8 tables, 91 illustrations, 1959 (also in French).
x Temporal), and travelling exhibitions.123 pages, 23 figures, 88 illustrations, 1963 (also in French).
xi The conservation of cultural property, with special reference to tropical conditions.Prepared in co-operation withthe International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property,Rome, 341 pages, 6o figures, 43 illustrations, 1967 (also in French and Spanish).
xii Field manual for museums.176 pages, 44 figures, 31 plates (also in French).
4
Field manual
for museums
unesco
5
Published in 197o by the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural OrganizationPlace de Fontenoy, 75 Paris-70Printed by Presses Centrales T.ausanne S.A.
0 Uncsco 197oPrinted in SwitzerlandSHC.68/X. i z/A
6
Traditionally concerned with conservation,and quite recently with bringing art to thepublic, museums have also certain responsi-bilities towards scientific and technologicalresearch Apart from other manifold dutiesin administration, conservation, educationand the organization of cultural activities,museum staff must also be competent tohandle all kinds of demands that may bemade on them by the implications of scienti-fic research today.
As far as museums are concerned, what isinvolved is twofold : (a) research on items inthe collections capable of providing datavital to science, and likely to advance edu-cation and culture; (b) collecting of objectswhich will expand and enrich museumcollections.
All museums have research concerns withtheir own collections, but not all museumsor types of museum are as urgently concern-ed, or concerned in the same way, withcollecting. Many collections are constitutedonce and for all ; the possibility of newacquisitions is either non-existent or veryslight, and in most cases does not depend ondoing research.
However, the problem is different fornewly-established museums in countrieswhere research is very active, and whereagencies responsible for research or for theprotection of the cultural heritage are lack-ing or not strong enough. In such cases, all
Foreword
museum staff curators, scientists, explo-rers, archaeologists, research personnel andall kinds of technical staffmay be calledupon to participate, depending on the extentof the projects and the conditions underwhich they are to be carried out.
In co-operation with universities, scienti-fic institutes and research centres, or, wherethese do not exist, by drawing on their ownresources, museums must expand and enrichtheir collections with the products of theirown field work carried out both locally andin other places and countries, near or far.
In the Unesco Museums and Monumentsseries, the present Field Manual for Museumsis intended to provide m useum staffs through-out the world with the basic informationneeded in 'organizing field work and addingto their collections.
After enlisting the support of eminentspecialists in archaeology, ethnography andthe natural sciences, Unesco invited them todescribethe techniques and methods they havedevised and successfully used themselves.
In thanking them, Unesco hopes that awider knowledge of their working tech-niques and methods will help museums bystimulating research, and by encouragingresearch personnel to bring a rigorouslyscientific approach to their investigations,and so ensure that the light their discoveriesthrow on nature and on various cultureswill be absolutely authentic.
7
Contents
List of illustrations To
The authors 14
Introduction 17 Scientific research in museums, 17.by SELIM ABDUL HAK Safeguarding of cultural property
endangered by public and private works, andby research in the field, 18. Organizationof research in the field, 19. Recruitment andtraining of staff to undertake research inmuseums, 19. Adoption andimplementation of national researchprogrammes, zo. Possibilities ofinternational co-operation in research, 22.Exchange of objects between museums, 24.
General remarks concerning the 27 Expedition leader, 27. Outline oforganization of expeditions organization, 28. Clear definition ofby JoHN 0. BREW objectives of the expedition, 28.
Marshalling and study of previous workin the area, 29. Analysis of the physicalfeatures of the area, 29. Financialarrangements, 3oRelations with present government andpopulation, 31. Scientific ethics, 33.Assembling the expedition staff, 34.Assembling supplies and technicalequipment, 34. Transport, packing, andshipping, 34. Customs, passports andhealth regulations, 38. Living arrangementsin the field, 38. Conclusion of theexpedition, 39. Reports, 39.
Standard methods of field 41 Significance of identification records, 41.documentation Field-work documentation equipment, 44.
by YVONNE ODDON General recommendations, 45.Completing identification records, 46.
The techniques of archaeologicalexcavationby KAZIMIERZ MICHALOWSKI
Prospecting methods in archaeologyby CARLO M. LERICI andRICHARD E. LININGTON
Museum use of identification label's, 55.Audio-visual documentation, 55.Co-elusion, 56. Biblicgraphy, 56.
59 Introduction, 59. Accidental finds, 55%
Excavations, 6z. Bibliography, 73.
75 Introduction, 75.Major factors affecting archaeologicalresearch, 75,Organization of the prospection, 77.Information of value in planning anyprospecting campaign, 77.The choice of the prospecting method, 78.Description of the methods, 79. Surfaceeffects, 80. Air photography, 80. Samplingtechniques, 8x. Geophysical surveying, 84.Electrical resistivity surveying, 84. Metaldetector, 86. Magnetic surveying, 86.Other geophysical methods, 86. Auxiliaryequipment, 86. Comparison between thedifferent prospecting methods and generalconclusions on their use, 87. Researchcentres for geophysical prospecting, 88.Publications and courses of instruction, 89.Appendix: Examples of geophysicalsurveying, 91.
The recovery, removal and 99reconstruction of skeletal remains-somenew techniquesby BRIAN J. FORD
Hints for ethnographers 109by MARGUERITE LOBSIGER-DELLENDACH
Field work techniques in geologyand mineralogyby HENRI LADMIRANT
Field-work techniques in botanyby Louis (OTHO) WILLIANIS
Excavation, ioo.Removal, 105. Reconstruction, io6.Summary, 107. Acknowledgement, 107.Bibliography, io8.
Introduction, 109. Field research, III.Care and identification of objects, ix z.Dwellings, 113. Clothing, ornaments andaccessories, 114.Crafts, 115. Stock-raising, agriculture,hunting and fishing, I z I. Ceremonies,amusements, 122.
123 Principles, 123.Preliminary studies and preparation, i24.Work in the field, 133. Bibliography, 141.
143 Introduction, 143.Preliminary conditions and preparations,
9
4
5
6
7
8
9
143. Field-work, 144. Field documentation,15o. Stabilization of botanical material inthe field, 152. Bibliography, 154.
10 Field-work techniques in zoology 155 The skinning of large mammals in theby KURT KONG, RENA BAHLER, field, 155. Preparation of birds and smalland WALTER HUBER mammals, 16z. Preservation of fish,
amphibians and reptiles, 164. Documentingthe collected material, 170.
e
10
Plates
List of illustrations
i. Field work (for the Boganda Museumat Bangui, Central African Republic).Acquisition of objects and investigationamong the nomadic BabenzelePygmies tribe. Basket, wooden box,cross-bow, traps, assegais, and so on.High-Sanga Region, 1965 (Photo:H. Dore) (p. 5o).
2. Identification on photographic planof one square metre of palacolithicground, Pincevent, Scinc et Marne,1964 (Photo: Musec dc l'Homme,Paris) (p. 51).
3. Recording and filming a local shepherdplaying the hurdy-gurdy, Tillos(Gironde), Junc 1965 (the musicalinstrument has been described andphotographcd separately).(Photo: Musee des arts et traditionspopulaires, Cl. Marcel-Dubois)(p. 52).
4. Layer of lime, dating from the middleof the third century, on the forum ofDiocletian's camp, Palmyra (p. 65).Composition of the strata, Scrock,Poland (p. 65).Unearthing a first-century oven inDiocletian's camp, Palmyra (p. 66).
7. Cleaning out a second- century limekiln, Tell Atrib (p. 66).Classifying pottery, Palmyra (p. 67).Reinforcing a third - century columnin Diocletian's camp, Palmyra (p. 68).
/o. The conservation expert Gazy cuttingout a fresco in the great cathedral,Faras (p. 68).
6.
8.
9.
tz. A typical excavation of humanremains (Photo: Thomson House,Cardiff) (p. 1 o t).
12. Radiograph of remains reconstructedwith polymer; reconstructed areas(arrowcd) clearly visible due totransparency of polyesters to x-rays(p. toz).
13. Reconstruction of area missing fromskull:
the damaged arca;glass fibre cut to size is cementedwith drops of Cataloy blend (C);Cataloy blend (A) is used toroughly fill the cavity;the arca is first levelled with asanding disc;final smoothing is carried out withthe aid of abrasive paper;the transparency of the repair isshown under X-rays (note arotation of +150 of (6) relative tothe other photographs in thisseries).
14. Prosthetic replacement of missingcoronoid and condyloid processes ofmandible (p. 104).
zj. Vertebra with artificial arch (p. 104).z6. A reconstructed skull: areas of plastic
indicated by dashes (p. 104).The image and the object. In theexhibition galleries, the photographexplains either the manufacturing orthe utilization of the exhibit. It is auseful substitute to explanatorynotices in countries where illiteracy
still exists. Boganda Museum.Department of Polk Art andTradition. (Photo: B. Sullcrot,Music dc l'Homme; Paris)(P. 117).
18. The horizontal loom uscd by Hausaweavers (Niger). EthnographicalMuseum, Neuchatel(Photo: J. Schoepflin, Neuchatel)(p. 118).
19. The moulding of Tahoua pottery.Photograph exhibited in theEthnographical Museum, Neuchatel(p. 120).
20. Systematic air photography. Thephotographs arc takcn vertically, atregular intervals, so as to give thenecessary coverage (Photo: Carl Zeiss,7082, Oberkochen, Federal Republicof Germany) (p. 130).
2s. This air photograph clearly shows ananticlinal geological structure withthe closing of the fold towards thenorthern edge of the photograph. Theaxis of the fold runs approximatelyN zoo W. The correspondencebetween the massive sandstoneseries G, which form a verycharacteristic morphological clement,can be seen on both sides of this axis.A limestone zone (A), only a fewmetres thick, shows up very clearlyby photogcology, because its courseis marked by a growth of euphorbia.A survey of this area could be limitedto one major east-wcst traverse inthe south and a few traverses in thenorth to find out the limits of theclosure of the fold, the blurredoutlines of which are shown here(P. 131).
22. This air photograph of a largeequatorial forest clearly shows twofolds running N-E. It will beunderstood that if the geologist hasnot seen and located these formationsin advance from photographs, he can
easily pass quite close to them,even a few hundred metres away,without suspecting the existenceof these characteristic reliefs(p. 130).
23. The field geologist locates theoutcrops by a stereoscopic examinationof air photographs (Photo: Carl Zeiss,7082, Oberkochen, Federal Republicof Germany) (p. 132).
24. (a) A field press showing carryingstraps, straps to permit expansion,and closing straps. This press ismade of mahogany; it measuresabout 30 X 45 cm (p. 143).
(b) The same press:opened out (p. 145).(c) Detail of closing strap (p. 146).(d) Detail of expansion strap (p. 146).(c) Detail of fastener used with
closing strap (p. 146).2f. (a) One press board, size 30 X 45 cm.
(b) Detail of construction of pressboard, the rivets are copper. Thewood used in this case is hickory(P. 147).
26. An aluminium corrugate, size30 X 45 cm (p. 148).
27. Sequence for press: press board, drier,corrugate, drier (plant), drier, etc.,and finally a closing press board(P. 148).
28. Belly incision (p. 165).29. Severing the legs at the knee-joint
(p. 165).30. Severing the tail (p. 166).31. Severing the wing at the shoulder-
joint (p. 166).32. Exposing the bead and cranium,
removal of the eyes (p. 167).33. A wooden stick wrapped in cotton
wool is introduced into the skin(p. 167).
34. The skin is stuffed with a fibrousmaterial (p. 168).
3f. The legs are tied to the wooden stick,and the skin is wrapped in a paperbag. A label is attached (p. 168).
1 9
Plates
Figures 1. Field identification label (p. 42).2. Example of an identification card
with a detachable placement label(p. 43).
3. Field identification: pottery fragments.All the finds in a particular layer ofexcavation are sent to the museumwith a single identification card(p 44)-
4. Brief identification of a zoologicalspecimen. The label is filled in at thetime of recording the specimen (p. 49).
5. Profile of a tomb, Iwanowec, Poland(p. 6o).
6. Diagram showing the division of thevarious prospecting methods (p. 79).
7. Diagram showing typical drillingequipment mounted on a truck.Circulating water under pressureenables the archaeological material tobe brought to the surface (p. 83).
8. The two main methods of geophysicalprospecting: (a) electrical resistivityand (b) magnetic (p. 85).
9. A comparison between the differenceprospecting methods (p. 88-89).
so. Magnetic survey of a ring ditch atStanton Harcourt, England (p. 9o).
i s. Magnetic anomaly for a large buriedwall at Sybaris, Italy (p. 92).
Ia. Plan of part of the survey of the wallshown in Fig. 11 (p. 92).
13. Plan of the archaeological zone atBolonia, Spain, showing the areassurveyed (p. 93).
14. Sample graphs of the electricalresistivity variations from zone Bat Bolonia (p. 93).
s5. Plan of the surveyed lines in zone B,at Bolonia (p. 94).
16. Interpretation of the survey shown inFig. 15 (p. 95).
17. Symbol diagram of a magnetic surveyat Pyrgi (Santa Severa), Italy (p. 96).
s8. Interpretation of the results shown inFig. 17 (p. 96).
19. Sketch plan of the excavated featureswithin the area shown in Fig. 17 (p. 97).
zo. Magnetic contour diagram of part ofthe necropolis of Cerveteri, Italy(P 98)-
a 1 . Plan of the tombs found on excavatingthe area shown in Fig. zo (p. 98).
az. Drawings by Hans Erni for theEthnographical Museum of Neuchatel:(a) the apprentice blacksmith's
first job: making an awl;(b) analysis of hand movements
(p. 119).23. Sketch of the living quarters and
workshop of the smith Captini, atTahoua(a) The living quarters. i, the mac-Hera
(workshop); 2, the chigura (livingquarters); 3, store-room; 4, housefor the women; 5, chief's house;6, taouri (parlour); 7, goat pen;8, millet silo; 9, bunco; so, horseenclosure; i s, kitchen; sz, watercontainer; s 3, wood pile; 14, toolsand utensils.The workshop : A. the smith; B. anapprentice; C. visitor's mat;s, scales; 2, water; 3, bellows;4, the anvil and the hearth (p. 119).(sketch by Raoul Gabus for theEthnographical Museum ofNeuchatel) (p. szo).
24. The three-camera system of aerialphotography, known as Trimetrogon.The three photographs, takensimultaneously, cover a strip ofground from one horizon to theother (p. 126).
25. This drawing is taken from atopographical map of Africa, showingthe drainage system only. Thediagrammatic secdon A-B can be drawnsolely from a study of the shape of thedrainage pattern (p. 129).
26. Extract from a small-sc..le plan markedto show the progress of surveysbeing made by three teams (p. 133).
27. Locating a point X on a map or aerialphotograph by the three-sightingsmethod (p. 134).
(b)
ru
28. Measuring the strike and dip ofgeological strata (p. 138).
29. The labels illustrated were used forspecial collections and show our methodof preparing labels:(a) A general label in which the
country and collector areconstant.A special label for a specificproject. All field data and names ofcollectors must be written in.
(c) Labels completely printed out(p. 151).
3o. Labels in which the majorityof the data is printed on to the label.Numbers, scientific names, as wellas specific data for each collectionmust be written in the spaces provided(p. 152)-
31. Side view of a loaded press (p. 153).32. A press board (p. x54).33. A drier box, using electric bulbs as a
source of heat (o. 154).34. Drawing of the eye showing its
diameter (18), the diameter of thepupil (7), and its colouring(P- 155)-
(b)
35. View of the underside of a deadanimal showing the three incisions inthe skin. (a) Centre-line incision;(b) first crosswise incision; (c) rearcrosswise incision (p. 156).
36. Line of cut for removing the hooves
37-(13 157) -Line of cut for removing clawsand pads (p. 157).
38. Top view of the head showing theincisions in the skin around the horns(13 157)-
39. Line of cut on a monkey's hand forremoving the skin from the skeletonof the hand (p. i 58).
4o. Measuring the skinned animal.Length measurements (p. 160).
41. Measuring the skinned animal.Circumference and diametermeasurements (p. 161).
42. Measuring the head before skinning.Length and diameter measurements(p. 161).
43. Sexual organs of mammal. The cat:(a) female; (b) male (p. 170).
44. Sexual organs of a bird. The domesticfowl: (a) hen; (b) cock (p. 171).
14
Figures
The authors
ABDUL HAI:, S. A.
Docteur 63 :ettres, University of Paris (1943).Diplomas of the Institut d'Art et d'Archeo-logie, the Institut d'Urbanisme, and theEcole du Louvre, Paris. One-time Directorand Chief Editor of the Annales archeolo-gigues of Syria; Curator, National Museum,Damascus (1945-195o), Director-General ofAntiquities and Museums of Syria (19S0-1964), Chief, Section of Monuments andMuseums, Unesco (since 1965). Publications:Les sculpteurs des porches du transept de la Cathi-drale de Chartres, Paris 1943; L' Art grecd'orient, Damascus 1951; Catalogue illustri duMusic national de Damas, Damascus 1951;Les aspects archiologiques de Damas, Damascus1953; Rome et ?Orient romain, Damascus1958, etc.
BAHLER, Rene
Left Switzerland for Australia in 1949. Ex-ploration of this country for 13 years, study-ing plant and animal life, and collectingspecimens for various museums.
BREW, John Otis -
A. B. in Fine Arts, Dartmouth College(1928). Student Harvard Graduate Schoolof Arts and Sciences (1928-31). PH. D. Har-vard, 1941. Fellow in archaeology thi:versityof Chicago expedition (1930). With PeabodyMuseum since 1930; assistant to director(1930-48); scientific director Claflin-Emerson
expedition (1931); director SoutheasternUtah expedition (1931-33); assistant todirector Harvard Irish expedition, 1934;director Awatovi expedition field seasons(r 93 5-39); Assistant-curator SouthwestAmerican Archaeology (1941-45); CuratorNorth American Archaeology (1945-48);director since 1949. Engaged in archaeologi-cal reconnaissance for museums in NewMexico and Arizona (1946-47); Peabodyprofessor of American archaeology andethnography since 1949; member of the staffof Harvard Department of Anthropology(1937); member of the Board of Syndics;member of the Massachusetts HistoricalCommission; chairman, advisory committeeon Pre-Columbian Art, Dunbarton Oaks(1963); chairman of the International com-mittee for monuments, artistic and historicsites and archaeological excavations (1956);chairman of the U.S. National Committeefor the Preservation of the Monuments ofNubia. Author of articles in journals andpapers of Peabody.
FORD, Brian J.
A.R.S.H., F.R.M.S., A.B.I.S.; independentresearch scientist who works from his labo-ratories in Cardiff, Wales. Has over Soo scien-tific publications to his name includingessays, papers and technical articles whichhave been published in several languages.Editor, author and broadcaster in the scien-tific field. Acts regularly as a college lecturerin Wales.
15
HUBER, Walter
Studied zoology at the University of Berne(1945), assistant at the Zoological Instituteof the University of Berne. Doctorate of thisUniversity (i 946). Research assistant at theCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique(CNRS) in the Laboratoire d'Embryologieexperimentale at Strasbourg University(France) (1947-5o). Diplome d'Etudes sup&rieures at Strasbourg University (1949).Curator at the Naturhistorischcs Museum inBerne (1951-63); since 1964 its director.Lecturer at the University of Berne (1957-65);later professor of morphology and biologyof vertebrates. Research journey to SouthAfrica (1963). Museological expert in Zam-bia (1965). Research journey to Poland(1967). Field of study: Functional morpho-logy; biometryand formation of the heads ofmammals and birds; research on wild animals.
KONG, Kurt
Vocational training in the Natural HistoryMuseum, Berne. Attended the Kunstge-werbeschule (Arts and Crafts School) (1948 -19S2). Successor to Mr. Ruprecht, chiefspecimen preparer (1957). Expeditions: Nor-way (birds) (1956); Angola (big game) (1958);Norway (fish) (196o); Zambia (Consultant,Unesco mission) (1965); Nigeria (courseleader, Unesco mission) (1966); Nigeria(ditto) (1967); Mission carried out for WorldExhibition in Brussels: 14 mammals, in-cluding an okapi and a group of bonobos(1959). Special field: Preparation of dermo-plastic model animals and of polyester bodiesof animals. Construction of dioramas.Painting of backgrounds.
LADMIRANT, Henri
Studies in geology at the University of Liege.Since 1956 has been attached to the Depart-ment of Geology and Mineralogy, Museeroyal de l'Afrique centrale (Tervuren, Bel-gium) where he is concei fled particularly
with geological mapping, interpretation ofair photographs, and petrology. Since 196oresponsible for a course in 'photo-geology'at the Faculty of Sciences at the UniversiteLibre, Brussels. Also responsible for theteaching of 'photo-geology' in the trainingcourse for geological assistants for studentsfrom developing countries at the Musee royalde l'Afrique centrale.
LERIct, Carlo Maurilio
Degree of Mechanical Engineering, TurinPolytechnic (1913). Aeronautical Engineerduring the first world war (1915-18). Spe-cialized in the manufacture and commercialuses of stainless steel from 1924. Promoterof the Italian Cultural Institute, Stockholm(1940, of the Lerici Foundation at the MilanPolytechnic (1947), of the ArchaeologicalProspecting Centre in Rome (1955); and ofthe International Course on ArchaeologicalProspecting at Rome University (1964).Author of several publications on archaeo-logical prospecting.
LININGTON, Richard Edgar
Honours degree in Physics, Oxford Univer-sity (1960 -). Faculty memberUniversity ofPennsylvania, Philadelphia (196o-61). LericiFoundation, Technical Director (196z).Active in both geophysical and archaeo-logical fields. Directed several excavationsin England and elsewhere (1958-6o, Directorof excavations for Oxford University andPresident of the Archaeological Society).Has undertaken work for the Foundation inseveral countries, including Spain, theUnited Arab Republic, Jordan, Bulgaria,Poland, Czechoslovakia, Federal Republic ofGermany.Has also worked in England, France, theUnited States of America and Guatemala.Author of various articles and specialist inresearch aspects of the application of scien-tific techniques to archaeology, includingthe use of electronic computers.
1 e..tu
Lonstorat-DELLENBAcn, Marguerite
Docteur iettres, University of Grenoble(1935). Privat-docent, University of Geneva(1941-62). Director of the Musee et Institutd'Ethnographie, Geneva (1952-67). Prehis-toric excavations in France (Dordogne);Two African expeditions (ethnographic andanthropological) in Kabylie and Niger(1948); Ethnographic and anthropologicalexpedition in Nepal (1952); Specialist inreading c f New Caledonian bamboo carvings(20 memoirs on the subject in collaborationwith Georges Lobsiger). Publications (inaddition to numerous articles): La co/quitedu massif alpitr par let populations pribistoriques(Grenoble, 1935), Recbercbes ethnologignes arrNepal (Katmandu Valley) (Geneva 1955),iVepal,catalogrre descriptif de la collection d'ethno-graphie nepalaise du Musie d'etbnograpbie deGeneve (Geneva 1954).
MICHALOWSKI, Kazimierz
Docteur es lettres. Dr. h.c. (Strasbourg).Professor of Mediterranean Archaeology atthe Faculty of Letters, Warsaw University.Member of the Praesidium of the PolishAcademy of Sciences. Professor and Head ofthe Faculty of Mediterranean Archaeologyat Warsaw University. Director of the PolishArchaeological Centre in Cairo. Director ofthe Institute of Mediterranean Archaeologyof the Polish Academy of Sciences in War-saw. Assistant Director of the WarsawNational Museum. Director of the Franco-Polish excavations at Edfu (Upper Egypt,
1936-39) and of the Polish excavations atMirmaki (Crimea, 1956-58), Tell Atrib(Lower Egypt, from 1957), Palmyra (Syria,from 1959), Alexandria (from 196o), Dabot(Nubia, 1961), Deir el Bahari (Upper Egypt,from 1962), Faras (Sudan, 1961-64), OldDongola (Sudan, from 1964), Paphos (Cy-prus, from 1963). Vice-Chairman, meetingof experts of archaeological excavations(Palermo, 1956). Chairman of the Committeeof archaeological experts and landscapearchitects for the salvage of Abu Simbel.Many scientific publications.
ODDON, Yvonne
Head of the Unesco-ICOM Museum Docu-mentation Centre since its creation in 1947.Organizer of the ethnological library of theMusee de l'Homme, of which she waseffective Director from 1929 to 1963.
WILLIAMS, Louis (Otho)
Systematic and Economic Botanist. ChiefCurator, Botany, Field Museum NaturalHistory, Chicago. B.S., M.S., Univ. Wyo-ming (1933); Ph.D. Washington Univ.(St. Louis, 1936). Twenty years field experi-ence in American tropics. Research: Floraof Guatemala; Flora of central Central Amer-ica; economic plants of Central Americarelated to human cultures. Formerly: Re-search Associate, Harvard University; Bo-tanist and Subdirector, Escuela AgricolaPanamericana, Honduras; Botanist, U.S.Department of Agriculture.
Se lim Abdul Hak
Introduction I
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN NIUSEUMS
The broadening of the horizons of thevarious branches of science is one of the moststriking features of our age. Knowledge isbeing perfected everywhere. Modern tech-niques are stimulating experiments, sug-gesting hypotheses and encouraging theformulation of new theories.
To help give human experience its truedimensions and to promote appreciation ofuniversal values at the local, national andinternational levels, museums are tendingmore and more to become centres of researchat the service of the community. The areasin which they can undertake research aremany and depend on their nature and thecategory to which they belong. Museumsexist precisely to preserve and improve theircollections and to make them known, andjustify their existence through the perfor-mance of those tasks.
In this connexion, it is worth mentioningthat museums are contributing to scientificprogress in two ways: by making a studyof original items in their possession, andby trying to find and to acquire materialthat will complete their collections and makethe information to be gleaned from themmore useful and up to date.
It is often said that a museum must not bea repository of dead or dumb objects, ormerely of curios. Indeed, every museumcollection needs careful study. It is worthalways to include specialists on the staff ofeven small museums, people who would have
the opportunity of carrying out, either ontheir own or with the help of outside schol-ars, the type of academic and applied studiesrequired in branches of science which arestill in a state of constant development. Theaim of this is to acquire a better knowledgeof the exhibits and to establish classes,relationships, similarities, differences, varie-ties and divergencies. Equally important arcthe use, where necessary, of methods oftechnical analysis (chemical and physical),the carrying out of interdisciplinary compar-ative studies of the main cultural trends, therevision of accepted ideas in the light ofcritical inquiries, the formulation of conclu-sions and the communication of the resultsof studies to other museums and interestedscientific institutions and their publicationin bulletins, journals, specialist works, etc.
Such activities open up fresh perspectivesfor scientific and technical museum staff.Except in a fairly limited number of cases,museum collections are not assembled onceand for all. Enriching them with new objectsand material, filling in gaps and varying theircomposition are essential tasks, which mustbe attended to daily in the service of scienceand culture. For many categories of museums,scientific research in the field is still the mainand most reliable source for obtaining acontinuing supply of the material needed fortheir development.
The technological and methodologicalaspects of all research undertaken by mu-seums to enrich their collections by appro-priate means needs special emphasis, because
18
17
Selim Abdul flak
the main and secondary techniques of eachdiscipline would have to be applied rigor-ously and carefully by skilful, qualifiedworkers if the specified objectives are to beachieved with the greatest possible degreeof accuracy.
The main thing is to obtain as much scien-tific information as possible during and aftereach operation. Objects discovered, or yetto be discovered, are rich in meaning; theyare often unique and highly precious itemsof evidence. Sometimes they have survivedfrom a remote past, after being buried in thesoil or existing in the environment ofsocieties which were ignorant of their greatvalue to science. Hence, their presence in situmay provide evidence as to the nature oftheir environment, past civilizations, eventsin which they have been involved and thecustoms of the peoples who used them. Ut-most care is therefore to be recommended incollecting and recording all data capable ofvitalizing the physical, archaeological, his-torical and ethnographic context and whichare required to ensure that the discoveriesare exploited scientifically to the best pos-sible advantage.
It is important too that research workersshould be able to ensure preservation of thediscovered material while they are identi-fying the characteristics which locate it intime and space. Such material will haveundergone a certain amount of change,depending on its specific resistance, the degreeto which and the length of time for which ithas been subjected to deterioration factors.Hence the need and the urgency for applyinga provisional form of treatment immediatelyand for seeking, without delay, an appro-priate laboratory method of ensuring perma-nent preservation.
It is likewise highly desirable to see thatthe sites and areas where research has beencarried out are preserved, so that they can beused for further research, which may lead topossible new discoveries, or reserved asplaces where advantage might be taken of
8 subsequent advances in techniques and
knowledge for checking the accuracy ofresearch data at some future time. Apartfrom that, the protection, maintenance andrestoraticn of these sites for educational andcultural purposes have the great advantageof awakening and developing respect andadmiration for the different values involved.
It is worth recalling that these considera-tions were at the root of the legal measurestaken by many countries to protect theirarchaeological heritage and to safeguardtheir natural, historical, scientific and othersites. At the international level, similarconsiderations led to the drafting of tworecommendations: the Recommendation onInternational Principles Applicable to Ar-chaeological Excavations, adopted on 5 De-cember 1956 by the General Conference ofUnesco during its ninth session in NewDelhi; and the Recommendation Concerningthe Safeguarding of the Beauty and Characterof Landscapes and Sites, adopted by theGeneral Conference of Unesco on II De-cember 196z during its twelfth session inParis.
Preventive and corrective measures havethus been drawn up at both the national andinternational levels to protect places whereresearch may be conducted. The proceduresto be followed for all investigations whosepurpose is to discover objects have beenclearly defined. It is to be hoped that researchworkers in all disciplines will observe theprovisions of these protective measures,which are aimed solely at safeguardingimportant scientific and cultural interests.
SAFEGUARDING OF CULTURAL PROPERTYENDANGERED BY PUBLIC AND PRIVATE WORKSAND BY RESEARCH IN THE FIELD
In the developed and developing countriesalike, a very serious danger is today threaten-ing thousands of natural, scientific, archaeo-logical, historical and artistic sites andethnological contexts because of the con-struction of great hydro-electric plants,dams, motorways, oil pipelines, pylons and
n
power grids, intensive methods of farming,the urban explosion, urban development andrenewal, the building of factories, aero-dromes, railways, etc., all of which arenonetheless indispensable for bringing eco-nomic prosperity to all peoples.
Caught between these two conflictingclaimsthat of the need for economicdevelopment through technological progressand that of responsibility for preserving cul-tural property endangered by public andprivate worksour age has chosen a com-promise, namely to save the threatened cul-tural treasures irrespective of cost.
Unesco is at present studying a draftinternational recommendation whose pur-pose is to provide reasonable solutions forthis world-wide problem. This new inter-national instrument would include provi-sions relating to legislative measures to beadopted, appropriate financing, the settingup of bodies for the protection of culturalproperty and also to the kinds of scientificresearch to promote and intensify. Thesignificance which these latter activities couldhave for the knowledge and study of the cul-tural heritage of mankind cannot be over-emphasized.
ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH IN THE FIELD
It they are to carry out their scientific re-search duties properly, museums of all cate-gories will have to tackle the essential tasksincumbent upon them as main or auxiliarycentres indispensable for research. Thesetasks are, basically:- to recruit and train the scientific staff who
are to engage in research; to adoptand carry out research programmes atnational level in accordance with the finan-cial, technical and scientific resources attheir disposal; to make energetic efforts tostrengthen international co-operation inthe sphere of research;
- to see to it that the products of researchare used wisely, in the first instance forbuilding up national collections and then
as exchange material which will contributeto the development of science and culturein the world.
RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OF STAFFTO UNDERTAKE RESEARCH IN MUSEUMS
In all countries, museums wishing to engageactively in research will have to have staffwho are abreast of scientific progress in theirfields and able to apply the techniques andmethods of field research in the most effectiveway.
Ready availability of such staff is a goal tobe achieved as many museums, even in thedeveloped countries, are short of them. Thetask of preparing them to discharge theirduties methodically raises problems inregard to the type of training to be given tocurators, museologists and museum tech-nicians. It is well known that these problemsexist at the national level in many countriesat the present time and are a major concernto Unesco and the International Council ofMuseums (ICOM).
In this connexion, it is principally thesmall and medium-sized museums, calledupon to perform research, conservation andeducational functions with only small staffs,that have difficulties. In their case, it isextremely important for the curator or cura-tors to have had a fairly extensive scientific,technical and general training if they are tocarry out their tasks properly. This diversi-fication at the general cultural level will,however, have to be based on a specificspecialization.
Accordingly, it is worth bearing in mindthe need for having at the head of everymuseum, or of every department in a mu-seum, a specialist in the subject to which thecollection relates. This means that the scien-tific staff of museums will have had to havebasic training in archaeology, history, geo-graphy, the fine arts, ethnography, anthropo-logy, botany, zoology, etc. at a university,university college, or institute of higherstudies.
Introduction
19
Seim Abdul Hak
A selection will have to be made fromamongst those who have had such an aca-demic training to find staff whose real voca-tion is research and who have the intellectualand physical capacity to undertake it. Fromthen on it is the responsibilityofthe mum msto ensure that their future research workershave the additional theoretical and practicalknowledge they will require.
It is pointless to conceal the fact that veryfew museums have the time, the scientificstaff and the necessary equipment to trainnew recruits successfully. With the inade-quate facilities at their disposal, the staff ofthese institutions often only acquire a cer-tain mastery of the subjects gradually in thecourse of a long career.
It is not wise for museums to set them-selves up as independent bodies in order tospeed up the scientific and technical trainingof their staff. This, and all problems ofcommon interest to museums, are mattersfor museum directorates or associations. Toprovide suitable tr..; cling for the researchworkers required by museums, short- andlong-term programmes would have to bedrawn up and put into operation within theframework of national possibilities and usingall available facilities.
Nor must it be forgotten that this is a taskbest carried out in close co-operation withthe universities, research institutes andcentres and organizations for the protectionof the cultural heritage, since, particularlyin the field of research, the interests of themuseums and of all these other institutionsare parallel and complementary. Every re-search worker trained in any particular basicsubject is an asset to a museum housingcollections relating to that subject, and toany institution whose function it is to teachand advance knowledge of that subject, orto protect and safeguard relics having abearing on it. It is logical, therefore, for theadministrative department responsible forall the museums of a country to co-operatewith all the other interested national institu-
zo tions in organizing, periodically, compre-
hensive training programmes for researchworkers specializing in the same subjects,pooling their facilities so far as is nationallypossible.
Theoretical and practical seminars onresearch might likewise be organized, pre-ferably in museographical training centres(if they exist), for newly recruited staff andalso for those already working in museumswhose standard of training is insufficient. Inthis connexion, it is recommended that fulluse is made of the services of teachers andmuseum directors or curators who have along experience of research, and that the lec-tures on archaeology generally given inuniversities and the courses of lectures oroccasional public lectures given in archaeo-logical, ethnographic and natural sciencemuseums are not overlooked.
Finally, it is worth while rememberingthat university museums often have method-ically set out collections illustrating researchdone by members of the teaching staff, anda great many items in their storerooms.Together with university libraries, labora-tories and research centres, they offer valu-able facilities for the further training ofresearch personnel.
ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATIONOF NATIONAL RESEARCH PROGRAMMES
It is also desirable to extend this nationalco-operation for training museum researchstaff to the planning and implementation ofprogrammes for research and the study ofcollections, since the immense horizons atpresent opening up in this field, althoughcalling for a clear distinction between therespective functions and areas of competenceof museums, university establishments andorganizations for the protection of culturalheritage, make logical and coherent planningof all research to be undertaken in any ofthe b;:sic disciplines indispensable.
There are many strong arguments infavour of the type of planning which involvesa deliberate choice of a number of activities.
21
The most important things are to know whatis being done in each discipline, to find outexactly what is known by the country'svarious scientific institutions, to pinpointany gaps, to foresee future developments, tomake a careful assessment of the possibilitiesof filling these gaps, to work out operationalmethods and techniques, to study the pro-posed programmes and projects in detail, toselect, after studies, surveys, tests or pro-visional prospecting work, the topics andsubjects for research and the areas and siteswhere the investigations are to take place,and to try to find and collect the objectsindispensable orurgently needed for buildingup or enriching the museums' collections.
To enable science and culture to derivethe maximum benefit from this research, itis likewise important to mobilize all possibleskills, to co-ordinate the activities of scholarsand specialists, archaeologists, ethnogra-phers, geographers, geologists, botanists,epigraphers, preservation experts, site man-agers and camp directors in the light of thetimes at which they are available, to preparethe infrastructure for missions, and to set upinterdisciplinary teams.
Lastly, it is of utmost importance that thebest use is made of available funds, and thatmissions are provided with all necessaryresearch equipment, reference books, geo-graphical, geological and topographicalmaps, photogrammetric and surveying appa-ratus, laboratory equipment for the preser-vation and treatment of finds, transportvehicles etc.
In the developed countries, there are cen-tral bodies to promote, direct and initiateresearch in one or more disciplines. Individ-ual museums, study centres, universities orbodies concerned with the protection of cul-tural property, even when their own facilitiesare very good, often call on outside specialistsfor assistance and use :facilities of otherinstitutions for their research.
Quite frequently, teachers from highereducational establishments participate in re-search carried out by museums and co-
operate in the study of finds and in the publi-cation of results. Similarly, the directors ofscientific organizations or museum curatorswho have carried out research are, undervarious circumstances, appointed to teachthe subject they have been studying.
In this way, universities make available tomuseums their rich specialist teachingresources and their continually improvingmethods, whilst the museums, for their part,provide the universities with material andproblems capable of injecting fresh life intoacademic teaching.
This fruitful exchange is gradually becom-ing more common in other countries. Inthe Near and Middle East, museum directorsand curators are taking an active part in theuniversity teaching of history and archaeo-logy. In return, university professors ofhistory and archaeology are taking part inarchaeological excavations carried out bymuseums or by organizations for the pro-tection of the cultural heritage.
The same interrelationship also exists inMalaysia, where university professors basetheir research projects on objects preservedin the National Museum. Quite a close asso-ciation is also being established for researchpurposes between universities and museumsin India, Mongolia and Ceylon. In Japan,the museum is identified with and incorpo-rated in the university and constitutes ahighly effective teaching aid. Finally, inseveral Latin American countries, a numberof museums are interested in research andare virtually university institutes.
It is worth pointing out, however, thatalthough the interests of these two categoriesof institution coincide when it comes topromoting research, they cannot be com-pletely identical in other fields. Each has itsown particular part to play in the service ofthe community. There is no need to integratethem into a single system, for they canalways, while remaining independent ofeach other, consult each other and make theirown contributions to planning and carryingout archaeological, ethnographical and other
22
Introduction
Zr
Se lim Abdul Hak
research programmes within the limits oftheir respective functions.
POSSIBILITIES OP INTERNATIONAL
CO-OPERATION IN RESEARCH
It is also possible to obtain international,bilateral and multilateral co-operation andthe co-operation of appropriate internationalorganizations for the methodological train-ing of research workers and for the planningand implementation of research programmes.
Many developing countries are unable,because of a lack of institutions and of staffalready trained in some discipline or another,to train future research workers on theirown soil and with their own facilities. Thiscould constitute a serious obstacle to under-taking work designed to enrich and developtheir museums. In such cases, it is natural tothink of making use of the many existingfacilities which the developed countries andthe international specialized organizationscould make available to them.
First of all, it is worth drawing attention tothe benefits museums in the developingcountries can derive from the presence offoreign experts or teams of experts workingtemporarily or carrying out various types ofarchaeological, ethnographical or naturalscience projects of fairly long duration intheir countries.
The staff of museums interested in theprojects could make useful contacts in thefield, they could familiarize themselves withworking methods and techniques, study p rob-!ems linked in some way with those beinginvestigated, seek advice from the foreignexperts and establish a close and profitableprofessiunal relationship with them whichmight become lasting.
Also, needless to say, national fellowshipscan be awarded with discretion to youngpeople of particular merit to enable them totrain abroad for careers c^nnected with re-search. These fellowships must, of course,be for the type of training they are interested
21 in and which can be obtained within general
higher education courses offered at the majoruniversities, specialized institutes andschools, research centres and laboratoriesattached to the large museums in some devel-oped countries in Europe and America. Thisacademic learning is best supplemented bya fairly long period of practical work in thelatter institutions, as well as in the local orrr'ional schools, institutes and researchcc...res, set up by some of these developedcountries in several Asian, African and LatinAmerican countries, to develop on-the-spotresearch, in close liaison with institutions intheir own countries, on one or several sub-jects of interdisciplinary interest relating toa particular region or continent. With athorough training behind them, the newresearch workers can generally supplementtheir theoretical apprenticeship in the latterestablishments by undertaking specializedwork in the different basic disciplines and bybringing themselves up to date with currentprogress and with newly developed methodsin specialized field research.
For a long time, countries with an eye totheir cultural and scientific prestige have beenoffering, in the interest of international soli-darity, a certain number of fellowships toyoung people from developing countriesunder a fairly wide range of bilateral agree-ments.
Under a variety of its programmes,Unesco, too, can, at the request of MemberStates, provide fellowships for training ininstitutes and research centres or throughspecialized national, regional and interna-tional courses. In this connexion, it is worthmentioning that, in co-operation with severalMember States, Unesco has organized inter-national courses and set up internationalstudy centres which could be used for thetraining of museum research workers. Theseinclude the specialized course in geology andapplied micropalaeontology in Vienna; theDocumentation and Study Centre for theHistory of the Art and Culture of AncientEgypt in Cairo; the Regional Training Centrefor Museum Technicians in Jos (Nigeria),
2'0
which offers, among other subjects, a coursein archaeology and African history; theRegional Centre for the Training of Special-ists in Restoration of Cultural Property inMexico, which also teaches the history ofpre-Columbian and colonial period art; andthe international Centre for the Study of thePretervation and Restoration of CulturalProperty in Rome, which runs a post-graduate course for the supplementarytraining of specialists and organizes practicalwork, participation in excavations and train-ing zourses at various sites.
Lastly, any country planning field researchprogrammes would be wise to think interm, of making wide use of internationalco-operation, since the very idea of such pro-grammes being anything but regional andinternational undertakings is impossible tovisualize. The contexts to which approaches,trends, perspectives, subjects etc. of researchnowadr.ys relate are becoming increasinglywide, and for this reason, the establishmentof permanent, active contacts with the re-gional intergovernmental scientific institu-tions and with the specialized non-govern-mental organizations is virtually indispen-sable. Mbny of these latter organizationscc. ald be of great service to museums inresearch and other fields. Take for example,the International Council of Museums(ICOM) and its various international com-mittees for archaeological history, ethno-graphical and natural sciences museums, theInternational Council for Monuments andSites (ICOMOS), the International Unionof Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences,the International Association for ClassicalArchaeology, the International Union ofOrientalists, the various international organi-zations concerned with ethnography groupedtogether within the International Councilfor Philosophy and Humanistic Studies(ICPHS), the International Council of Scien-tific Unions (ICSU), the International Unionfor Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN), the International Societyof Soil Science, etc.
Relations with these organizations arevery valuable for purposes of information,documentation, the adoption of workingmethods, project evaluation, and the plan-ning of research and its detailed co-ordina-tion.
Research carried out by foreign scientificmissions in a country may also be regardedas a contribution to the implementation ofits own programmes, in so much as the scien-tific objectives in view cannot but be ofinterest to both. It is natural therefore, toencourage this form of international scien-tific co-operation, which for a time experi-enced certain difficulties as a result of decolo-nization. The major museums and researchand study centres have now resumed theiractivities, and their missions are scouring thecontinents, helping many countries to restoretheir cultural heritage.
It is recommended, however, that rela-tionships between the countries where re-search is taking place and the missions car-rying out that research should be firmlybased on the international principles whichhave been adopted and be governed bybilateral or multilateral cultural contracts oragreements of mutual advantage to both orall parties and with no special conditionsattached.
It is also worth noting that a new departurehas been made in international scientific andcultural co-operation for carrying out large-scale projects of considerable scientific andcultural interest, requiring the expenditureof very substantial sums of money and themobilization of a large number of specialistsfor a long period, thus making it beyond thecapacity of one country to undertake themon its own. Like the projects on ecology,natural resources and oceanography, thestudy of the sahelian zone of Africa, theChaco, the Indian Ocean, the tropicalAtlantic etc., the international Campaign toSave the Monuments of Nubia, launched byUnesco in 196o, is an admirable example ofmultilateral co-operation. Archaeologicalmissions from 14 Member States in four
24
Introduction
23
Se lim Abdul Hak
continents (Africa, America, Asia andEurope) have already carried out over Go ex-cavations along the 5oo km of the valley of thcNubian Nile. The results of this researchhave been as important as the transfer of themonuments; they not only bear upon ethno-graphy but shed new light on the wholehistory, from prehistoric times to the Arabcivilization, of this meeting point of CentralAfrica and the Mediterranean countries.
In the current Unesco programme for1967-68, this work is being carried a stagefurther by the launching of a project forstudying the civilizations of Central Asiain co-operation with the relevant institutionsin Afghanistan, India, Iran, Pakistan andseveral of the Soviet Central Asian Repub-lics. A field work programme relating, inparticular, to the archaeology and history ofthe Kushan Empire is at present being drawnup; it envisages the use of interdisciplinaryapproaches for co-ordinating the excavationwork which will be undertaken.
In addition to carrying out research athome and in other countries under bilateralagreements, museums would also be wise tothink in terms of participating, within thelimits of their possibilities, in this type ofmultilateral research to be undertaken at thehighest international level.
EXCHANGE OF OBJECTS BETWEEN MUSEUMS
It is a pity for a country's archaeological,historical, anthropological, .ethnographical,natural science and other collections toremain dispersed because of the circum-stances of their discovery and acquisition.On the contrary, it is worth assembling anddistributing the products of research care-fully so as to reflect the progress made inbranches of science and to bring out thevalue of the country's cultural treasures.
The educational needs of our times callfor the creation of multidisciplinary, special-ized, regional, site and other museums.Different museums and categories of mu-
24 scums are increasingly basing their collec-
tions on an archaeological or artistic se-quence, an overall historical perspective, ora geographical, ecological or other special-ized classification. It is desirable, therefore,that national administrative departmentsresponsible for museums should be able toeffect any exchanges that would make thenational collections more instructive andexpressive and also enable particular mu-seums to benefit from the fruits of research.
Whether collections are owned by theState, by local, public or private bodies,regulations governing exchanges, loans orthe custody of objects arc desirable in eachcountry, so that collections can be built upand shared out among the museums andother public and private establishments.Such measures would help research andfacilitate a rational use of funds earmarked forit, whilst at the same time eliminating therisks of rivalry and duplication.
Any action at national level in regard toexchanges of original objects between mu-seums will have direct repercussions at theinternational level. The rational handling ofthe national heritage, by revealing the cul-tural wealth of a country, shows up the gapsin collections relating to other cultures: thesegaps are often due to the absence or inade-quate supply of foreign works or works re-presentative of foreign countries in thenational collections, and as a result mayprevent the national heritage from beingshown in its universal context.
To remedy this fault, the primary need isfor original works from countries in thesame geographical region or cultural area.These, in fact, are evidence of the existencethrough the ages of affinities or genuinespiritual families. Exchanges at regional levelwill thus help to explain the flourishing ofthe arts in a particular civilization, to clarifythe various aspects of a culture, the variouscontributions to an aesthetic or a style, andto provide specimens and samples for thegeographical, botanical, ecological or otherkind of study of a region. Several regionalintergovernmental organizations are taking
25
these possibilities into account in the culturalprogrammes which they are prcparing.
Exchanges rf original objccts can alsoserve broadcr aims at the international Icyclproper, by hclping to bring the works of dis-tant civilizations or regions closer togcthcr.
Mutual appreciation of cultural valuesbcgan with the founding of the large mu-scums of all catcgorics which took uponthemselves just such a task. Their work mustcontinuc and their example must bcfollowcd.
26
Introduction
Z5
J. 0. Brew
General remarks concerning 2
the organization of expeditions
The various kinds of expeditions to bediscussed in the main body of the text of thismanual cover many branches of science. Amultitude of different methods and tech-niques are involved. This is true even withina single subject. In geology, for example, anexpedition to analyse the deposits of ancientlake sediments in southern Sweden and oneto study sand dunes in the Algerian Sahararequire different planning; and a survey ofrock strata in the mountains of Nepal hasneeds radically different from the other two.Similarly, in archaeology, expeditions toexcavate a large prehistoric Maya ceremonialcentre in Guatemala, to explore a Palaeo-lithic rock-shelter in Tanzania, or to surveyearly Neolithic agricultural villages in north-eastern Syria, all demand greatly differentpreparation with regard to equipment,supplies, staff, and local arrangements.Expeditions vary in size from one manworking alone collecting variations of animportant medicinal plant on the tributariesof the Orinoco to fifteen or twenty scientistsand technicians employing hundreds oflabourers at a famous ancient city on theIndus or the Ganges.
Because of this extreme variation in size,aims, and locale, it is not possible in a generalmanual to provide the prospective expedi-tion leader with an exact procedure. On theother hand, a number of highly importantgeneral principles apply to many, if not tomost expeditions. This chapter will presentthese, and the leader can select those whichfit his particular case. At first thought it
might seem highly unlikely that there wouldbe any similarity between an expedition torecord solar radiation in the high Andes ofPeru and one to study tree shrews in thejungles of Malaysia, but strangely enoughthe two have much in common.
EXPEDITION LEADER
Before we embark on a presentation of thesegeneral principles, it might be wise for usfirst to pause and consider the leader of theexpedition himself. Ideally, this should be aman or woman with sound academic train-ing in the subject of the expedition and pre-vious experience in field work. No museums,however, have thoroughly trained people inall of the specialized branches of the variousscientific disciplines. This is particularlytrue of new museums in countries which areundergoing rapid changes. In these coun-tries it is especially important that collectionsin the anthropological and natural historyfields be obtained as soon as possible whilethe materials needed are still available. Con-sequently, it is realized that situations mayarise when it will appear' necessary to sendout an expedition even though the fullytrained scientist to lead it is not available.Under such circumstances it is sometimespossible to solve the problem by obtainingsuch a person temporarily through an ar-rangement with another museum, a univer-sity, or a research institute, either within oroutside the countryin question. Co-operativeagreements can be made with organizations
27
J. 0. Brew
or with individual scholars with a commoninterest. These usually involve the sharingof information and specimens collected, butsuch an arrangement can be a most practicalinvestment and may also result in assistancefor the publication of the results of the expe-dition.
If this proves impracticable, the leadermust be drawn from the local staff. In smallmuseums the director or one of his fewassistants must do the job. If this person isingenious and adaptable, has wide scientificsympathies, and designs a modest planwithin the scope of his abilities and re-sources, the project should meet with suc-cess. The following suggestions are madewith such a. leader in mind.
OUTLINE OF ORGANIZATION
1. Clear definition of the expeditinn'sobjectives.
z. Marshalling and study of previouswork in the area; (a) published material;(b) unpublished manuscripts and notes;(c) personal interviews.
3. Analysis of the physical features of thearea: (a) imps; (b) meteorology and geology;flora and fauna;
4. Financial arrangements: (a) methods offinancing; (b) guarantee of completion offield work; (c) guarantee of publication;(d) budget; (e) expense account.
S. Relations with present government andpopulation: (a) permission to work; (b) localland tenure; (c) local attitude towards scien-tific works (J) sources of labour and supplies;(e) local transport facilities; (f) local bankingfacilities.
6. Scientific ethics: (a) relations with localadministrators and agencies; (b) relationswith other institutions and scientists.
7. Assembling the expedition staff: (a) pro-fessional assistants; (b) technical assistantsand skilled labour.
8. Assembling supplies and technicalequipment.
z8 9. Transport, packing and shipping:
(a) types of transport; (b) packing andshipping.
to. Customs, passports, and health regu-lations.
Living arrangements in the field.2.. Conclusion of the field work.
13. Reports.The items in this outline will now be
discussed in some detail. They are general innature and, although a number of them mayprove more applicable to some fields thanto others, they provide indications of pro-cedures and types of information which it ishoped will be widely useful.
CLEAR DEFINITION OF OBJECTIVES OF THEEXPEDITION
The primary purpose of an expedition shouldobviously be to achieve its aims as efficientlyand as completely as possible with the aid ofall available scientific means. Many yearsago Sir Flinders Petrie, one of the earliestexponents of good field methods, pointedout that unscientific methods had mademuseums 'ghastly charnel-houses of mur-dered evidence'. Since then progress in thedisciplines with which this manual deals hasbeen such that there is no excuse for badexpeditions. To come back from the fieldwithout clear and complete records, toneglect to catalogue and properly labelobjects deposited in museums, to fail topublish scientific findings is to destroyvaluable evidence. It would be far better notto go into the field at all.
Of first importance in the planning of anexpedition is a clear understanding of thepurpose for which it is being undertaken.The party whose real motivation, if the truthwere known, lies in the fact that the leaderhas always wanted to go 'on safari' into thebig game country, desires to spend a summerin the Western Ghats, or is fascinated by thewarlike history r) F the Apache Indians, is notlikely to produce justifiable scientific results.The possible objectives are many and varied,but they should be specific and clearly stated.
28
For our purposes here the nature of theobjective is not important. Be it to collectthe rapidly disappearing elements of thematerial culture of a primitive tribe, to studyits kinship system, to isolate a parasite whichis destroying the sugar cane, or to plot tideaction in the Straits of Magellan, the inten-tion should be spelled out in detail andunderstood by all concerned. When this hasbeen done, the expedition can then be pro-perly planned.
MARSHALLING AND STUDY OF PREVIOUS WORK
IN THE AREA
Published material. The objective havingbeen defined, the first step is to survey allavailable previous knowledge of the subject.The most obvious' source of such knowledgelies in published reports. All published worksbearing on the field of the expedition shouldbe read and abstracted. These may not bereadily available locally, but much can nowbe done with interlibrary loans. It may bedesirable for a member of the expeditionstaff to travel to some major centre where hecan work for a period of time in an appro-priate library.
Unpublished manuscripts and notes. An-other important source lies in unpublishedmanuscripts and in the notes made by pre-vious investigators in the field. When thenames and addresses of such people can beobtained, much can be done through cor-respondence, Xerox or microfilm copies, etc.Sometimes a surprising amount of valuableinformation exists in unpublished form, andthe custodians of such material are oftenwilling to co-operate in making it available.
Personal interviews. Whenever possible,previous investigators in the field and othersinterested in the subject should be visitedpersonally and notes taken of the interviews.Many important points are not included inpublished reports, particularly in relation tothe logistic items described below, and oftenpeople who are very knowledgeable about
General remarks:concerning the organization of expeditions
an area have published or written downnothing at all. The latter group includesexplorers, prospectors, retired administra-tors, traders, engineers, and others who havespecialized, useful information about thearea.
In this connexion, key books should betaken by the expedition into the field as wellas notes and abstracts of the various un-published materials and interviews.
ANALYSIS OF THE PHYSICAL FEATURES
OF THE AREA
Maps. The late 0. G. S. Crawford, who,perhaps more thoroughly than any otherscientist, successfully combined the pro-fessions of cartography and archaeology,once wrote, 'Planning is naturally repugnantto many people'. Many expeditions, how-ever, are heavily dependent upon maps, andthe leader will be most remiss if he does notaccumulate, before he goes into the field, asthorough a cartographic record of histerritory as possible. This is usually not aseasy as it seems at first glance. The BritishOrdnance Survey maps which present theentire United Kingdom at so inches to themile, showing all known archaeological sitesand even major boulders, are unfortunatelyunique. Some areas to which expeditions gohave no satisfactory maps at all. Very seldomindeed will an expedition leader find a singlemap available which contains all the infor-mation he must or should have. His taskwill be to assemble all of the maps and othergeographical information he can lay hishands on and, from them, construct his ownmaster map.
A reasonable amount of research willoften bring to light several types of specialmaps from each of which some of the neces-sary information for the master map can beobtained. All of the possibilities cannot belisted here, but examples are: geologicalmaps, road maps, river and lake shore maps,mining maps, post office maps, forestrymaps, etc. Inquiries should also be made
29
29
J. 0. Brew
about the existence of aerial maps and photo-graphs of the arca. Frequently, for militaryreasons, air photographs are 'restricted', butusually, with proper approaches, these canbe provided for scientific use. Also, thereare now commercial firms which do airphoto-graphy on contract if permission for suchactivity can be obtained.
Meteorology and geology; flora ,and fauna.Knowledge of climate, ecology, vegetation,water-table, etc., is of varying utility to thedifferent types of expeditions. To archaeo-logical and ethnological studies, such infor-mation is necessary in as complete a form aspossible in order to indicate the sources offood and water, building materials, minerals,metals, and stone for implements and orna-ments, vegetable and mineral materials forpaint, etc.
The sources for this kind of intelligencearc to be found primarily in technical books,the publications of universities, museums,and governmental departments. These comeunder the headings of physiographic, hydro-graphic, and geological surveys, census,health bureau, and department of commercereports, climatic and biological records, andvarious specialized reports of departmentsof natural resources, minerals, fish and wildlife, agriculture, etc. Other useful sources aretravel books, explorers' journals, and thetechnical reports of palaeontological, geo-logical, botanical, oceanographic and zoo-logical surveys, both official and private.Again, personal interviews with peopleknowledgeable on such subjects in the areacan be extremely useful.
FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS
Afetbodr of financing. Expeditions, what-ever their character may be, must have fundson which to operate. If the institution con-ducting the expedition is a governmentaldepartment, this may not be a problem. Buteven then, the money available may not be
3o sufficient to ensure a completely successful
result. The leader of an expedition must beassured of sufficient funds, and this can beone of his most difficult problems. If he is amember of a sympathetic and understandinggovernmental department, he is indeed mostfortunate. Often, however, other sourcesmust be tapped to provide the necessaryfunds.
Although money for the support of scien-tific work is often difficult to obtain, thereare still many possible sources. Privatesources are still available in many countries.These range widely from a single large donorwho provides all the funds, to a group ofnumerous contributors who are interestedin the project and, in this last case, eventhough the individual donations are small, ifenough of them are received the total can besignificant. Scientific and eleemosynary foun-dations now exist in many countries, andthese are some of the best sources for fundsfor scientific expeditions. Many of thesefoundations provide grants for work outsidethe confines of their own countries. Some ofthem operate on a 'matching fund' basis, inwhich case their grant has to be augmentedby funds raised locally or elsewhere.Frequently, however, foundations worktogether to support a worthwhile scientificenterprise jointly.
Guarantee of completion of the field work.Before an expedition goes into the field, itmust be assured of the requisite financialsupport to enable it to achieve its objective.There is an unfortunate record of a numberof expeditions which have started out withinadequate finances and which have beenforced to abandon their endeavours in mid-stream with no useful results. Work of thiskind is merely destructive and serves noscientific purpose. It is essential that beforean expedition starts out, it should have aguarantee of sufficient funds to permit it tocomplete its appointed task.
Guarantee of publication. For the mostpart expeditions are enterprises which
30
attempt to add to the total of human know-ledge. This aim can usually be achieved onlyby the publication of the results. Sometimesthe leader of an expedition is attached to aninstitution where publication of his reportis automatic, or he may have access to publi-cation outlets. If this is not the case, for anyresearch expedition, publication must bespecifically arranged before it takes to thefield. Otherwise the enterprise is simplevandalism.
The only exceptions to this are expeditionswhose purpose is simply to collect specimensfor exhibition in a museum or for laboratoryanalysis. Here the only scientific requirementis proper records of the field work andthorough labelling of the specimens whenthey are placed on exhibit or handed overto the laboratory. Even in such cases, a briefreport of the material in an appropriatejournal would be eminently desirable.
Bridget. Budgetary regulations vary widelyin different institutions. Even if a financialbudget is not required, one should be madeup. It is one of the essential elements in theplanning of an expedition. This is the guideby which expenditures are governed. Madeout in advance, it must of necessity beflexible. Divergencies from it are inevitablebecause of the exigencies of the field opera-tions. Despite this, however, it is an in-dispensable guide-line as the expeditionprogresses through its season. Without it,the leader will not know how his funds areholding out or be able to conserve the moneynecessary for the concluding phases of theexpedition.
Expense account. All monies spent on anexpedition must be accounted for. This isnot only ordinary economic procedure, itis a protection to the leader of the expedition,who is spending someone else's money.Accounts should be totaled up at leastmonthly and a complete accounting must berendered at the conclusion of the expedition.This should include receipts for everything
General remarks concerning the organization of expeditions
for which such documents can readily beobtained, including camp supplies and food,automotive expense, petrol and oil, salariesand wages, scientific and other equipment,medical, technical and office supplies, trans-portation and shipping expenses, etc. Re-cords of minor expenses should be kept byall members of the expedition. These can bepaid for out of expedition funds against apersonal...receipt.
RELATIONS WITH PRESENT GOVERNMENT
AND POPULATION
Tbt- relationships between the expeditionand local officials and population are ofgreat importance. Many expeditions havebeen hampered, and their efficiency cutdown, through ignoring the precepts sug-gested in this and the following section.There are on the record failures of severalexpeditions through the thoughtlessness ofthe leader in not establishing a workableliaison with the local people, official andotherwise. Whether an expedition is headingfor the Middle Atlas Mountains in Morocco,the southern tributaries of the Amazon, orthe Murchison Range in the NorthernTerritory of Australia, it would be welladvised to find out all that it can about thelocal controls of the area and to make contactin advance with regional government offi-cials.
Permission to work. Although it is nottrue of all of them, many expeditions needto obtain official permission in order tocarry out their work. We may assume thatthis will always be the case in a foreigncountry. Permits are sometimes necessaryeven when the expedition is sponsored by abranch of the national government. Regula-tions vary greatly from country to country.These should be studied carefully and, toavoid delay, applications for permits shouldbe submitted well in advance. Foresight inthis matter is particularly important whenlocal permissions are involved. In addition
31
31
J. 0. Brew
to the official government permit it isfrequently necessary to obtain the permissionof private land owners or the administrationof native reserves, forestry or animal re-serves, provincial governments, etc. Suchprocedures can be very time-consuming.This is especially true of archaeological andpalaeontological expeditions. Almost allcountries now have antiquity laws, laws oftreasure trove, laws protecting fossil depos-its, etc. The texts of such laws should beobtained and copies of them carried by theexpedition in the field. When dealing withprivate land owners it is important to getwritten permission, including a statement asto whether or not financial compensation isinvolved and, if so, how much.
Local land tenure. In connexion with per-missions, it is necessary to know whoactually owns and controls the land. Fur-thermore, one must know if the 'owner's'permission is sufficient or if permission mustbe secured from tenants as well. The impor-tance of obtaining the consent, co-operationand interest of land owners, tenants, lessees,and occupants of the land cannot be over-emphasized. Even in those countries whereprivate land tenure is actually or theoreti-cally abandoned, it is essential that workingagreements be made with the people wholive on and use the land. This is of particularimportance to archaeological, palaeonto-logical, and geological expeditions. On agri-cultural land, the question of crop compen-sation often arises. If land is to be taken outof production during the growing season,an agreement should be negotiated with thefarmer based on current crop values.
Local attitude toward scientific work. Thewelcome afforded an expedition in the fieldranges all the way from enthusiastic accept-ance to armed resistance. It is important toknow what to expect. Previous expeditionsinto the area are the best source of informa-tion. Members of those expeditions usually
32 must be consulted personnally, either by
interview or by mail, as this kind of informa-tion is very rarely included in scientificreports. Letters of introduction from suchpeople may be of use. 'Outsiders' oftenencounter suspicion and distrust, if notovert antagonism. The fact that the expedi-tion comes from the national capital doesnot always allay those feelings.
Sources of labour and supplies. If the expe-dition has a capable local agent of fore-man, the questions of labour and suppliescan be left to him. This, however, is oftennot the case, particularly during the firstseason of an expedition. Reliable labourersare not always easy to obtain. There may bea seasonal factor involved. For example,in an agricultural region it is very difficult toobtain labour during the harvest season,whereas after harvest large numbers of menare available. Various types of local agenciesmay be able to supply labour. These includetribal chieftains, labour exchanges, countycouncils, police, local large employers,religious organizations, etc.
As for ordinary supplies, food, fuel, etc.,it is desirable to purchase some of thislocally, if possible. Feelings toward theexpedition inevitably improve if it isspending money in the region. The problemfor the leader is to find out just what is andwhat is not available locally in the way ofsupplies. If there is more than one supplier,of more or less equal merit, it is good policyto distribute the patronage among them.This has a dual effect: it establishes good willin a number of quarters, and it keeps theprices down through competition.
Local transport facilities. All possible in-formation about roads, trails, navigablerivers, etc., should be gathered in advance.This is, obviously, one cf the more impor-tant aspects of planning an expedition. Thedetails will vary greatly with the natureof the terrain and of the expedition, andspecific suggestions will be made later in thischapter.
32
Local banking facilities. Before starting intothe field it is necessary to know whatarrangements must be made for handlingthe funds of the expedition, making pay-ments, etc. If there are banks in the region,the problem is relatively simple. In manyplaces, however, banks do not exist andthere are still areas where payments in moneyare of no use to the recipients. The problemin planning an expedition is then, first of all,to find out what the ordinary medi'im ofexchange is. For instance, certain primitiveBushmen are still most interested in obtain-ing tobacco and other trade goods. At theopposite extreme, a Hopi Indian in north-eastern Arizona can be paid by a bankcheque. In any event, credit must be estab-lished either at a bank or with a tradingcompany, local government post, mission,or whatever established agency is avail-able. Whatever the method of exchangearrived at may be, payments should be madepromptly.
SCIENTIFIC ETHICS
In the past, many expeditions have failed orencountered unnecessary difficulties throughundiplomatic, thoughtless, or offensive be-haviour on the part of the leader or membersof the staff. Particularly at the start of anexpedition, time spent on establishing goodpublic relations will bring dividends andbear fruit in countless ways as the work goeson.
Relations with local administrators and agen-cies. Under certain circumstances a localchieftain, squire, or minor politician maybe more important to the expedition thanthe great men ;n the capital or at theuniversity. The leader of the expeditionshould get acquainted with the local people.It is highly desirable that important localofficials have a sympathetic understandingof the aims of the expedition. Official 'redtape' may xieed considerable unwinding,and it is highly desirable that good relation-
General remarks concerning the organization of expeditions
ships be established with the administratorsof the immediate area in which the expeditionproposes to work. The leader should takethe time to make himself and his plans gener-ally known to the regional, provincial,county, and municipal officials who may beable to assist in the many problems whichwill arise in connexion with the expedition.This includes the local judiciary, police andhighway officials, and other legally consti-tuted individuals. If a number of thesepeople can be induced to become interestedin the work, they may be able to renderinvaluable moral and practical support, pro-viding manpower, earth-moving tools, andother emergency assistance, help in case ofaccidents, and aid in innumerable wayswhich will contribute to the success of theexpedition.
Relations with other institutions and scientists.Although the expedition may, be theonly one operating in the area, it oftenhappens that other scientists, in similar orrelated fields, are working simultaneouslyin the region. It is important that co-opera-the, friendly relationships be establishedwith the leaders of such expeditions andlocal institutions. Despite professed highscientific aims, professional jealousies andcompetition have often in the past beenknown to give rise to many unpleasantsituations. A diplomatic approach to neigh-bouring scientists is greatly to be desiredand can eliminate many potential difficulties.As an example of the gain which can resultwhen good co-operation has been estab-lished, one of the expeditions which recent-ly had a concession to excavate pharaonicsites in Sudanese Nubia, in the area alongthe Nile to be flooded by the new AswanDam, unexpectedly encountered importantpalaeolithic remains and were able to borrowan expert specialist from a neighbouringprehistoric expedition. The work was thenproperly carried out, and a mutually satis-factory publication agreement was estab-lished. 33
J. 0. Brew
ASSEMBLING THE EXPEDITION STAFF
Expeditions obviously vary greatly in thesize and nature of their staffs. Planning forstaff, equipment, and supplies can be brokendown into two general categories accordingto the place of procurement: the home baseor local sources.
Professional assistants. The specialized pro-fessional staff of an expedition mustusually be recruited at the home base, drawnfrom major universities or museums. Some-times it is necessary or desirable to obtainthem from abroad. When a local researchcentre or institution of higher learningexists in the area in which the expeditionplans to work, it may be useful to add a localscientist to the staff in order to take advan-tage of his knowledge of the region. In thisconnexion, we must not lose sight of thevalue of training local people through theirassociation on the expedition with experi-enced and well-trained experts. Similarly, afield expedition offers an excellent opportun-ity for the training of students, both grad-uate and undergraduate, who can rendervaluable assistance to the professionalaspects of the work.
Technical assistance and skilled labour. Forthe most part, specialized technical per-sonnel must be recruited before theexpedition takes to the field. Surveyors,topographers, draftsmen, skilled automotivemechanics, etc., ordinarily can be foundonly in major national, provincial, anduniversity centres.
ASSEMBLING SUPPLIES AND TECHNICALEQUIPMENT
Most, if not all, of the technical equipmentmust also be assembled before the expeditionleaves for the field. This includes surveyingequipment such as transits, aiidades, levelingdevices, site poles, stadia rods, measuring
34 tapes, drafting instruments, drawing paper,
inks, pencils, notebooks, cameras, film,medical and surgical supplies, office equip-ment, camp equipment, and even certainfood items. Knowledge of what is availablelogically is extremely important in this con-nexion. Sometimes, for example, an expedi-tion takes its entire food supply into the field.In other instances, a considerable amount ofreliance can be placed on local resources. Anarchaeological expedition into the jungles ofthe Guatemalan Peten may well establish,through the agency of its caretaker and localstaff, milpa vegetable gardens, poultry andother livestock farms, etc. There are a num-ber of villages in Central America andYucatan, some of which now have a popu-lation of several hundreds, which began asarchaeological camps. The expedition mayeven employ a hunter who will provide fishand wild game. Again we must emphasizethe importance of as thorough a knowledgeas possible, in advance, of the region in whichthe expedition will operate. Mutual benefitwill accrue from the utilization of theselocal resources, but the expedition leadermust not rely upon them unless he hasdefinite information that they will be avail-able.
TRANSPORT, PACKING, AND SHIPPING
Problems of transport have been greatlysimplified by modern technology. Unfortu-nately, however, expeditions have a tendencyto operate in areas where transport is still at aprimitive level. In lowland Central America,although airfields are now to be foundat the major centres, most transport is stillprovided by dugout canoe and jungle trails.Th.: dugout canoe may now have an out-board motor, but its carrying capacity isvery limited.
This is another aspect in which advanceknowledge of the area where the work is tobe carried out is of utmost importance. Thefirst point to be established is whethertransport can be obtained locally or whethervehicles, outboard motors, helicopters, etc.,
34
must be brought in by the expedition. Theproblem is to provide adequate food, livingand working equipment with a minimumoutlay of money, time, and trouble for trans-port. Transport of personnel must also beconsidered, as must the shipment out of thearea of the material collected by the expedi-tion. Not only the cost but also the mobility,convenience, and safety of the people andmaterial to, be transported -must be consid-ered. Outside of developed areas equipmentfor living usually bulks larger than equip-ment for working. In remote regions equip-ment must be kept to a minimum becauseexpense and trouble increase rapidly withthe amount to be transported.
Transport must be considered in fivecategories: porters, animal pack trains,wheeled vehicles, water transport, and airtransport.
Portershuman transport. The simplest andcheapest form of transport is for thescientist to carry his equipment on his ownback. This is possible in cases of certainbotanical, geological, palaeontological, orarchaeological reconnaissance expeditions.Usually, however, help is needed. Theadvantages of human transport are con-siderable. The entire outfit can go where oneman can go, so that there is complete inde-pendence of roads or even of trails. Theporters also provide abundant labour incamp. Men are less bother than animals, forthey can look after themselves, whereasanimals have to be cared for. They also maybe more easily recruited and dismissed, pro-viding greater flexibility in transport organ-ization, and, when released, they can gohome by themselves, which animals cannotdo.
One disadvantage of human transport isthat food must be carried for the men. Thislimits the area of operations to about a twoweeks' march. Beyond that the porters mustcarry more food for themselves than expedi-tion baggage. In addition, the likelihood ofsickness or fighting among the porters
General remarks concerning the organization of expeditions
increases directly in proportion to the num-ber of men. Normally, for long distances,upwards of forty men are needed to carry aton of goods. This makes human transportvery expensive, even though the rate per..nan per day may seem low. Sometimes,however, this is the only form of transportwhich is practical.
Animal pack trains. In various parts ofthe world the following animals may be usedto carry goods: horses, mules, donkeys,camels, bullocks, yaks, elephants, andllamas. Except for llamas, animals can beexpected to t.arry heavier loads than men.Except for camels, they are generally, likeporters, independent of roads and estab-lished trails. The disadvantages are that theyhave to be fed and cared for; experiencedhandlers are therefore required. For sus-tained hard marching, twenty to thirty milesa day, grain feeding is usually necessary, andthis food must be carried as the animalscannot keep up their strength withoutample time to graze. If the expedition ismoving slowly, a grazing diet may besufficient. The ability of the man in charge ofthe pack train is of great importance and,when possible, he should be engaged inadvance upon good advice. One man cancare for two to five horses or mules to carry40o to moo pounds, or seven to ten camelstransporting over a ton of goods. This,however, applies only to men and animalsused to the work. Members of the expeditioncan assist the wranglers in the packing andhandling of the beasts, but the importanceof a good man in charge of the pack traincannot be overemphasized. Procurementshould also include good riding animals forthe members of the staff.
If animal transport is to be used, the ar-rangement of the loads must be carefullycalculated. The loads must be evenly bal-anced and must be planned so that no onepackage exceeds half a load for the animal.Loading will take longer in the morning thanfor other forms of transport, and again
35
35
J. 0. Brew
assistance from the staff will expedite move-ment considerably. The leader of the expedi-tion must also scc that the animals arcproperly shod for the terrain that is to becrossed and that spare shoes and the equip-ment for applying them are provided. Thiscannot be left entirely as a responsibility ofthe handlers, but should be carefully checkedbefore the expedition starts out.
Wheeled vehicles. This category includestrains, wagons, and carts, and various formsof automotive vehicles. Train transport isone of the standard ways of approaching thearea of an expedition. This normally presentsno problems, but it should be rememberedthat railroads that penetrate primitive regionsare subject to frequent washouts and otherdisasters where baggage must be carriedaround a break in the line. In such cases,arrangement of the equipment into packageswhich can be carried by one man may proveworthwhile.
Although the use of automotive equip-ment has recently spread widely throughoutthe world, there are still regions wherevehicles drawn by animals are commonlyused. It is true that a given number of ani-mals can move many times the amount ofmaterial in a wagon or cart than they can inpacks on their backs. Wagons can move oververy bad roads and in some types of countrywhere there are no roads at all. Loading israpid and easy and, as with automotivetransport, the size and shape of the packagesare less important than with most otherforms of transport. On very bad roads thereis some danger of breakage of equipmentthrough jolting and overturning, and thisshould be prepared for in the packing.
The most common form of transport atpresent is the automobile, ranging fromordinary passenger cars and trucks to spe-cialized vehicles such as Jeeps, Land Rovers,Power Wagons, and six-wheel trucks. Thechoice of vehicle depends on the nature ofthe terrain to be traversed. Except in regions
36 with good roads and towns and cities no
great distance apart, motor transport shouldnever be undertaken without a competentmechanic, either amateur or professional.This factor should be considered in recruit-ing expedition personnel. Photographersand topographers often possess sufficientskills for all ordinary emergencies. For workin remote and rough countries, however,professional mechanics are necessary. Forexample, if equipment has to be ferriedacross a river in small boats or rafts, it maybe necessary to dismantle and reassemblethe vehicles. In such country a full inventoryof spare parts is needed, as extensive repairsoften have to be made. For the same reason,special attention must be given to the toolkit, and each vehicle should be fully equippedat all times.
In many areas where expeditions operate,safety and success demand more than onevehicle, and long trips must never be under-taken except in convoy. At least one of thevehicles in the convoy should be equippedwith a winch. Before starting out on a trip,a thorough check must be made to ensurethat extra water, oil, petrol, spare parts,tools, tow ropes, shovels, etc., are present.
In motor transport, packing is less of aproblem than in other forms. It is oftendesirable to have special boxes permanentlybuilt into the vehicles. Care must be taken,however, that tools, spare tyres, and all otheritems that may be needed during the courseof the trip are readily available so that thetruck does not have to be unloaded in orderto get at them. Whenever possible, individualpackages should not weigh more than fiftyto sixty pounds.
Water transport. In general, water trans-port is the cheapest, safest, and least laboriousmeans for moving goods and personnel.Except for canoes and other small boats,packages can be of any size. For primitivewater transport the size of packages mustbe related to the smallest boats to be used.When portages are involved, between lakesor around rapids or falls in rivers, packages
36
should be restricted to weights easily car-ried. For small boat travel, certain types ofequipment and supplies should be in water-tight containers.
Air transport. The advantages of airtransport for scientific work are threefold.The first is speed; even small planes andhelicopters can travel faster than any otherform of transport. Second, for reconnais-sance and photography, great areas ofcountry can be su.--tyed quickly; whenmodern techniques o photogrammetry areused, accurate maps can rapidly be made.Third, the aeroplane is independent ofdifferences in terrain, both land and water,and distances can be traversed quickly ina single vehicle that otherwise would callfor shifting from one to another of a numberof different types of surface transport. Thisis however, in general, the most costly formof transport. It demands highly skilledoperators and mechanics. Also, althoughfloats and skis can be substituted for wheelsin the landing gear, except for helicoptersthe places where the craft can land arcstrictly limited. Under certain circumstancesit is a most desirable form of transport andhas enabled a number of expeditions toachieve results which would not otherwisehave been possible.
Packing and shipping. Every form of travehas its fixed routine and it is necessaryto pack for that routine. The size and shapeof packages should be designed for the mostprimitive type of transport that the expedi-tion will encounter. Things that arc to beused together should be packed together,such as cooking utensils, photographicdeveloping materials, etc. Things wanted ata given time can then be found in definitelyknown packages in a specific place in thebaggage. This will save much time andconfusion. All packages should be numberedand the contents indicated. The leader ofthe expedition should have a complete re-cord of the contents of the packages, and a
General remarks concerning the organization of expeditions
list of the contents should be placed insideeach package. Reserve supplies should bepacked in separate balanced units. If theexpedition is to be divided into two or moreparties when it arrives at the scene of opera-tions, much time and difficulty will be savedif this is foreseen in the make-up of thepackages.
In packing and shipping, the four chiefdangers to guard against arc breakage,water damage, theft, and loss. The mostfrequent cause of breakage is the shiftingof the contents in the packages. This is bestprevented by tight packing, interior par-titions and cleats, and special containerswithin the packages for all fragile and deli-cate objects. Other causes of breakage arefalls, blows and the strain of pack ropes.The strength of the container is in generalthe only safeguard against this kind ofdamage. Water damage may be caused byrain or by immersion during river crossings,floods, or as a result of the capsizing of smallboats. Important and expensive equipmentshould be packed in waterproof containers,and waterproof canvas tarpaulins will pro-tect the load from rain.
The most effective protection againsttheft is vigilance. Valuable equipmentshould be kept in padlocked boxes, prefer-ably unlocked by the same key or by amaster key. Padlocks are better than built-inlocks, as they can be filed off if the key is lostor the mechanism ruined by dust or rust.Extra padlocks should be carried.
Against loss, theft, or breakage, dupli-cates of important materials such as essentialscientific instruments, medicines, etc., shouldbe provided. All shipments should beinsured, but the precautions outlined aboveshould be taken because insurance coveragewill be of no immediate use to the expeditionif it arrives in the field to find essentialequipment missing or broken.
Shipment of specimens. If the expeditionplans to collect and send home scientificspecimens, thought must be given to this
37
37
J. 0. Brew
when the expedition is being planned. Insome regions, packing materials, boxes, etc.,may be obtained locally, but often that is notthe case. Specialized containers, for botanicalspecimens, etc., will naturally be broughtfrom the home base, but provision mustoften be made for gross shipments. The con-tainers used to transport certain supplies,such as food and expendable equipment,will gradually became ay:gable during thecourse of the expedition, but these often willnot be sufficient. Cardboard cartons in flatform for assembly, foam rubber, plasticboxes, cloth or paper bags, etc., should bepart of the expedition's baggage. If theexpedition is situated so that it receives mailregularly, subscriptions to a number ofnewspapers will provide good packingmaterial.
All specimens shipped must be well la-belled in such a way that the label cannot belost or obliterated in transit. All containersof specimens should bear labels on both theoutside and the inside. With certain typesof specimens it is desirable to write 2 fieldcatalogue number on the object itself. Forfragile objects, such as pottery and plantspecimens, it is wise to use double packing,that is to place the carton containing thespecimens inside a somewhat larger cartonor wooden box with a cushion of news-papers, grass, or other material between thetwo.
CUSTOMS, PASSPORTS AND HEALTHREGULATIONS
If the expedition is to operate in a foreigncountry, there are a number of factors to beconsidered in addition to whatever scien-tific permits are necessary. In most countries,if the proper approach is made, it is possibleto bring in scientific equipment and expedi-tion supplies free of local customs duties.Negotiations for such exemptions should beinitiated as far in advance as possible as theyare often complicated. This is particularly
38 the case when the equipment has to pass
through one or more other countries beforeit arrives in the country where the work isto be done. If arrangements for such passagethrough customs are not made, distressingdelays may occur. It is also possible for theexpedition to obtain exemptions from cer-tain local taxes, such as the petrol tax, andeven free transport of equipment, or at leasta favourable rate on the local railroads andair lines. The expedition leader shouldfamiliarize himself with all local regulationspertaining to these matters and get in touchwith competent officials in the countriesconcerned. He must also sec that the mem-bers of his staff are equipped with passportsand all necessary visas and that they obtainthe injections and vaccinations needed toimmunize them against the prevalent diseasesof the region.
LIVING ARRANGEMENTS IN THE FIELD
The arrangements for living in the field varygreatly depending on the nature of theexpedition, its size, and the region in whichit plans to work. In settled countries, expe-dition members may live in hotels or aspaying guests in country houses or farmhouses. Often, however, it is necessary toestablish a camp or a series of camps.
The requirements are so varied that wecannot go into the details of expeditioncamps within the confines of this intro-ductory chapter. Certain generalizations,however, can be ,-,ffered. The task of theexpedition leader is to design a camp whichwill provide for comfort, safety, and health,and permit his staff to conduct their workin the best possible manner. Certain hard-ships must be endured, but every effortshould be made to keep these at a minimum.
The selection of the site of the camp is offirst importance. It should take full advan-tage of whatever amenities the environmentoffers and protect against storms, floods,snow avalanches, etc. Water is a most impor-tant consideration. Whenever possible thecamp should be close to a good water supply.
38
Sometimes, howcvcr, no good water supplyexists where the work of the expedition isbeing done. In that case the decision mustbe made whether to camp by the watersupply and transport men, equipment, andspecimens to and from the work or to campat the site and haul the water. Food is anotherimportant factor upon which the morale ofthe camp is highly dependent. It is axiomaticthat one of the most valuable members ofa camp is a good cook.
CONCLUSION OF THE EXPEDITION
At the end of the field work, the leader ofthe expedition must be sure that enoughtime and thought is given to the concludingphases. If excavations have bccn made, theland should be left according to the wishesof the owner or occupier. Farmers usuallywant the land to be restored as nearly as pos-sible to its original condition. In the case ofarchaeological excavations, howcvcr, thelocal people sometimes want the site left
General remarks concerning the organization of expeditions
open for visitors to see. It is also possiblethat restoration may have bccn stipulated inthe official permit, and occasionally the sitemay be preserved as a historic monument.For the benefit of future expeditions and incase the leader may wish to return at somefuture date for further work in the area, it isessential that the expedition leave a goodimpression behind it, that local officials beproperly thanked and that all obligations,financial and otherwise, be met.
REPORTS
The final responsibility of an expedition isthe scientific report. In most cases the workwill have been of little or no value unless adetailed report is published for the world ofscholarship. After the field work has bccnaccomplished, the various members of anexpedition often scatter far and wide, andit is sometimes difficult to assemble theirseveral reports. It is the duty of the leader tosee that this report is written and published.
U09
39
Yvonne Oddon
Standard methods of field documentation
SIGNIFICANCE 012 IDENTIFICATION RECORDS
Whether casually discovered, systematicallycollected in the field by a scientific expedition,bought at a dealer's shop or accepted as agift at the museum, each object should beaccurately identified before being formallyadded to a museum's collection.
A museum's collection includes all acqui-sitions made through finds, purchases, gifts,bequests and exchanges, excluding, ofcourse, temporary loans and the questionablelong-term deposits.
It does not necessarily follow that anobject once registered should be kept foreverin a museum's collection. It might indeed,according to the institution's policy, inter-est or legal possibilities, be exchanged oreven sold. Nevertheless, it is essential thatit should be, at all times, accompanied by itscorrect identification: an object, when un-identified, is usually worthless for purposesof conservation, scientific research, exhibi-tion or education, whatever may be the mainactivity of the museum.
Records bearing fragmentary or inaccurateinformation and objects erroneously num-bered also have little value. Registers bearingiliegible entries, or which have been lost orare undecipherable because entries havebeen made on a single copy or on low-gradepaper, are also responsible for hours anddays of disheartening labour. Museumcurators all over the world have frequentlybeen faced with a tremendous task ofreorganization owing either to neglect or to
ignorance of the proper methods to befollowed.
As a rule, unidentified objects are notdiscarded but are put aside for carefulinvestigation with the help of the museumreference library, or else are sent to a spe-cialized museum or to an expert in theparticular branch of knowledge involved.Whatever the case, this causes loss of timeand often extra expense.
This is why the establishment of a set ofregulations using a satisfactory system ofrecords is one of the moat important respon-sibilities of a museum.
The basic elements include the following:Identification or acquisition record (tem-porary, or 'transmission' label and accom-panying notes).Accession records (Registration).Descriptive catalogue (Scientific cataloguecards with accessory indexes and cross-references).Location records (Place of objects withinthe museum; movement of the collectionsin or out of the museum).Collection file, or 'historic' file (Foldersfor individual objects or for collections,containing details on origin and acquisi-tion, field notes, correspondence, photo-graphs, bibliographical notes, etc.).Iconographic and photographic records.Records on the condition of the objectand of its treatment.Loan record.The first of these records, the identification
record, is the master-key to all the others.
40
41
Yvonne Oddon
Fig. I.
Field identification label
Museum I Field inventor? N.
Designation
Object foundED receivednlbouglttr7Froa
Place
astgoalt foundCollector's Name
Field trip orExpedition Price paid
Origin
Maker
Ethnic group, orSpecies
Material & Technique
?unction or use
Museum photo No Negative No Field photo No.
'Description andCondition of object
Measurements
Remarks
Collection file No42
41
Attached to the object at the moment of itsacquisition, it should not be removed untilfinal numbering and cataloguing, and eventhen, it can be used for other purposes (seebelow, p. 5 5).
In small museums, the identification rec-ord, which is transmitted to the registraror written by the curator himself, oftenprovides the only information the museumwill ever have about the object. Hence it isall the more important to prepare identifica-tion forms, multigraphed or printed, fordistribution to museum staff in charge ofcollecting, buying or receiving objects orspecimens.
Specialized museums or large depart-mentalized museums generally have differentforms according to the category of the col-lection in question. Small general andregional museums, however, although deal-ing with various kinds of collections, cannotafford to use complicated methods anddifferent types of forms.
Standard methods of field documentation
Any identification record, however, re-gardless of the category and size of the mu-seum, should include at least the followingbasic information: provisional number iden-tifying the object when collected duringfield work; name or designation of theobject; mode of acquisition; source (nameof person or expedition responsible for theacquisition) price paid (if any); place oforigin and period if known; short descrip-tion, measurements and condition of theobject; photographic identification number;remarks on condition of acquisition, etc.
Such abridged data can easily be fitted onto a Bristol card label oflibrarysize (Figs. I, a),with all other relevant information beingrecorded on sheets of paper or preferably ondetachable pages of a notebook.
Identification records established by col-lectorsiii the course of theirfield-work consti-tute the most reliable type of documentation.There should be no problem when they arewritten in person by specialists in search of
Fig. 2.Example of an identification card with adetachable placement label.
ie& N
0 p
Ammo to Field inventory Ye
Designation
Object foundrireoeixed=lboughtriPme
Place
Wtongt found
Held trip orExpedition
Collector'''. has
Price paid
Origin
/taker
Ethnic group, orspecie,
Material Technique
/unction or use
Nitseun photo I' eg ire I° Yield photo I'
Yvonne Oddon
Fig. 3.
Field identification: pottery fragments.All the finds in a particular layerof excavation are sent to the museumwith a single identification card.
...v,
"4
44
facts and eager to note every scrap of infor-mation which might be helpful later on forfurther studies. Nevertheless it often happensthat unless he can check the data requiredagainst a prepared form, the best scholar mayinadvertently disregard an item in which heis not personally interested. Students, be-ginners and volunteer aids always need sucha 'questionnaire'.
FIELD-WORK DOCUMENTATION EQUIPMENT
Apart from a stock of prepared cards orworksheets, the field collector should beequipped with a notebook to be used withsuch documents. A 13.5 cm X az cm(or x 8') booklet with detachable pagesof squared paper separated by sheets ofcarbon paper, is best for keeping personaland field records and ensures safe and rapidtransmission to the museum.
When dealing with important field tripsor expeditions involving the collecting ofa large quantity of objects, museums some-times provide their collectors with stocks ofsmall aluminium tags which are prestampedwith consecutive numbeis. When a tag is
objeLt-
E;tit*
O
0
ro
re,
a:
03
4.
Nessus No
Designation
Yield inventory loZ 3 0,5.Pot' sherds
Object toundEM rsosived[Dbouhtri?roe
Flee. 1;iRlia") fffe, fir-or Ada (giver (cor.)-Thene4 NSA, layer.?flttollIttr"nd 21. 1. 1f61 Collector's Yeas 3ohn fags/
or Wok Reseira syed,'M,0 Odo.796a ?ribs paid
Origin Xok euefureXaker
f:Iiratameroup, or
astrisi. 4 reohniem. Sherds ere ictraid clay Nol a thilYsedFunction or use pooleshi- pitery
31111169/1 photo No Nese vs X' Yield photo N'
43
fastened to the object, the number is imme-diately recorded in the field notebook andthe corresponding identification entry ismade.
However, if the collector's notes do notreach the museum at the same time as thelabelled objects, the task of the registrat willbe complicated. In order to avoid this, thecollector should record all entries in a specialfield label-book made up ofduplicate standardidentification forms, one of which, made ofgood quality or cloth-reinforced paper, canbe detached and tied to the object or enclosedin the box or parcel of finds sent to the mu-seum (Fig. 3).
Needless to say, the use of good qualitylabels is particularly advocated for tropicalclimates, where protection against insectpests or fungi (such as spraying with a solu-tion of three parts of ethylene dichloride Coone part of carbon tetrachloride, or othersuitable products) is also advisable.
Tadelible pencils and, if necessary, indianink or similar products, should be used.Labels can be slipped into a plastic envelopebefore being tied to the object.1
Permanent marking directly on the objectsis a task for the museum since it involves theuse of different techniques according to thevarious types of materials. It is a task rarelyundertaken in the field, where objects areusually allocated temporary numbers onremovable labels.
A tape-measure (preferably with metricmarking) should not be forgotten, andportable scales might turn out to be useful.
Photographic equipment is, of course,indispensable, as possibly also a battery tape-recorder and, if required by the type ofsurvey, a cine-camera (sec also below, p. 5 5).
The collector should have an official localsurvey map and have access to a goodstandard dictionary. A few specialized text-books and vernacular vocabularies will berequired, depending on the type of field-work he is engaged in.
The museum should, of course, supplyfield-workers with glue, tape and light,
Standard methods of field documentation
strong cord (avoiding rubber bands, whichdeteriorate, and common adhesive tape,which might `run'), and with labels or tagsbearing the institution's name and address.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Although the primary rules of documenta-tion procedure need not be elaborate, thefollowing are basic:
Never postpone the task of writing downinformation in the field-book. Even if itis only hastily scribbled, it is safer thancommitting it to memory.Keep objects in separate lots accordingto the places where they were found. Donot, for instance, mix archaeologicalpieces obtained from different locations;assign a special number or code to eachlot, tray or bag.As far as possible, complete the identifica-tion label on the spot and tie it to theobject, or if the find consists of fragment-ary pieces or a biological specimen, placeit in the container or envelope, or aroundthe vial, etc.Do not use abbreviations: spell all namesin full.Be sure to number every object at thetime of identification, repeating the same`field-inventory number' on all recordspertaining to the same object.Keep records of operations in a chrono-logical sequence, possibly using marks orsymbols for future systematization.Use notebook also as a diary: manyapparently insignificant details might be-come of importance in the future. Aduplicate carbon copy should be kept forthe museum's collection file.
z. Permanent labels to be placed in vials can beprepared later on in the museum's laboratory.They are usually typed on special parchmentpaper using a minuscule-type typewriterequipped with an acetate carbon ribbon.
44
41
Yvonne Oddon
Remember that the scientific value of anobject depends on precise information.Information can be concise, but the`history' of an object is never too complete.
COMPLETING IDENTIFICATION RECORDS
We shall not attempt to give examples ofelaborate collecting or survey questionnaires,but rather, using the simple standard labelshown on page 4z as a basis, point out thekind of information which should not beoverlooked when dealing with a given cate-gory of collection.
I. Museum No. Space left blank by the col-lector, to be filled in later by the museum'sregistrar when the object is assigned itspermanent accession number.'
z. Field blankly No. The collector's ownrecording number, as entered in his fieldnotebook. This may consist of numbersof two or three units, the first giving thetwo last digits of the current year, thesecond being a serial number referring tothe place or site of the find, and the lastreferring to the individual object orbatch of fragmentary pieces. If a fieldsurvey is carried out over a period ofseveral years, the two first numbers maybe reversed.
The collector may also want to includeletters to designate particular categoriesof collections or the nature of an object,for instance P for Pottery, S for Sculpture,0 for Ornament, or any other subject-matter serving his own purpose.
3. Designation. Record the name of theobject or specimen, first in the termino-logy used in the museum, then, if at allpossible, in the local vernacular. Identifythe language and use a standard phoneticnotation.
Numerous textbooks set out to providea rapid means of identification for many
46 different categories of objects or speci-
mens. Should they be trusted implicitly?Archaeologists and ethnologists are
well aware of the difficulty of assigning aproper name to objects not pertaining totheir own special field of study. Namescommonly used are often misleading andshould always be supplemented by acorrect description under the correspond-ing heading.
Nevertheless, it should be remem-bered that he who refers, for instance, toa musical instrument by any name ordescription he pleases, being unaware ofthe points which matter, will cause moreconfusion than if he had left it altogetherunnoticed. ... Ethnological literatureteams with ambiguous or misleadingtcrms for instruments, and in museums,where the field-collector's report has thelist say, the most senseless terns may beperpetuated on the labels?
The name given to the object by itsusers and the name by which it is knownin the area of its origin, is more precisethan a guess at a technical term.
What is true for musicology is true forthe whole field of ethnology whoseterminology is by no means firmly estab-lished. Objects are closely associated withcultural traits which, through confusionof terms, may easily be misinterpreted.
In case of doubt and when it is notpossible to use a plain universal appella-tion such as 'sandal', 'comb', 'axe',`basket', etc., it is better to leave a blank(see also below para. 13).
Natural science specimens, unless cor-rectly identified, should also be enteredat this first stage under their common
1. Number of two units when ihe accession isone object, and three units when the acces-sion consists of several objects.
z. E. von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs, Classifica-tion of Musical Instruments, The Galpin SocietyJournal, London, no. 14, March 1961. Trans-lated by A. Baines and K. P. Wachsman.
45
name, followed by the vernacular term.The sex of animals should, however, beindicated (Fig. 4).
Type-specimens, when recognized assuch, should of course be speciallymentioned.
4. Mode of acquisition. Mention whetherlocally found or excavated, received as agift, or purchased. Give the name of thedonor or dealer.
Informztion such as names and ad-dresses of informants, owner of site, etc.,should be entered fully in the field note-book (see also below under para. 7).
Note also the techniques used to obtainthe object, for example, an underwaterfind was obtained through grabing,dredging, trawling, etc.
5. Plate where found or bought. Locality, dis-trict or area, province or region, country.
Locate the exact site on an official map(preferably a government survey mapprovided with a grid system). In the caseof archaeological excavation, it is essentialthat the field notebook should containa precise record of the position of objectswhen found (Field grid number, layer,measurements in depth and horizontalplan), stratigraphical information, andnotes about any objects found in association(sec also paras. 1z and 17).
Submarine sites should be identifiedwith latitude, longitude, depths; anddistance from the nearest inhabitatedlocality.
In the case of zoological and botanicalcollections, details of the habitat are ofprimary importance: it is therefore neces-sary to indicate the altitude of the loca-tion, and details of local climatic and soilconditions in the-field book. All environ-mental data, even when thought to beof secondary interest, should be notedon the spot. If this is not done, the infor-mation may be lost for ever; and it may befound later that it was important for
Standard methods of field documentation
research. As has been said by a museumzoologist, 'nowadays the success of anexpedition should be measured more bythe number of notebooks that are filledthan by the number of specimens broughtback'.I
Geological specimens should be locatedin relation to the topography, with notesabout local vegetation and the presenceof fossils.
6. Date when found or acquired. The season,month and time of day or night, are alsoof significance when dealing with thecapture of animals (particularly insects)and the uprooting of plants.
7. Collector's name. Name the person, orpersons, responsible for the find or thepurchase of the object.
If obtained from a former collection,this should be specified under theheading 'remarks' on the reverse side ofthe label (see below para. 19).
Enter every known fact in the note-book. This, associated with the informa-don entered under para. io, will make itpossible to draft a 'case history' of theobject later on.
8. Field-trip or expedition. Give name anddates of special individual trips or of ascientific expedition. If a sea voyage isinvoived, give name of the ship.
9. Price paid. In case of a purchase, give theprice in the currency in which the objectwas paid. Specify also the mode ofpayment.
The price paid for an object in thefield by a coilector may later on constitutean interesting element for a survey ofrelative values.
1. R. F. Ingcr, Expeditions as a Research Func-tion of Natural History Museums, MuseumNews, Washington, Vol. 43, No. z, Oct. 1966,p. 28-3o.
46
47
Yvonne Oddon
It also provides a basis for calculatingthe cost of replacement or insurancecoverage, in case of theft or loss.
to. Origin. State briefly whether the objectis known to belong to the area wherefound or whether it has been borrowedor imported from another region. If thelatter is the case, give the name of theplace of origin.
Indicate the date, age or period of theobject and its manner of productiontogether with the maker's or artist'sname, when known (see also below 1 z.
under paras. x z and 13).Do not include doubtful information
on the identification label, but give allsignificant facts in the field notebook,using such wording as: 'said to havebeen made at .:. by ...', etc.
Anthropological surveys are depend-ent on such information, and culturalcontacts which may be inferred from itare important facts for the ethnologists.
The same precaution should beobserved when dealing with chrono-logical evaluation if absolute datescannot be assigned.
Geological specimens as well asprehistoric finds are dated throughstratigraphical information. Prehistoricfinds, furthermore, can be dated withthe help of several relatively accuratetechniques, such as radio-active ormagnetic dating.
Historical and art objects can be datedby mentioning the century, a historicalperiod or a dynasty.
If an object has been associated witha known personality or with a historicalevent, this should be noted here. Theusefulness of such information is by nomeans restricted to historical collections.
11. Ethnic group or culture to which theobject may be related should be enteredhere, or alternatively, the name of
48 species.
Give names according to the mu-scum's practice, and add vernacularname of tribe, clan, etc.
Specific place of a natural historyspecimen in the relevant scientific hier-archical classification need not be indi-cated here unless known with certainty.Non-specialists should not attempt toguess, but leave the task of determiningphylum, class, order, family, genus andspecies, to the museum researchstaff.
Material and technique. Material or mate-rials from which the object is made, andmain techniques or media used in itsmaking. Status and sex of the maker.
Though necessarily concise on theidentification label, this informationshouid be recorded in extenro in the fieldnotebook.
Sketches illustrating for instance, the'successive stages of manufacture of anobject may well supplement descriptionsand photographic records (see also p. 55).
Names of materials in the vernacularlangu9ge and typical local expressionsshould be noted, as well as informationabout the availability of the materialsin the locality or about the manner inwhich they were transported.
Details about the raw material orabout the manufacturing technique orthe style of an object, may also help inretracing the object's origin or suggest itsage.
13. Function of use. When and by whom theobject is used or was used; how andwhere; time; status and sex of the user;specific places and occasions.
Whether collecting agricultural imple-ments in a farming region, artifacts in asuburban district, costumes in someprovincial European community orritual paraphernalia at the outskirts of atropical forest, the problem is basicallyidentical.
47
Loom field iersatory IlDeeireatioa 1/19.4ss : "Lisp. Ara'°Sleet !ouadr1 rewired 1E3 Pro* a. idsreCePleas Shodam (1- plifeau pray. iyiaEnti)lattgAtat rowan
Z2-11-61 Colleotor's, Nue Mils s.le siKe.sPrglill!: .r /rice paid lasortes Plateau prey.; AficrRIA
Maker
irefiLleg""' or Rodent": RYstrix cri.ltataMaterial Teeheirie tx I:42 ol)
/emotion sr see
*mesa plot. II.
/..c.say Auntcd for foc,
vs I 11
I ODC:nill'Or:fs'Oploot 40A9,34are 6/1are4c n 4,k qui/is 11 back crept0/e. /00 /Utast. toPir iut iee,y wi,7 6,71.14, e web' c/in,104/11147
Seaeuresent z : iilvwe. e. 4r To Ctrs
4'2.101- Ay tve,seVil /net when fmc/Ke/."?9
barraw oct.8row,r1 f. Mus,as, , /ally rztered Caf,Vahbn fb 4e. chedeedColleotioe tile 11
Fig. 4.Brief identification of a zoological specimen.The label is filled in at the timeof recording the specimen.
48
49
Plate t.
Field work (for the Boganda Museum atBangui, Central African Republic). Acquisitionof objects and investigation among thenomadic Babenzele Pygmies tribe.Basket, wooden box, cross-bow, traps,assegais, and so on. Iligh-Sanga Region, 1966(Photo: I.I. Dore).
50
49
Platt 2.Identification on photographic plan of onesquare metre of palacolithic ground,Pincevcnt, Seine et Marne, 1964(Photo: Muscle de PHomme, Paris).
K
5'
4.
A
Plait 3.
Recording and filming a local shepherdplaying the hurdy-gurdy, Twos (Gironde),June 1965 (the musical instrument has beendescribed and photographed separately)(Photo: MustIe des arts et traditionspopulaires, CI. Marcel-Dubois).
52
51
Objects arc related traditionally tosome aspect or phase of life. Somemasks, for instance, are worn either forvillage or intertribal festivities anddances, others for funeral ceremonies,and a large number are used for ritual ormagic purposes; some should be carriedabove the head, somc others on theshoulders; thcy may be endowed witha personality, including a genealogy,and bc given a proper name; childrenor women may not bc allowed to see ortouch them, etc. ?gams also can bcmales or females, carrying their ownvisible or invisible symbolism.
Quit:: independent of their originalpurpose, similar objects can be put tomany a different use or bc treated invaried specific manners. A small stonevessel has been found in a North Africankitchen; its present undeterminate useas a containcr does not preclude itsformer utilization, centuries ago, as alamp, a mortar or a censer....
It is essential that field notes should,as far as possible, contain this kind ofcultural data, although the task ofobtaining it is often fraught with diffi-culties, and requires sagacious, tactfuland patient cross-questioning.
Accordingly, questionnaires current-ly used by ethnologists and, in general,by students of traditional life andcustoms, draw attention to such facts,many of which could pass unnoticed.It is indeed important to pay attention tothe handling and the carrying of anobject, to its place when not in use, toits poseible destruction and to how itcould be replaced, and, in particular toits association with local, religious,economic and social structures (Plater).
When dealing with collections ofanimals or plants, the samc attentionshould be paid to their connexion withlocal life and customs. A plant may beused for food or drink, or valued for itsmedical or magical powers; its fibres may
Standard mcthods of field documentation
be used for making musical instrumentsor be twined into mats or baskets, andits fruit may be made into householdutensils....
When collected at the samc time,vernacular and local terms help to deter-mine ideas, concepts or myths hiddenbehind visible shapes.
x4, 13 and i6. Photographic identification. Thecollector assigns his own photographrecords numbcrs, leaving space, whereindicated, for numbcrs to be assignedlater by the museum for its own photo-graphic and negative files (see alsobelow p. 3 3).
17. Description and Condition of object. Thisparagraph and the next -one, given on.the reverse of our standard label, aremeant to help in the identification ofan object which has already been exam-ined and defined.
A few words are sufficient to specifythe general shape, colour, decorationand size of an object or a specimen, andto provide information as to the physicalcondition in which it was found.
In large or specialized museums, cura-tors responsible for cataloguing' thecollections under their charge know theparticular nomenclature to be used fordescribing objects or specimens and thesequence to be followed in entering theinformation.
Unlike identification records, the mu-seum catalogue is a scientific documentwhich will be consulted for research,and also a reference tool which will beneeded for the production of printedexhibition catalogues. Moreover, thecompleteness and accuracy of its con-tents could facilitate the organization ofdata into retrieval forms at some futuredate for processing by computers.
However, field collectors do not as arule spend a long time writing downelaborate descriptions, their task being
52
53
Yvonne Oddon
mainly to point to thc distinctive traitsor qualities of an objcct which make itdifferent from others in thc same cate-gory.
Professional training in muscologyincludes at least a short coursc on objccthandling, nam ing and dcscribing, accord-ing to thc nature of its objects concerned.The collector should bc able to say, forinstancc, if an object rcprcscnts a humanfigure, a deity, an animal or a plantwhether it is of single manufacture orcomposcd of scvcral parts; whcthcr avessel is sphcrical, hcmisphcrical, cylin-drical, ctc., whcther it is shallow or dccp,has or has not a cover, a handle, a neck ora foot, and whcther it shows inscriptionsor a makcr's mark. Iic should, in addi-tion, indicate whcthcr the object iscarvcd, paintcd, varnished, dycd, ctc.Dccorativc motifs should be defined asbcing, for instance, rectilinear, curvi-linear or dotted, natural, symbolic,stylized, or a combination of scvcraltypes.
The field notcbook, bcsides, oughtto lay stress upon direct observationswhich might bc difficult to supply latcron: for instancc whcthcr the decorationis made by thc manufacturer himselfand involves some traditional proccd-ure.
The state of conservation of the objector the specimcn, cvcn if briefly notcd onthe idcntification label, ought to bcmore specifically described in the field-book: is the material showing someweakncss ? Has thc object bcen broken,corroded, stained or discoloured, or hasit bccn damaged by pests? Has it bccnrepaired ? Does it show a natural patina ?
18. Measurements. Providcd also as a hclptowards identification, mcasurementsshould always give the maximum dimcn-sions and bc taken in the same order:height, width, depth; or length, width,
54 thickness; or height, diameter.
If a basc or a covcr are int:gral partsof an objcct, thcy should bc included inthe height.
Natural sciencc spccimens should bcmcasurcd according to thcir catcgories.For instance, for animals: give totallength, length of thc tail, length of thclegs and of the cars, width of the bodyand of the hcad, ctc.
The use of thc metric systcm isrecommcnded.
The dimensions of a picture should bcgiven frcc from thc frame.
If the objcct or thc specimen has acomplicated shapc, diagrammaticskctches in the notcbook offer a shortcut to intricatc explanations.
It has been found useful to weighobjects. which might be mixed withpicccs of similar appearancc, for in-stance prehistoric flint implcmcnts.
Zoological specimcns should bcweighcd bcforc any prcparation hastakcn place.
19. Remarks. This heading is uscd to com-plcte information when necded, andis of coursc restricted to field com-ments which should bc supplied on thespot.
The collector should for instancepoint out whcthcr an object has beenexchanged more than once, or whctherit has bccn made for salc or for export;who is in charge of the sale, when andwherc it is to takc place.
Indication as to the frequency ofappearance of the object locally is also ofintcrcst.
Dctails should bc given about thctrcatmcnt given to specimcns duringthe field expedition, such as the pro-visional preparation of animals, thecicaning of fossils and skcletal piecesand the drying of botanical specimcns.
Indicate also whcthcr samples havebeen tested and what kind of tests havebeen applied.
53
2o. Collection file. Indicate by a check or signwhether field-notes, photographs, ctc.will be sent to the muscum in additionto the identification record.
Information dealing with a singlccollection or an expedition, or withindividual objccts of particular impor-tance, is kept by the museum in its`Collection' or 'Historic' files. Theduplicate page of the collector's fieldnotebook are of coursc of paramountand permanent interest.
MUSEUM USE OF IDENTIFICATION LABELS
When the label has fulfilled its task ofidentification and the object has been acces-sioned and numbered, it can still, being oflibrary size, bc used in different ways as a.librarymuseum record:'
as a source record, if filed according to thecollector's namc or the namc of the fieldexpedition;as a location record if filed according to theobject accession number, under the specificstorage or exhibition placc where it islocatcd;as a subject index if filed according, forinstance, to tribal namc, namc of materialor technique, namc of species, ctc.
AUDIO-VISUAL DOCUMENTATION
Howevcr thorough, field documcntationaluz1.- is seldom complete enough for re-search purposes, and should be supple-mented by photographs, films or soundrecordings.
Photographs
Although the making of rough sketches atthe time of identification arc rightly con-sidcred as routine tasks, a photograph ofeach object or specimen should bc taken,and sets of photographs whcn dealing withobjects of particular interest.
It is of course important to take photo-
Standard mcthods of field documentation
graphs of the locality surveyed or of theexcavation site and, in the latter case, photosof the objects position before removal.White tags or precut arrows made of alu-minium or of white painted wood placednear the important finds help to locate themon the photos. Alternatively, photographicplans might be used (Plate 2).
In any cast, and whenever possible,objects and specimens should be shown intheir original setting.
A graduated measurc or any implementor object in common use may be placed nextto the subject to indicate scale.
Note that it is better at this staie to get aplain and candid pkturc than to look forartistic effects.
Besides the photograph number of eachidentified object entered on the label (seep. i 3, paras. 14-16), the field notebook shouldinclude information about the date, hour,condition of light, and give the namc of thephotographer, if different from that of thecollector identified on the label.
For any survey of historical significanceit should be noted that photographs obtainedfrom the collections of local photographersoften prove to be invaluable.
Sound recording
Collections connected with music, languageor sound in general, involve the use of arecording device. Portable battery tape-recorders art easy to operate and highfidelity portable instruments can now be.obtained. Care should be taken, however,to mark successive recordings distinctly, asis done for film records.
Photos or films taken at the same timeoften provide supplementary information,if sound films are not available (Plate j).
Film records
Field collectors are more and more fre-quently being instructed in the use of cine-camera apparatus, as tine records provide a
54
55
Yvonne Oddon
kind of dynamic documentation, whosevalue can never be over-estimated.
For professional use 16 mm cameras areusually recommended. It is possible, however,that, in the not too distant future, 8 mm tinecameras will be designed to meet professionalrequirements, with consequent savings inweight, costs and films.
Care should be taken to record informa-tion about each film sequence accurately andimmediately in the notebook, following ofcourse the general information about place,date, hour and operator.
The showing of animals in their environ-ment and the difficulties of doing so with thenecessary discretion are important aspects offilm records.
Discretion is not to be neglected eitherwhen taking pictures of human activities;the taking of even a single photograph ofteninvolves delicate negotiation. There is,however, no better way of illustrating theintimate relationship of objects to humanbeings, or between people.
When investigating, for instance, thebuilding and the use of boats in a fishingcommunity, and assuming that typical craftsand accessory implements are being col-lected, what is the task of the camera-man?
First of all, to define the place of the boat-builders in the social organization, then to
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boancoyt, Stephan F. dc. 1965. Field manual orcataloguing guide. (Museum News, Washing-ton, vol. 43, no. 5, Jan. 196551313. 38-4
I3RUC KNLR. Geraldine. 1968. A standard termi-nology for describing objects in a museum ofanthropology. (In: Dudley, D. H. & BczoldWilkinson, I. Museum regishation methods.
Washington, pp. 224-239).BeaNs, Ned J. 1941. Field manual for museums.
Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.DUDLEY, Dorothy II. & Bczold Wilkinson,
56 Irma. 1968. Museum registration methods.
give a true picture of their technical know-ledge. Their gestures and movements shouldbe recorded as well as the tools used formeasurement, or the arrangement of thedifferent parts of the boat. Are sails or oarskept in special places or under specificconditions? Is there a ceremony involved inthe first launching? Moreover, nothing buta film can illustrate the rowit.g rhythms andthe behaviour of the boatmen in their dailylife.
CONCLUSION
Although the precise and time-consumingtasks of field documentation may seemtedious in comparison with t: pleasures ofdiscovery or the adventures of collecting,they undoubtedly bring their own satis-faction.
The collector should remember that:an object is never just an object, but awitness to some human activity or achieve-ment, and should be truly regarded as ahistorical fact;a natural science specimen is never just adead specimen, but a visible element inthe evolutionary history of nature;reliable identification records are not justlabels, but the first means which willenable the museum to keep its collectionsalive and useful.
Washington, American Association of Muse-ums and the Smithsonian Institution, VIII,294 P.
Institut francais d'Afrique Noire. 1953. Conseil;aux chercheurs. 4e ed. Dakar, IFAN.
Jr.wct, C. A. Brief guide for collectors. 1960.In: Report of the Museum of English Rural Life,Reading the Museum.
Mmoi IANI, Clement W. 1961. The archaeologia'snote book. San Francisco, Chandler.
MurtoocK, George P., FORD, C. S. et al. 1965.Outline of cuhural materials. 4th rev. cd.,
55
zd print. New Haven, Iluman Relations ArcaFiles (Behavior Science Outlines, vol. 1).
MUSE DE L'HOMME. 1931. Instructions som-maires pour les collecteurs d'objets etbnographiques.Paris, Musee &Ethnographic.
ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE. 1951.Notes and queries on anthropology. 6th cd. Lon-don, Rout ledge & Kegan Paul.
WHEELER, Sir Mortimer. 1954. Archaeobg fromthe earth. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1954 &Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1962.
A few specialized manuals or monographs
Dortmsr, A. F. 1965. Textile dictionary [In 6 lan-guages] Amsterdam, Elsevier. 3 vol.
GOLSTEIN, Kenneth S. 1964. A guide for fieldrorkers in folklore. Hatboro, Penn., AmericanFolklore Socicty & Folklore Associates.
11AGGAR, Reginald G. 1962. A dictionary of artterms ... Ncw York, Hawthorn Books.
HIGGS, J. W. Y. 1963. Folk life collection andclassification. London, The Museums Asso-ciation. (Handbook for muscum curators,pr. C, scct. 6.)
Standard mcthods of field documentation
Lcaot-GouailAN, Andre; BAILLOUD, Gerard etal. 1966. Problemes methodologiques. (In:La Prihistoire. Paris, Presses Univ. de France.)
NIUSf.E DE LA VIE WALLONNE. 1964. Rubriqucsde notrc catalogue systematique. (Enquires duAlusie de la vie rallonne, Liege, t. 10, n°3 113-116, janv.-dec. 1964, pp. 194-236).
RiAU, Louis. 1953. Dictionnaire polyglotte destermer d'art et d'archiologie. Paris, Presses Univ.dc France. .
SIIEPARD, Anna 0. 1956. Ceramics for thearchaeologist. Washington, Carnegie institutionof Washington (Publication no. 609).
STEWART, James Smith. 1960. An archaeologicalguide and glossory. zd rev. cd. London, PhoenixHouse.
STOUTENBURGII, John L. cd. 1956. Dictionary ofarts and crafts. Ncw York. PhilosophicalLibrary.
STURTEVANT, W. C. 1967. Guide to field collect-ing of ethnographic spccimcns. WashingtonSmithsonian Institution, Museum of NaturalHistory, 41 p. (Information leaflet 503).
WHITE, Margaret E. 1952. A glossary of ceramicterms. Newark, N. J., The Newark Museum.
5657
Kazimierz Michalowski
The techniques of archaeologicalexcavation
INTRODUCTION
Archaeology is a history discipline, but hasits own research techniques, which make itakin to philology. Just as the philologiststudies a text, so does the archaeologist studya monument. The aim of both is to deciphera portion of historical truth from the frag-ment which has been conserved, and to makea critical study of the past.
The basic technique of archaeologicalresearch which enables the research workerto obtain his study material is excavation.This is not the sole technique used by modernarchaeology, for there are many others.Present research is complex in nature, andthe choice of technique depends largely onthe site, on the nature of the finds and onmany other factors. It would take too longand serve little practical purpose to considerall the possibilities open to the researcher.For it has to be remembered that archaeo-logical excavation is not a discipline on itsown, but one among other research methodsaimed at the scientific interpretation ofhistory. On the other hand, there areundoubtedly certain categories of archaeo-logical excavation from which any personof education, who finds himself called uponto uncover or preserve a relic of the past,can derive practical information.
The fact that excavation techniques arcnot taught at universities is not due to lackof basic rules, methods or systems of exca-vation, but because, as already stated, ex-cavation is not an independent field, but an
often complex set of actions which varywidely according to the geographical anddemographic contect, type of terrain, etc.The only way of learning excavation tech-niques is by practice, and not by studyingin libraries. We shall therefore confineourselves here to presenting practical recom-mendations based on experience.
ACCIDENTAL FINDS
It often happens that extremely valuablerelics of the past are accidentally found inthe course of agricultural work, pipe-laying,the construction of foundations or thebuilding of roads, or even by a passer-byscratching the ground with his cane. Thequestion then arises of preserving chancefinds of this type and, if they are transportablesculptures, receptacles, etc.of placingthem in the nearest museum, museum storeor other safe place, such as a school, adminis-trative building and so on, so that they canbe thoroughly studied by specialists underproper conditions.
Again, the find may not be a single trans-portable object but a whole group of objects,the discovery of one item on the site herald-ing that of many other similar vestiges ofthe past. A vessel turned up while tilling thesoil may form part of a group of objectsbelonging to a tomb or an entire cemeteryof perhaps major scientific importance, ora piece of old brick-work or worked stoneturned up when laying foundations maybe the remnants of an old building whose
57
4
59
Kazimicrz Michalowski
6o
presence there had been entirely unsus-pected.
What should be done, therefore, when adiscovery of this kind has been repor-ted?
Study and protection of the site
The main thing is to make a detailed obser-vation of all the ostensibly secondaryfactors which accompany the unearthing ofthe find. Next, the scene of the discoveryhas to be protected. Whereas the first opera-tion involves simple actions, usually re-quiring nothing more than a camera, a ruler,a notebook and a pencil, protecting the sitemay often present serious problems as faras the administrative regulations of thecountry are concerned. In most countries,however, there are special regulations forsafeguarding monuments which authorizethe stoppage of work, even in progress, ifthe chance find has important scientific andhistorical implications.
The first thing to be done, on arriving atthe scene of the find, is to photograph theobject in its existing state, placing a rulerbeside it in order to record its dimensions.At least two photographs should be taken
Fig. S. Profile of a tomb, Iwanowee, Poland.
a close-up, and another showing the posi-tion of the object in relation to its surround-ings. After that, the depth at which theobject was found has to be measured, thesedation of the soil levels which cover orcovered the object and are still visible in thetrench has to be recorded in the notebookby means, say, of a rough sketch, and thesequence of layers beneath the object has tobe indicated, if at all possible (Fig. 5).
Where the object has not simply beentaken up (from sand, for example) the typeof layer must be carefully noted. It soonbecomes evident, when digging a trench,that the quality of the soil at a certain depthis not uniform, either as regards earthcolouring or clay content. Traces of lime,ash of other substance are sometimes foundto be present, for the object is usually foundin a 'cultural layer' which was once the soilon which people lived. There will thus befragments of ordinary earthenware, orsometimes rubbish, charcoal, ashes fromdomestic fires, and so on. All this should benoted as accurately as possible. If there is abuilding, road or other notable feature inthe vicinity, the position of the find inrelation to these visible and more or lesspermanent surface features should be meas-
i 1, ,,,,,00.W444., M. arheNittlibeR014441.174.21,416eWAPSWINGWAR.1111/2ZW sem-kmmf46-.K....0,,,, .
...Altpil.E1111111111lif' : : ,. --..
,,sz.
..,,,..!1i'k::,
,:,...,..4,..t..^::
: 41
11
.... ..........1:-.......- Ai' te"..7. \ s .:::: s Zs: \ \\ \ :: \` --...-.'
)1. .1t11111111.01 14
will' .1
s
111
10,k'fr-i 0,0k.
--Pt
%II .
A.41111.124,. II 111.11'...
M
CP'S42,>.
58
ured. In addition, a lay-out plan should bemade.
A not infrequent occurrence is for thechance find, such as a large vessel or frag-ment \ of sculpture, to be extracted byinquisitive onlookers before the personresponsible for its conservation arrives. Thisis regrettable, for a chance find is as impor-tant, for the archaeologist, as the discoveryof a murder is for the criminologist. It iscommon knowledge that if anyone finds acorpse in circumstances which point tomurder, he should beware of moving itbefore the arrival of the police, whose job itis to take the photographs and measurementswhich are of vital importance for the inves-tigation. The same applies to archaeologicalmonuments. Archaeological methods resem-ble methods of criminal investigation, exceptthat their object is to discover, not a mur-derer, but the historical setting of which thefind is at once the expression and the evi-dence. And often the conditions under whichit has been conserved up to the present aremore important than the fingerprints foundat the scene of a crime.
Where notification of the find arrivesafter its extraction, the same measurements,descriptions and photographs as specifiedearlier must be made post factum, with aspecification of the point where the objectwas found. After that, check soundings mustbe made round about in order to ascertainwhether the find is an isolated one or thefirst of a larger series of monuments, for, asalready stated, the vessel, say, may be an itemof funerary furniture or a vestige of anancient habitation which the finder has comeupon by chance.
Check soundings
The check soundings must be made withdeliberation and close attention, particularnote being taken, in the manner mentionedabove, of the arrangement of the soil layers.
In the case of surface finds turned up byploughmen, there is no need to make check
The techniques of archaeological excavation
soundings at any depth: a 5o cm trenchmight be all that is necessary. If the find ismade during trenching, the sounding shouldgo down to a considerably lower depth thanthe trench. It should be borne in mind,incidentally, that check soundings are essen-tial even when it is the archaeologist himselfwho duly extracts the object after notificationof its discovery.
Extraction and care of the objects
The extraction must be done with the utmostcare. To keep a cracked vessel in shape, forexample, use has to be made of paraffin wax,spreading it over the visible parts of theobject before trying to separate the latterfrom the soil with the aid of a knife orspatula.
Objects that have been lying in the soilare usually impregnated with salt, and aretherefore very liable to deteriorate whenexposed to the atmosphere. Suitable boxespadded with shavings or cotton-wool musttherefore be prepared in advance for encasingfragile objects after their removal from thesoil. Each object removed should be immedi-ately measured and recorded in the notebookin the order of discovery, An object mayoccasionally fall to pieces cluing removal,but where the earth is firm an imprint of itsshape may sometimes remain. Where thishappens, plaster casts are made of thenegative imprint in the soil. It is desirableto have extracted objects photographedforthwith, even before cleaning, which as ageneral rule should be done in suitablepremises. Once all the objects in the findhave been extracted, the site should becarefully cleaned with a broom and re-photographed. All photographs of the siteshould include a graduated ruler.
The transport of the objects, even if onlyto a temporary museum store, should beeffected with great care, avoiding any jolting.
But where the object found is a non-transportable monument, such as a mosaicforming part of a building, its extraction has
59
6i
Kazimierz Michalowski
to be carried out on the spot, exact measure-ments recorded, photographs taken and adetailed description made, for example, ofthe ornamentation or of the scene repre-sented on the mosaic. In the case of architec-tural fragments, precise note must be takenof the state of preservation of the buildingof which they form part.
With non-transportable objects, of course,the utmost pains must be taken to conservethem on site, it being necessary, very often,to employ guardians to keep watch overthem. The chance find of a non-transportablemonument is often the prelude to systematicexcavations of the site.
The steps to be taken on unearthing amonument of this kind are accordinglydescribed in the following section of ourrecommendations, concerning excavationsproper. In either case, once the chance findhas been conserved, a detailed report shouldbe drawn up giving full results of theobservations and measurements made anda copy of it sent to the higher authorityconcerned. The report should also includean exact inventory of the objects found,together with a brief description of themand particulars of their dimensions andcomposition.
The present practice is. to use colourphotography as far as possible for photo-graphic documentation, and modelling clayand latex for casts. When extracting fragilevessels made of bronze, acetone is usedfor cleaning surfaces and vinavyl for rein-forcing the parts uncovered prior to extrac-tion.
EXCAVATIONS
Prospection
As stated above, a chance find may give riseto systematic excavations, although this isnot always the case. Very often, the choiceof excavation sites is based on other indi-cations. Take, for example, that cradle of
6z mighty civilizations of the past, the Medi-
terranean basin, concerning which theinformation given by ancient authors, laterliterary tradition and fragmentary inscrip-tions containing geographical names areimportant pointers to the location of abygone human settlement which has disap-peared from surface level. In order to choosethe site effectively and begin systematicexcavations, the site has to be 'prospected',this operation comprising two phases:(a) observation of the surface; and (b) checksoundings. It is usually possible, on thebasis of the data thus collected, to determinebroadly the area of the soil covering theancient ruins.
The results of this first operation can neverbe definite or decisive, for ancient towns,settlements and even groups of religiousbuildings have undergone repeated changesduring the centuries, and the area used byman has expanded and contracted in turn.Usually, the likelihood is, after prospecting,that a number of layersurban ones, forexamplewill be found on the site, each ofthem sometimes representing several cen-turies of occupation.
Aerial photograply
Prospecting is greatly facilitated by aerialphotography. Taking photographs froman aeroplane, and on occasion from a cap-tive balloon, makes it possible to correct thedata obtained by surface observation . r.c:soundings. But aerial photography alsomakes it possible to reconnoitre places ofwhich there is no historical mention, groupsof ruins, settlements or cemeteries. It is suffi-cient to recall the discovery, by this method,of large numbers of Etruscan tumuli inItaly, or ancient settlements in North Africa.For it is well known that at a certain altitude,and if the sun's rays make an appropriateangle of lighting with the ground, theremnants of ancient walls, ditches etc. whichare invisible at ground level are renderedhighly visible in photographs by differencesin vegetation or sand coverage.
60
Before beginning excavations on the sitegenerally defined by prospecting, detailedtopographical documentation has to beprepared with the aid of a theodolite. Acontour map of a scale of x : so,000 orx : x oo,000 is drawn up, depending on theextent of the area which is of interest to thearchaeologist, with indications of the ele-ments visible on the surface, such as existingstructures, clumps of trees, or even surfaceruins. It is true that all these may disappearas the excavation work proceeds, but duringthe first phase of site operations they mayconstitute important markers. A few photo-graphs should also be taken of the com-plete site so that they can be co-ordinatedwith the contour mapi.e., so that the cor-responding secti ,- of the latter can befound and identifica on them. Where thesite is level and not covered by large-scaleruins, with ancient structures buried beneathdebris and sand only, the contour map shouldbe immediately marked by a grid (usuallyzo X zo m), which will serve for pinpointingthe ruins or objects subsequently discovered.
Geological analysis
The second preliminary operation is thegeological analysis of the soil. Advantagecan be taken, in this coLnexion, of the checksoundings already made, with a studybeing made of the profile of the soillayers. This kind of preliminary study is spe-cially important for prehistorical excavations.In a ny case, the archaeologist starting to exca-vate should be completely familiar with thenature of the soil covering the relics buriedunderground. The technique will not be thesame for excavations indriftsand ofthc desertas for those in `sebakh', or the powderedorganic products of old \ middens containinga high proportion cf nitrogenous com-pounds. Similarly, the measures to be takenwill differ according to whether the ruinsare covered by river silt due to flooding, orwhether humus is present. In North Africa,rock debris due to erosion is also a frequent
The techniques of archaeological excavation
occurrence. Finally, the method to befollowed will be quite different if the site isfilled with debris from vaults and walls.
The preliminary analysis of the soil isalso important for establishing the thicknessof the sterile overburden (archaeologicallyspeaking) covering the monuments. By thisis meant a layer of soil containing neitherpotsherds, nor tool fragments, pieces of wall,etc. in short, anything testifying to humanactivity and capable of serving as an indexfor designating the cultural stratum (Plate 4).
Excavation techniques
Once it has been established that down to acertain depth, which may sometimes be onlya few centimetres, the soil covering the ruinsis not in the nature of a cultural stratum, andafter subjecting it to a geological analysis,the process of clearance can be expeditedby using machines of the bulldozer or exca-vator type in order to remove the surfacelayer from the archaeological site. Greatcircumspection must be exercised, and thereare sites on which the use of such equipmentis neither possible nor desirable. But anexperienced archaeologist tagging alongbehind the bulldozer and regulating thelevelling depth runs less risk of damagingthe cultural layer than if he had to superviseseveral dozen excavation workers. Thisexcavation technique is commonly used inthe Soviet Union; it is very effective, andmakes the clearing process much quicker.
One of the most important decisions thearchaeologist has to take when beginningthe excavation work is to select the place fordumping the spoil. This is no easy matter.In principle, it should be dumped at a pointwhere no further trenching will be doneaway, that is, from the actual archaeo-logical site previously studied by soundings.The aim is to avoid the unnecessary workof shifting earth from one place to another.Unfortunately, it is not always possible tokeep to this programme completely. Itdepends on the size of the archaeological
61
63
Kazimierz Michalowski
site and on the technical aid available. In thecase of large-scale excavations, the earth isshifted by means of tubs or tip-wagons. Forsmaller-scale excavations where suitableequipment is lacking, other arrangementsneed to be made, such as the use of rock-bedsor natural reservoirs (for example ponds,lakes, the sea and even rivers, like the Nile).
And what of the nature of the excavationitself? As stated at the outset, there is notechnique which is applicable in all cases;techniques are legion, and the choice ofmethod depends on the nature of the monu-ments and sires. In the case of the remains ofstructures made of such materials as wood orbeaten earth, great care must be taken oncethe first cultural layer has been removed.
Grid method
We have already referred to the grid madeon the contour map. Sometimes this grid isfirst traced on the site itself and then trans-ferred to the map. The zo m squares are thendivided into smaller ones. Mention may bemade, in this context, of the grid methodsuccessfully used by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.The site divided into miniature squares isexcavated in such a way as to leave the baulksseparating the squares intact, the thicknessof these virgin bulks depending on thesolidity of the soil. As the excavation of thesite within the squares progresses, the surfacewill begin to look like a large furnace grate.Another advantage of this method is tofacilitate stratigraphic studies in the indi-vidual squares.
Within these, the earth is removed witha spatula and a knife, instead of a shovel, andobservations and not of all the soil tintsare made on the spot, using coloured pen-cils, once the cleared surface has been cleanedwith a brush. These tints also provide anindication of the texture of the soil, for alayer of beaten earth, for example, differs inappearance from one of driftsand or silt.The charred remains of wood are unlike the
64 crumbled debris of walls of buildings, and
the remains of piles, ditches, wells and so onare different again.
The position of every object found shouldbe measured both horizontally and vertically.Only strict documentation and very exactobservation of the location of the horizontallayers can proyide a basis for archaeologicallysound interpretations. The objects foundwill be treated in the same way as whenpreserving chance finds (see above).
Dratigrapb).
As the work advances and exact observationproceeds, a picture of the causes of thedestruction of the edifice in question (fire,earthquake, etc.) will emerge with increasingclarity. As the digging goes deeper, theoutline of the cultural layers begins toappear on the profile of the excavatedsquare. In this way, excavation by layersprovides us with a very clear picture of thestratigraphy of the site. It now becomes aquestion of being able to date each level inan adequate manner. To that end, use ismade of the objects found and their corre-lation with the superposed ones. The findsmay consist of intersecting walls separatedby a layer of alluvium, food remains or bonesof animals dating from the periods of humanoccupation of the site. The history ofarchaeological excavations provides us withnumerous examples of the superposition ofseveral cultures on a single site: an experi-enced archaeologist can sometimes identifymore than twenty down to a depth of zo m.
If, even at only a few levels, objects arefound which are not difficult to date, suchas coins or fragments of vases which can bechronologically placed with complete cer-tainty, it will be possible, by carefully notingthe position of the levels, to establish ahypothetical chronology having a highdegree of probability, even for levels notcontaining precisely dated objects.
For the archaeologist, the carefully cleanedprofile of the excavated sector will constitutea chronological table, as it were, of the site.
6 9
Plate 4.
Layer of lime, dating from the middleof the third century, on the forum ofDiocIctian's camp, Palmyra.
Plate f.Composition of the strata, Scrock, Poland.
-A';'.r.se-
e 1.
41010kW u
4.P.°11111:0/6.ar: , ... ''...::'' Z.
........,la.V.11 fp .4W ;",a;
4
C
:I.
"Vw -'1?!
-4,794012Ef'
r
a..' 1,1
Ca-
Plate 6.
Unearthing a first-century oven inDiocletian's camp, Palmyra.
Plate 7.
Cleaning out a second-century lime kiln,Tell Atrib.
64
J
. ? t
it it'r
4
'yr
t;,!% I<4
:1.Ne
Plate 8.
Classifying pottery, Palmyra.
65
67
;-`
-tt
ritstti
68
Plate 9.
Reinforcing a third-century columnin Diocletian's camp, Palmyra.
Plate Jo.
The conservation expert Gazy cutting outa fresco in the great cathedral, Faras.
fsi14;
4
Where stratigraphical dating is concerned,however, it must not be forgotten thatobjects in upper layers may sometimes havebeen subject to transfer to lower layersthrough the action of burrowing animals orby some other cause. For this reason, scru-pulous observation is necessary as regardsthe stratification of an archaeological site.It should be remembered, in this connexion,that `comparative stratigraphy', or the studyof analogies between the stratigraphies ofdifferent sites, is a very useful aid to thearchaeologist. Claude Schaeffer's work,Stratigrapbie Comparle et Cbronologie de ?AdeOccidentale (IIP et IP Mil ',noires) is a goodexample. Stratigraphy is of manifest valueat the present time in conducting archaeo-logical research on large numbers of excava-tion sites. It should nevertheless be notedthat stratigraphy was first applied in the caseof prehistory discoveries, especially in cavesand grottoes, which means that it was usedfor studying periods for which we haveneither the coinage nor the epigraphicmaterial which make the dating of culturallevels so very much easier. All that theexperts specializing in the most ancientepochs could apply was a relative chronologybased on a very careful study of layers offood remains, of certain tools often coveredby a layer of silt, or refuse stemming fromlater human activity. It was thereby possibleto specify different periods of utilization ofthe 'shelter', abandoned by man for a certainperiod and then rc-used (Plate y).
Documentation
But taken together, our methods of archaeo-logical documentation, even the most mod-ern, such as precise measurement, detailedphotography, chemical analysis of soil andmonuments, dating with radioactive carbonC", the use of radio - isotopes for photographsof the X-ray type, an analysis of the animalor human bone remains and organic prod-ucts carbonized or impressed into the soil,are simply the application of the advances
The techniques of archaeological excavation
made by science at a specific historical stagein its evolution.
The archaeologists of past generationswere also convinced that the documentationthey were using was completely methodical.But just as today we pass severe judgement onthe shortcomings of former documentationprocedures, so we can confidently expectthat future generations of research workerswill have much to criticize us for. Thepresent shortcomings can be partially offsetby leaving 'control' plots on the excavationsite, i.e., plots protected from erosion andleft untouched by the shovel or spatula, andcovering, perhaps, to m2 or even less,depending on the nature of the archaeologicalcomplex. Almost a century ago, HeinrichSchliemann, the discoverer of Troy, leftcontrol plots of this kind on the mound ofHissarlik, and it is thanks to them that themerican Aarchaeologist Blegen was able, inthe 1940's, to establish a more precise chro-nology of the results of the excavations madeby his illustrious predecessor.
Specific cases
We have given an example of only onemethod of conducting excavations. But if itwas proposed, say, to use that method forwork on large groups of ruins in the Medi-terranean world, such as those of Palmyra,it would be tantamount to entering a largescientifl or even specialized library con-tainir% thousands of books and settingabout reading all of them, beginning withthe first book on the top shelf on the left.In cases like the above, a different methodof excavation has to be applied, for if greatheaps of rubble comprising large architec-tural blocks of decorated stone, inscribedslabs and so on had to be removed in layers,the results would be nil; apart from whichany kind of excavation work would berendered impossible.
In the case of monumental architecture,observation of soil colourings beyond adepth of a few centimetres is completely
67
69
Kazimicrz Michalowski
pointless. Other criteria for soil stratigraphymust therefore be used in order to determinethe process and period of construction ofthe edifice, and to decipher its history. Inclearing groups of ruins covcrcd by debrisand piles of earth, usually of alluvial origin,a study must be made of the composition ofthe debris itself, of the traces of deposits onthe walls of the edifice, and of surface orburied blocks. It is often possible to deducetherefrom the cause of the collapse of thebuilding and to determine, by means ofsmaller finds, the date of the catastrophe;and by noting later changes and the natureof the wall structure of additional parts builton, it is often possible to make a fairlyaccurate reconstitution of an historicalphenomenon. This is not to say, however,that while clearing a room, for instance, or awell belonging to the group of monumentalruins studied, a more precise stratigraphyof the site would not be useful; and in suchcases the application of the method describedabove might well be desirable.
Necessary destruction; reconstitution:
Hardly a day passes without the archaeo-logist directing excavations finding himselffaced with the necessity of taking decisionsof extreme importance. To reach the lowerlevels or to clear a room which had at alater stage bccn scaled by a wall, he has todismantle the wall and hence destroy thewhole or part of a structure, of ancientorigin, indeed, but later than the buildingas first designed. He sometimes has to takethe decision to dismantle an entire sectionof an ancient town constructed on the wallsof dwellings dating from an even earlierperiod. In other casts, it may be roadpavings that are superposed. Occasionally,the decision may cone-rn a fine building,itself ancient and fairly well preserved, buttopping an older building (Plate 6).
In difficult situations like this, the findingsof an international committee of experts are
7o essential, as in the case, for example, of the
famous Roman theatre at Bosra, in Syria,which was later converted into a mosque.But in practice, as stated, the archaeologisthimself has to make the decision aboutdestroying a relic of the past, not only fromday to day but sometimes even from hourto hour.
What, then, should be done?Apart from compiling architcchtonic
documentation and making special plans andsections, descriptions must be made of thepiece of wall or entire building to be elimi-nated and must be included in the generalsite plan. When dismantling walls, careshould be taken to make sure that they arenot composed of blocks derived from evenolder buildings, for it is quite possible thatthese may have been used for the reconstruc-tion of a major monument. It was common,in ancient days, to use components of olderand disused buildings for construction pur-poses. How many fine sculptures andinscribed stones have been found incorpo-rated in walls which at first sight seemed allof a piece, or embedded in the foundationsofancicnt buildings! The Egyptian pharaohsof the Ncw Kingdom made use, in buildingthe pylons of their temples, of materials fromthe older temples of the Middle Kingdom,which were probably partially in ruins atthat time or were deliberately destroyed inorder to serve their new purpose The ma-terial thus disengaged is sometimes so abun-dant as to permit the reconstruction of anancient monument which at a late stage wasused as a quarry (as at Karnak, in UpperEgypt).
But in the ancient world, buildings weremade not only of stone. In areas where therewere no stone quarries, the principal ma-terial used was unbaked brick. This was thecase, specifically in the Nile delta, andespecially in other parts of Egypt and inMesopotamia, where fortifications severalmetres high as well as forts and palaces werebuilt of unbakcd brick. Where these struc-tures have bccn covcrcd with alluvial mud,an additional difficulty arises during exca-
68
vation: it is sometimes almost impossibleto distinguish between the brickwork andthe earth cover. In this case, it is necessary,after digging a deep trench, to wait until thesun's rays have dried out the profile of thetrench, and the difference between the walland the mud then becomes apparent. Whcredeep trenches are dug in wet soil, it is some-times necessary to use pumps which at leastmake it possible to disengage the structurequickly so that measurements can be takenand documentation prepared. On dry sites,the present practice is to use an inclinedconveyor belt in order to remove rubble andearth from deep trenches.
Excavation methods
We have referred here to two diametricallyopposite methods of excavation work. Butthere are many other methods in between.The system of deep wide trenches is some-times used in order to make what might becalled extended soundiugs. This makes itpossible not only to work out the strati-graphy of the site, but also to study theposition of certain structures whose natureand state of conservation do not justifytotal clearance and detailed exploration.
Another method that is sometimes used isfor clearing tumuli. These are usually in theform of a hemisphere; the latter is dividedinto four quadrants, two of which, onopposite arcs of the circle, are clearedin the initial operation, for it may proveto be not worth while clearing the other two.
In clearing cemeteries, all the above-mentioned methods may be used, providedthat a separate inventory of finds and com-plete photographic survey documentationare prepared for each grave. It is extremelyimportant, when clearing graves, to takeaccurate note of the position of the skeletonand the arrangement of the funerary furni-turei.e., the vessels and other objectsplaced beside the body.
In the case of the large undergroundtombs known as hypogea, the utmost care
The techniques of archaeological excavation
must be taken in clearing the undergroundcorridors, which are liable to collapse as thepenetration of the tomb advances; and propsare therefore used, as in mines. Speaking ofsafety measures during excavations, it shouldbe borne in mind that old walls cleared ofsand and earth are also liable to collapse.In particular, when dismantling latter-daywalls which block access to earlier struc-tures, all the necessary safety rules shouldbe observed, especially if the walls are builton sand.
Inventorking
The archaeologist should never be withouthis notebook, ruler and camera on thesite. But his work does not end whenthe day's work on the site is done, for itscompletion leaves him and his colleaguesfree to begin the actual listing of theobjects which were found during the dayand which will be transported to thetemporary storehouse as the work pro-ceeds.
The techniques of inventorizing havealready been discussed in respect to chancefinds. There are certain monuments whichcall for rapid cleaning and conservationoperations (Plate 7). At present, casts andprints are made of inscriptions so that theycan be given a first reading. Similarly, coinsand metal objects are given a first cleaningwith a diluted mixture of soda lye and zinc.But before the archaeologist's heavy day isfinished, he has yet another task to fulfilcompletion of the excavation log in whichhe records the major finds, the decisionstaken and his preliminary (and sometimesmistaken) conclusions, which he will correctin due course.
In addition, the archaeologist makingexcavations on a Mediterranean site isobliged, at regular intervals, to carry outanother operation from which his colleaguesexcavating in, say, Central or NorthernEurope are normally exempt. He has toclassify thousands of potsherds, turned up
6971
Ka 7i.niez:: Michalowski
in hundreds every day. It would be irrationalto try to inventorize and describe every oneof them, as with isolated finds or as in exca-vations made in Europe, where pottery isoften the only archaeological documentavajjable. Here, again, the example to becited is that of the research worker in thelibrary: the archaeologist has to know whereand how to look, and what is important forhis research, and be able to place documentsin order of their priority significance. To tryto retain everything is to retain nothing.The archaeologist therefore has to classifythe earthenware objects, this being done intwo stages.
The first stage will cover a single area, nottoo large, such as one room of a building.Among the hundreds of shards found, thearchaeologist selects those which he ad-judges to be pieces of a vessel and whichhe thinks will help in its reconstruction, thosecharacterized by striking ornaments andthose characterized by a particular type ofclay or by an unusual mode of firing(Plate 8). The material thus separated intotwo groupsas a rule, there are twice asmany rejected shards as there are retainedfor the next gradingshould be storedaway in a suitable place (not necessarily astore-room) with an indication of the dateand place of the find. On completion of theexcavation work in a given section, forexample, after clearing an entire structure orcollection of graves, the archaeologist pro-ceeds to the second stage of classification ofthe previously selected shards. Once again,a large proportion of the material is discard-ed and the only pieces kept are those whichconstitute valuable and important docu-ments from the historical or artistic point ofview. They are then inventorized. Obvi-ously, the classification of pottery requiresa certain amount of experience ar,3 a goodknowledge of the site. The tinicst fragmentof a black-varnished Attic vase, which wouldbe of little value in Greece, will be carefullylisted if it turns up in excavations in
72 Egypt.
Conservation of walls and frescoes on the site
As the excavation proceeds, the archaeo-logist must give thought to the state inwhich the excavated site has to be conserved.The problem, where cultures are super-posed, is not easy to solve. The archaeologisthas to try to conserve what is most impor-tant and constitutes a definite group ofrelics of the past. Before the season ends,the excavated walls have to be conserved soas to secure them from deterioration byrain. Only in Upper Egypt are archaeologistsspared this worry.
To consolidate excavated walls, cementis used in blends carefully worked out so asnot to detract from the original nature ofthe structure. In some cases, a certainamount of consolidation has to be done asthe excavation work proceeds. There areoccasions when the archaeologist has to seeto the anastylosis of a cole.nn or pillar aspart of excavation work (Plate 9). Cle.-rly,all these are makeshift processes. Conserva-tion proper, accompanied by partial recon-struction of the archaeological assemblage,is a field on its own.
Mention should be made here, perhaps,of the methods used to conserve on site thefragments of mural paintings unearthed inthe excavation area. The process recentlydeveloped by the Polish mission at Farm,during the archaeological work conductedin Nubia under Unesco's auspices, was asfollows. After cleaning the frescoes, one ortwo layers of Japanese vellum were appliedby ironing it on, together with a mixture ofbeeswax, rosin and turpentine, suitablyblended after several experiments made onthe spot. Once the surface was covered withthe paper, a second sheet, this time of gauze,of larger size than the mural, was appliedwith a hot iron and wax mixture, as before.After that, the painting thus preserved hadonly to be protected from the sun. Toremove the paintings, special saws wereused to saw them away from the wall. (Ingeneral, if the sawing is done by a skilled
x.;
operator, there is no risk of paintings beingdamaged (Plate ro). Before removal of thepaintings from the wall, a wooden scaffold-ing shaped like a sledge was backed on tothe wall by means of ropes tied to the upperedge of the cloth projecting beyond themural. Each sawn-out fresco was thendeposited slowly on the scaffolding and thelatter placed in a horizontal position, afterwhich the fresco was shifted on to a plank,using the same ropes, and the parts of the walland rough-cast weighting down the back ofthe fresco were filed off so as to leave a smoothsurface. For transport, the frescoes werepacked in special cases with inside quilting.
Report
The archaeologist's last task, after complet-ing the excavation, is to prepare a detailedreport on his finds. In theory, for each exca-vation site there is a basic library collectionenabling a first comparative analysis of thefinds to be made. Apart from a full inven-tory, the report should include a tentativehistorical interpretation of the archaeolog-ical assemblage discovered. It is quite uselessto specify that an object was found at suchand such a depth, or at such and such a
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ATKINSON, R. J. C. 1946. Field Archaeology.Methuen, London.
DAUX, Georges. 1958. La crapes de Parcheo-logie..Que sais-je no 54. Paris, Prase Univ. deFrance.
DE LAST, Siegfried J. 1954. L'arcbfologie et sexproblimes. Bruxelles, Berchem.
Du MESNIL DU ButssoN R. 1934. La techniquedes fouilles archiologiques; les principesLibrairie Orientalists P. Geuthncr, Paris.
HEIZER, Robert F. £954. The archaeologist atwork. Harper, New York.
LAMING, Anncttc. £952. La Illcourerte du passe.Picard, Paris.
LERor-GouRHAN, Andre. 1950. Lea fouillesprehistoriques. Techniques el mithodes. Picard,Paris.
The techniques of archaeological excavation
point in a given square of the grid (with anindication of its number): this type ofinformation tells nothing to anyone, andeven the discoverer himself will find itmeaningless after the lapse of a few years.To include particulars of this kind underthe catalogue entry for the selected objectsmay indeed serve some purpose, but toinclude them in the report is completelypointless, and, worse still, makes attemptsat interpretation more difficult.
The archaeologist, like all researchworkers, may be mistaken in evaluating hisfinds. Just as, in his excavation log, hecorrects the errors of the preceding days, sothe succeeding excavation seasons enablehim to develop earlier hypotheses. Hisreport should not only be an account of hisactivities, but should also constitute anattempt to draw conclusions from the inves-tigation of a specific segment of history, forwhich the documents used are archaeolog-ical monuments. And above all, in preparinghis report on the work of the excavationseason, the archaeologist should alwaysremember that excavation is not an art initself, but only one of the main researchmethods of that branch of historical science.
LERot-Gouratniv, Andre. 1939. Manuel de latechnique des fouilles arcblologiqius. Paris, OfficeInternational des Musses.
. £964. Restaurierang and Komerrienarg. Ber-lin, BJV Erganzungsband.
SCHAEFFER, Claude F. A. 1948. Stratigrapbiecomparfe et thronologie de l'Asie occidentaleet II' millinaira). Oxford University Press.
WHEELER, Sir Mortimer. 1954. Archaeology fromthe earth. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
WOOLLEY, Sir Leonard. 1954. Diggingup thepart.Harmondsworth, Middlesex, Eng., PenguinBooks Ltd.
73
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
Prospecting methods in archaeology
INTRODUCTION
Archaeological exploration in our modernworld, while retaining intact the traditionalaims of this humanistic discipline striving todiscover the evidence of ancient civilisation,cannot on the other hand fail to be affectedby the great changes taking place in allaspects of human life as a result of theextraordinary developments of science andtechnology.
These changes contribute to the stressingof the interdependence of all human activi-ties, just as in the field of culture there is anincreasingly marked trend towards anintegration of knowledge, overcoming thedifferences and misunderstandings which inthe past have divided the humanistic disci-plines from those of science and technology.Today, the 'sealed compartments' are nolonger acceptable.
Till recent years, archaeological explora-tion was one of these compartments': un-changed over the centuries, using processesbased on proud traditions, carried out by acontinuing succession of eminent archaeo-logists, whom we must remember withgratitude.
Their teaching is still alive, even thoughthe new exploration methods are profoundlyaffecting the traditional methods. These newtechniques are virtually still in the initialstage of their application, but the resultsalready achieved suggest that they willnecessarily become established everywhere,not only in relation to the immediate goals
of exploration, but also because of theirinterconnections with other activities, out-side of the realm of archaeology, whichtoday cannot be ignored by the followers ofthis discipline.
At this point it seems suitable to introducethe major factors which, at present, areinvolved in archaeological exploration,specifying for each of them the nature oftheir co-relation with the very purposes ofexploration.
This knowledge is indispensable for anunderstanding of the discussion made in thefollowing sections on the choice of methods,their description and the conduct of theoperations.
MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTINGARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH
We must naturally give first place to thecultural factors, as reflected in the increasinginterest attached to investigation of the past.This interest seems to express man's wishto combine his achievements towards thecivilisation of the future with a betterknowledge of the more remote and obscureevents of his part history.
Till very recently this cultural motivationwas practically the only one, or at least themost important of the factors underlyingarchaeological exploration activities.
Over the last few decades other factorshave come into the picture and should betaken into proper account, for they are thosewhich today can exert the greatest influence
72
5
75
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
on new exploration activities. They ap-peared in the early years of this century,and their importance has been growing at aprogressively accelerating rate, which cannow be determined on the basis of statisticalinformation.
The expansion of urban centres
It is a known fact that industrial growthinduces in all nations a movement of peoplefrom the land into the towns and cities,which thus tend to grow larger and larger,particularly when they are located in theindustrial centres attracting labour forcesaway from the farms. A tremendous amountof damage has already been caused by thisinvasion in the archaeological areas aroundall historical centres, and it is evidentlynecessary to remedy this situation by locatingany archaeological formations which maystill lie buried.
Land reclamation
In all nations the tremendous populationgrowth demands the intensive exploitationof all arable land where crops can be grownwith modern cultivation and fertilizationmethods. Thus, if only in the historicalcentres of the Mediterranean area, hundredsof thousands of acres of archaeo-logical areas are being ravaged by deepploughing, irrigation ditching and by theuse of fertilizers which help accelerate thedecay of the still buried archaeologicalmaterial.
Air contamination and water pollution
Over the last few decades, the expansion ofthe industrial centres, especially in the vicin-ity of historical areas, the growth of motor-ization and the increasing use of solid andgaseous fuels, have all contributed to afrightening extent to contaminating theatmosphere with combustio. residues con-
y6 twining extremely harmful elements, which
cause a progressively increasing destructionof the archaeological resources.
As it is known, several international con-ferences have called attention to the serious-ness of this process, which threatens notonly the wealth of art and history on viewin the historical centres and in public andprivate collections, but also the material stillburied underground, which is subject to thesame deterioration as a result of pollutedunderground waters and atmospheric con-taminating agents carried into the soil byrainfall.
Expansion of roads, railroads andpublic works
This is a consequence of industrial growth;there are too many reported cases of damagedone to unknown archaeological formationsby the movement of earth required for theseprojects. The problem of the monuments ofthe Egyptian and Sudanese Nubia whichwere threatened by the new Aswan HighDam comes under this heading, just as manythousands of other cases, less known oreven unknown, which unfortunately occurin all countries where ancient civilizationshave existed.
Development of tourism
This is one factor which, in the presentpicture of the development of archaeolog-ical areas, constitutes an economic elementof decisive importance in the planning ofany new archaeological exploration activity.
Up to the end of the last century this wasa practically negligible factor, and nobodywould have dreamed of its being in co-relation with the problems of archaeologicalexploration.
The statistics for the last 5o years offerindications of extraordinary importance forthe assessment of this factor, which in cer-tain historical countries of the Mediterra-nean area has even become the most impor-tant among those of direct concern to
73
archaeology. Over the next few years,tourism will register an unprecedentedgrowth, due to the advent of new and fastermeans of transport which will shorten thedistances between continents, to the expect-ed reductions in travel costs, to the introduc-tion of 'work weeks' as short as four days inconnexion with the spreading of automation.This will enable hundreds of millions of peo-ple to enjoy travelling and other forms oftourism on an unprecedented scale. The de-velopment of a historical centre and its inte-gration into the plans of international tourismwill be a decisive factor in promoting andorienting new archaeological explorationcampaigns.
This picture which we have outlined inits essential elements suggests the ruleswhich will have to be followed in organizingany new archaeological campaign. They willnecessarily take into account the new scien-tific methods of investigation which wewill describe in the following sections. Theuse of these methods will result in a more`dynamic' approach than that followed inthe past, for the new instruments now madeavailable to the archaeologist by science andtechnology are subject to continuous changesas a result of the unprecedented evolution-ary process taking place in the applicationsderiving from the advances of science inthe fields of nuclear physics and electronics.
It is evident from these brief considera-tions that archaeological exploration is nolonger a 'sealed compartment', but ratherone field in the general framework of scien-tific progress in all disciplines.
The experience acquired from past appli-cations of the prospecting methods, parti-cularly in Italy during the last decade, makesit possible to lay down some general rulesto be followed in organizing an archaeo-logical exploration campaign.
Prospecting methods in archaeology
ORGANIZATION OF THE PROSPECTION
First of all it should be borne in mind thatall prospecting methods must be regardedas complementary one to another. In addi-tion, any archaeological campaign shouldmake use of all the information available.This includes historical sources, previousdiscoveries, both accidental and as a resultof deliberate research and, in particular, anyprevious air photographs of the area. Incertain regions detailed archaeological sur-veys already exist, in others use can still bemade of surveys taken for military, Q. 'as-tral, forestry, public works and other pur-poses.
In the areas where the land has undergoneland reclamation work, now so frequent inmany countries, because of the necessity fora high degree of farm mechanisation, valu-able help can be provided by aerial surveysmade before the land was subjected to deepploughing, which turn it into a uniformsurface and erase all signs which once coulddisclose the presence of archaeological for-mations at shallow depths in the soil. Inmany areas considerable numbers of airphotographs have been taken for militarypurposes, especially during the last worldwar; these often offer a very valuable sourceof information.
INFORMATION OF VALUE IN PLANNING ANYPROSPECTING CAMPAIGN
Information from the local antiquities andpublic works authorities
historical information concerning thearea to be explored;information on past excavations or chancefindings;cadastral maps showing property bounda-ries and roads;crop maps;information on surveys made is con-nexion with public works; the drilling ofwells, tunnels, etc.;
74
77
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
geological map of the area;aerial surveys, when available;any geochemical soil surveys;presumed nature and depth of the existingarchaeological formations;existence of AC and DC power lines.
Information of a general nature
permission to enter the areas to be ex-plored;facilities for the exploration team: quar-ters, food, transport, etc.;local labour availability and wage scales;location of the nearest motor vehiclerepair shop;responsibility for payment of any damageto crops;water, fuel, oil and power (voltage andfrequency) supplies.
All of the information listed above isimportant for the programming of theexploration work under the most favourableconditions, i.e. ensuring the most econom-ical employment of personnel and equip-ment. The very choice of prospecting meansis conditional upon the geological charac-teristics of the ground and upon the antici-pated nature of the archaeological forma-tions to be explored.
In the case of an exploration campaign ofmajor importance in terms of area to becovered and time required, it is generallywise to have a specialized expert run apreliminary survey, which in no cases willtake more than one week.
The preliminary surveys of this kind sofar conducted in several countries haveproved their worth. Their cost is largelyoffset by the fact that they make it possibleto reduce to the essential minimum theexploration equipment needed, and to deter-mine from the very beginning which pros-pecting method is best suited to the area.
78
THE CHOICE OF THE PROSPECTING METHOD
Generally speaking, the choice of the pros-pecting method depends upon the followingfactors:(a) nature of the ground to be explored;(b) presumed nature of the existing archaeo-
logical formations;(c) presumed average depth of the forma-
tions;(d) area to be covered;(e) purpose of the prospecting work, e.g.
intended to determine whether archaeo-logical formations are present or absent,so that the land can be released for usessuch as residential or industrial building,public works, etc.
There are of course other factors to betaken into consideration in each case, sinceevery campaign can be affected by seasonalconditions, by the presence of certain crops,by access difficulties, by the presence ofpower lines which may induce alterationsin the local magnetic field, by the difficultyin obtaining an adequate water supply forstratigraphic drilling, etc.
It is readily evident from these brief con-siderations that in all cases the preliminarysurvey conducted by a prospecting expertwill be of great help in choosing the mostappropriate method and techniques, notonly with a view to ensuring a positiveresult, but also in order to obtain the mostrational utilization of the men and equip-ment employed in the campaign, that is,the most economical use of the funds avail-able.
These considerations give us an oppor-tunity of pointing out that every pros-pecting campaign carried out with themeans and processes made available byscience and technology, while on the onehand enabling the archaeologist to achievethe desired results rapidly, will, on the otherhand, prove apparently more expensive thanthe conventional methods, due to the highcost of the prospecting equipment and ofthe skilled personnel required.
7 5
We said 'apparently', for a to-year experi-ence with these applications at manyarchaeological aims and for different pur-poses has show* that the rational use of thenew methods ..):T prospecting will result insubstantial savings entirely comparable withthose effected by the use of aerial photo-'graphy for planimetric surveys, the cost ofwhich is one fourth of that of ground sur-veys carried out by teams using conven-tiona: :quipment.
It will be understood that this explainswhy isolated exploration projects, limitedexcessively both in space and in time, mayprove uneconomical, particularly when thenature of the soil and of the buried archaeo-logical formations requires the use of severalprospecting methods. These can involvethe employment of costly scientific andtechnical equipment, which may be usedbut partially, often for a small fraction ofthe time spent on the campaign.
It is understandable too that the largerthe area to be explored or the larger thenumber of different surveys that can be
Prospecting methods in archaeology
undertaken, the more rational will be the useof equipment and personnel, since it can bepossible to keep several teams at work atthe same time using the same equipmentwhich would have been needed by one teamalone.
The description of the campaigns carriedout in the past, and reported on in severalpublications, can help in giving archaeo-logists indications for the planning of anynew exploration.
DESCRIPTION OF THE blETHODS
From the considerations set forth in thepreceding sections it appears evident thatthe choice of methods depends upon manyfactors which may vary from case to case,and that only a practical experience of someyears will enable the explorers to choosewith certainty the best solution to be adop-ted. Fortunately today, the technical litera-ture already offers a substantial body of casehistories concerning numerous applications,which have been reported on in several
Prospecting methods
Surface effects
Air photography
Overall cover
Low levelphotography
1
Surface surveys
Collection ofmaterial
Soil differences
Vegetation cover
"Sampling techniques"
Samples taken
Core sample
Drilling forsamples
Pollen analysis
Gcochemicalmethods(phosphateanalysis)
No samples
Probing
Simple drilling
Fig. 6. Diagram showing the division of the various prospecting methods.
76
Geophysical surveying
I I
`Active' `Passive'
Seismic Magnetic:
Electrical
Electro-magnetic
Minor methods
Gravity
79
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
countries. Thus, the rapidity of communi-cations and the expansion of cultural ex-changes now enable each country to adoptthe latest techniques and to benefit from thecontinuing progress being made in this field.In addition, a close contact has been main-tained between the major centres in the fieldand this has done much to aid the develop-ment of the subject.
The various prospecting methods cannow be outlined, with the assistance of theoverall schematic diagram in Fig. 6. In addi-tion to the various methods, two basicapproaches may be defined as follows:t. The location of evidence suggesting the
existence of buried archaeological fea-tures, the nature of which remain uncer-tain. Supplementary survey work orexcavation is thus necessary.
z. The location and investigation of buriedarchaeological features to a sufficientdegree that a reasonable interpretation oftheir nature and extent can be made.Supplementary work is thus either notnecessary or will be very limited inamount.
Those methods for which both approachesare applicable are shown starred in the figure,whilst all the others are covered by approach
only.
SURFACE EFFECTS
The first group of prospecting methods arethose that record the effects visible on themodern surface. Apart from the continuedexistence of above surface remains, the pre-sence of a buried archaeological site can berevealed by the occurrence of fragments ofconstructional material or artifacts, normallybrought up from the underlying deposits byfarming operations, especially ploughing.An accurate survey of the amount and posi-tion of these fragments, although somewhatlaborious, can give useful information. Inaddition to the presence of actual archaeo-logical material, the surface soil may also
8o show differences in colour or in texture.
Ploughed out banks and tumulus moundsare but two examples of where this canoccur.
Such effects as mentioned above are onlylikely to occur were the soil cover is relative-ly third and can of course only give infor-mation about the very top part of the burieddeposits. Also objects and soil types are onlylikely to be noticeable where the vegetationcover is scanty or absent. Grass, in particu-lar, will probably conceal all traces. This is,of course, one of the reasons why, in manyregions, far more archaeological sites areknown from arable areas than from thosethat are predominately pasture.
The presence of a vegetation cover ishowever not always a disadvantage, as boththe type of vegetation, and variations in itsdevelopment, aze often dependent on buriedarchaeological feature. For the features canaffect the moisture distribution in the soiland even the amount of soil available. Byplotting the distribution of certain plants,or those areas where plant growth is eitherretarded or advanced, something can oftenbe deduced as to the possible existence ofarchaeological features. Changes in ripeninggrain crops can be particularly useful andimportant.
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
The main difficulty of all these methods isthat they tend to be rather too vague andsubjective. Indications are often tantalizing-ly uncertain. On many occasions some sortof pattern will seem to occur, thus suggest-ing the existence of a buried site, and thenit will prove impossible to deduce anythingfurther of definite value. It is here that aerialphotography can be of use by providing amore objective overall view of the apparentpattern. Normally the great value of aerialphotography is thus not that of revealinganything new that was not already visibleon the ground, but in enabling a sufficientlydistant view to be taken so that some sortof order and sense may be brought into an
otherwise impossibly confused situation. Inpractice, the value of this new viewpoint istwofold. Firstly, existing fragmentary re-mains can be elucidated in terms of a generalplan, and secondly, the less permanenteffects mentioned above for ground surveymethods can be recorded. Strictly speaking,it is only this second use that constitutes aprospection method.
The main, and most obvious, advantagesof aerial photography are that large areas canbe covered, and that a wide range of featurescan be shown. Thus, in taking one photo-graph, work equivalent to weeks, if notmonths, of ground survey can be achieved.Against this, it is unfortunately often foundthat occasions for the taking of the one vitalaerial photograph may be rare, or even non-existent. Since much of such aerial photogra-phy relies. on differences in the vegetationcover, which in turn express the form andnature of the underlying archaeologicalfeatures, both local conditions and climateare very important. Often the number ofdays per year that the differences can bephotographed is very limited, whilst crucialareas may never have a satisfactory vegeta-tion cover.
Finally, partly because of the above limi-tation s, aerial photograph yis both a long-termand an expensive operation. Thus for anyone particular site, unless a suitable aerialphotograph happens to exist, other surveymethods are likely to be of greater imme-diate use. In addition to these practicaldifficulties over time and opportunity, aerialphotography will also be of use mainly onlyfor relatively, shallow and uncomplicatedsites.
Aerial photography can also be of use evenin areas where no surface traces occur, ingiving a general idea of the nature of theregion, especially when coupled withtopographical and geological information.Thus, for example, it may be possible todelimit those areas where alluvial depositsmay cover buried settlements. On the otherhand, a general aerial survey of an even larger
Prospecting methods in archaeology
area may well give decisive clues to morelimited problems. Thus the overall patternof traces of ancient roads and water suppliesmight well help towards locating archaeo-logical sites, even though no indicationsoccur of the sites themselves. In Fig. 6 twomethods are given for aerial photography;overall cover and low level photography.In regions where relatively little fieldarchaeology has been undertaken; much canbe learnt from an overall photographiccover. Such cover will, however, probablybe on a fairly small scale, so that details ofthe sites may not be at all clear. Also thetime of day and period of the year will notbe suitable for all types of possible markings.Experience has shown that much additionalinformation, including many new discover-ies, can be gained from special flights undera series of different climatic conditions. Onsuch flights, individual sites can be searchedfor and, when found, photographed froma relatively low level. Both vertical andoblique photographs are of value. It is suchwork, although of very great value, that canmake aerial photography a specialized andexpensive operation.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Prospecting methods forming the secondmain group necessitate some disturbance ofthe deposits. Normally this disturbance ismade in order to obtain samples from thedeposits; hence the title 'sampling tech-niques'. For completeness, two other pos-sible methods are included which alsoinvolve disturbance, but do not actuallyproduce any samples.
Before continuing, it is wise to considerthe size of the disturbance caused. For, tosuggest the use of a method such as drillingfor samples, is liable to meet with violent,even if somewhat illogical, response fromsome archaeological circles. Normally themaximum size of a drill hole will be aboutto cm in diameter giving a cross sectionalarea of about 8o cm'. For convenience, he
78
8x
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
zone of disturbance can be taken as loo cm2.Next, even if drilling was undertaken on agrid with only to metres between drill holes,a very close spacing indeed, this means adisturbance of too cmi every too m2(r,000,000 cm2). That is, the disturbancerepresents only one hundredth oft per centof the whole area, or t part in to,000. Thiscan be compared with the use of test exca-vation, a normal archaeological practice.Here small test pits are dug across the area,often fairly rapidly and without the possibil-ity of such accurate control as for largerexcavations. Some damage is thus un-advoidable. The smallest size for such a testpit is about t metre square. Then test pitsevery to m represent a removal oft m2 inevery too m2, that is t per cent of the wholearea, or t part in too. One is thus faced withone hundred times the disturbance, oftento gain almost the same amount of informa-tion.
The simplest methods within the generalgroup of 'sampling techniques' are, as men-tioned above, those that do not give anysamples. Firstly, there is the use of probing;by this is meant the testing of soil depthsby using a pointed rod, normally of steel.Such work is limited to relatively shallowdeposits of a predominately earthy character.Where the deposit is more variable, espe-cially where fragments of stone or rockoccur, simple drilling can give equivalentresults.
The disadvantages of both these methodsare obvious; not only is there the disturbance,but also the results are likely to be highlysubjective, even when taken on a regulargrid system. Thus, in general, they are notof any real use in prospecting and cannotbe recommended. Under special circum-stances they may be of use, for example asin the drilling of Etruscan chamber tombs asdeveloped by the Lerici Foundation. It mustbe stressed however that in this case, thedrilling does not form part of the prospect-ing methods as such, but rather is a way of
8z helping the investigation of known features
found by other methods. The value of thedrilling is in fact in avoiding further disturb-ance within the tombs, whilst at the sametime forming part of a more efficient overalloperation.
The methods that produce samples are ofgreater possible application. Simple coresampling, where a cylinder of deposit isremoved, can normally only be used forfairly uniform earthy deposits. This canhowever be of value in many sedimentarysituations where the archaeological depositof interest may consist of only a thin horizonof material. Where the deposits are morevaried, certain types of drilling equipmentcan be of use, as long as the material re-moved is not greatly broken up by the drill-ing process. In particular, it would be ofinterest not only to discover the roughnature and depth of the deposits, but alsoto recover small fragments of archaeo-logical artifacts, specially pottery sherds. Thisis possible with modern specialized drillingequipment.
Fig. 7 shows a diagram illustrating sucha system. The drill unit is mounted on asmall truck or jeep and is powered by themotor of the vehicle. Circulating waterunder pressure is used to help liberate thesoil deposits and thus minimise the damagefrom the drill head. The water also bringsthe liberated material to the surface thusallowing an idea to be gained of the differentdeposits encountered. Normally the frag-ments of archaeological material are ofsufficient size to enable identification anddating. In practice, unless a water supply isavailable very close to the drilling point, asubsidiary water truck will also be necessary.
The final methods are pollen analysis andthe group of geochemical methods, ofwhich phosphate analysis is the most impor-tant. These rely on the further laboratoryinvestigation of soil samples, and are thuslikely to be both more complex, and morelaborious, than the other methods. In prac-tice, although interesting results can beobtained, it would seem that the effort
79
IMMI1111111111111
Prospecting methods in archaeology
Fig. 7.Diagram showing typical drilling equipmentmounted on a truck. Circulating water,under pressure enables the archaeologicalmaterial to be brought to the surface.
. . ".
. .
. . . . . .
.. .
*a" etfiekmo:VA7R3.4.46._..0,..
Ykfe 2ISKR::;at°.g .4NefVt.. .5
.: :
80
83
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
involved normally renders them less suitablefor routine prospecting. However, underspecial circumstances, and in connexionwith accurate excavation, they can be ofgreat value.
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
The third, and final group of prospectingmethod's are those of geophysical surveying.They all use the same basic approach, whichis the measurement of a physical propertyat points along, or above, the modernground surface. Then it is hoped that theway these measurements vary allow aninterpretation to be made as to the possiblepresence, and even the nature, of the buriedarchaeological features. For this to be pos-sible, meaningful contrasts must occurbetween the physical characteristics of thedifferent elements of the archaeologicaldeposits. This condition is fundamental tothe application of geopi .ical methods.
Luckily in many cubes such contrastsexist, due either to the presence of man-made materials of from the juxtaposition ofdifferent natural substances. For example,brick-built walling buried in earth depositsor a pit cut out from the rock and filled withearth can both give marked physical con-trasts. However, it is always possible thatwhilst a difference can occur in one set ofphysical properties, a corresponding differ-ence may not occur in other properties. Thusany one geophysical method will not be ofuniversal application.
The main methods of geophysical sur-veying have been shown in Fig. 6. It willbe seen that they have been sub-dividedinto two groups; 'active' and 'passive'methods. These terms are perhaps not verysuitable, but they do serve to distinguishtwo different approaches. In the first, the`active' methods, a disturbance is introducedinto the ground, and the effect produced ismeasured, whilst, in the second case, thepassive methods involve a direct measure-
84 merit of existing physical values. It is thus
to be expected that the first type of methodcan be more flexible, but will also probablybe more complicated to use than the second.
Of the various methods, at present onlytwo can be considered as being of real usein archaeological surveying; these aremagnetic and electrical surveying. It ishoped, however, that some, at least, of theother methods will ultimately be of value.
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY SURVEYING
The first geophysical method to be adaptedto archaeology was that of resistivity sur-veying. Variations in the electrical resistanceat the ground are found by applying aknown voltage across the region of interestand measuring the current flow produced.A direct measurement between two pointsis, however, not possible, as both contacteffects at the points of current entry and theinterference of natural earth currents cancause large errors. To overcome thesedifficulties the normal system used is shownin Fig. 8(a). Four contacts are placed in astraight line, a resistance value can then beobtained from the current flowing betweenthe outer contacts AA' and the voltage dropproduced across the inner pair BB'. Thissystem, although removing the contactdifficulties, results in complicated relation-ships between the measured resistance andthat of the ground. The situation is slightlyless complex if a symmetrical system is used,as shown. This leaves two possible variables,the distances 'a' and 'b'. For archaeologicalwork, these distances must be kept fairlyshort in order to concentrate current flowinto the near surface region; practical valuesfor 'a' and 'b' normally fall in the range offrom I tO 5 m.
A buried archaeological feature, as at Fin the figure, can be searched for by ob-serving variations in the measured resist-ance values at various points along thesurface of the ground. It is generally moreconvenient to take lines or readings, inwhich case an equi-spaced array, a = 3b has
81
some advantage in allowing a succession ofreadings to be made with the minimummovement of the contacts. Against thisenhanced convenience of operation, theinterpretation of the results from otherspacing systems is often simpler. A practicaldifficulty of some significance can arise fromthe size of the spacings used, in that spacingerrors become important, and, to a lesserextent, so do the depths of insertion of thecontacts.
A factor of great imporinnct in archaeo-Iegical work is the depenclece of measuredresistance values on moisture distribution.Even quite small quantities of moisture inunconsolidated deposits will greatly reducetheir apparent resistivity. Sample values inohm-cm are: limestone rock, 5 Jo', dry soil2.1o3, wet soil (zo per cent moisture) 5o,and salt water 5. Thus local conditionsaffecting the groundwater distribution willbe of great moment. Other possible sourcesof variation in the resistance readings, apartfrom archaeological features, will be geo-
181 41--'''' /
_.. -..".- '". /,071/ I%V
4
a
Prospecting methods in archaeology
logical features, surface contour variations,and climatic conditions, especially seasonalvariations.
In addition to the basic system givenabove, several other electrical methods havebeen used in commercial geophysics, suchas the plotting of equipotential lines be-tween fixed arrays of contacts. Also, electro-magnetic methods using variable frequencyalternating current sources have found someuse; here both the resistivity and the equi-valent inductance of the deposits are ofimportance. These other meth,ds have notas yet received much application in archaeo-logy, and many are unlikely to be of verygreat use for the problems of the size andcomplexity likely to be encountered. Electro-magnetic methods in particular, however,would seem to offer some hope of avoidingthe difficulties and time involved in thesimple four contact method, although theinterpretation of the results may well besomewhat more difficult.
Fig. 8.The two main methods of geophysicalprospecting: (a) electrical resistivity and(b) magnetic.
Porti
85
Carlo M. Lend and Richard E. Linington
METAL DETECTOR
Electro-magnetic methods have anotherapplication in forming the basis of mostmetal detectors. Until recently these seemedto be of little practical application in archaeo-logy in that they are limited to very shortdistances. However improved measurementtechniques have been developed whichshould enable more suitable instruments tobe made. Such equipment would seem to bemost useful in connexion with certainproblems during excavation; they could alsooften be of use in disturbed areas for clearingthe ground of superficial iron scrap priorto a magnetic survey.
MAGNETIC SURVEYING
A method that has proved to be of evengreater value in archaeology than that of theresisting system is that of magnetic sur-veying. As the cu...rasts in magneticsusceptibilities normally fotu.2. :Ire extremelysmall, it has only been with the developmentof new instruments, especially the protonresonance magnetometer, that any usefulwork could be attempted.
The method of survey consists of makingmagnetic measurements across the area tobe surveyed; as the detection device onlyrecords the total magnetic field at a point,it does not have to make physical contactwith the ground being surveyed. In practiceit is convenient to mount the detector on arod so that it is always at a fixed heightabove the ground surface, namely as inFig. 8(b). The only possible variable, apartfrom horizontal movement, is thus in thedetector height D.
Apart from its value in locating kilns,furnaces and other features exhibiting reman-ent magnetism as a result of heating, themagnetic method of survey is of applicationon a wide range of archaeological sites. Thisis because the magnetic susceptibility ofhumus and of soils associated with occupa-
86 tion debris is generally markedly higher than
that of other deposits. Direct location of thedeposits of greatest potential archaeologicalinterest is thus often possible. As with theresistivity method, however, serious prac-tical difficulties can occur. In particular, theinterference from objects of metallic ironand from sources of varying magnetic field,such as electric cables, can be very large.Magnetic surveying has, however, the greatadvantage over resistivity in that measure-ment at a point gives much more flexibilityof operation as well as being considerablyfaster.
OTHER GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Other possible geophysical methods includethose of seismic and gravity surveying.Unfortunately, the special difficulties en-countered make these methods much lesssuitable for archaeological sites. Althoughsome experimental work has been carriedout, at present neither method can be saidto be of any practical use in archaeology.However, there is always the possibilitythat in the future further research will changethe situation.
AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
For any practical surveying campaign it isquite probable that some auxiliary equip-ment will be necessary. Apart from thequestion of transport and other generalservices, as have been mentioned previouslyin connexion with the organization of aprospecting campaign, other more special-ized equipment may be necessary. Whilstmuch will depend on the individual circum-stances, in general the auxiliary equipmentcan be subdivided as below:(i) measuring equipment for laying out
the necessary lines or grids for drillingor geophysical prospecting;
(ii) special equipment for certain definiteproblems, such as :
the drilling equipment for controllingthe nature of the anomalies,
8u`)
the periscope for the inspection ofunderground cavities, as, for in-stance, chamber tombs,the photographic probe for taking pic-tures in the cavities in order to deter-mine their nature and condition;
(iii) a certain minimum of equipmentnecessary for the checking and fieldservicing of the geophysical equipment.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DIFFERENTPROSPECTING METHODS AND GENERAL
CONCLUSIONS ON THEIR USE
Fig. 9 attempts, in tabular form, to summa-rize and compare the various prospectingmethods. In addition, several general con-clusions seem worth stressing.I. For the general search of large areas (of
the order of several square kilometres)aerial photography and certain samplingmethods seem to be most suitable.For more detailed work (several hectares)aerial photography or geophysical pros-pecting are liable to e preferable.ln casesof emergency, namely where some infor-mation is required quickly, then onlysampling and geophysical methods cangive immediate results. Of course, in allcases, all other evidence should be takeninto consideration, including historicalsources, past records of discovery,archaeological remains or material stillvisible on the modern surface, etc.
a. Most prospecting methods require afairly high degree of specialized know-ledge, personnel and equipment. This isespecially true of aerial photography andgeophysical methods. Thus a fairly com-plex organization will normally benecessary. In particular, a special note ofwarning should be given over the pos-sible use of geophysical methods. It isnot enough just to purchase the equip-ment in the hope that non-specialists willbe able to obtain useful results; what isreally required is a specialist full-timegroup free to deai only with the problems
Prospecting methods in archaeology
of prospecting. If this is not possible,then it is much better to start by applyingfor help to an existing centre rather thanrisk wasting time and expense.
3. Prospecting methods are likely to be mostsuccessful on the simpler types ofarchaeological site. Here they can offermany advantages, especially in givinginformation much more quickly than bymore conventional methods. Thus, it isin such cases they should be applied,rather than to the very difficult problemsoften suggested.
4. Whilst organizations exist in most coun-tries for air photography, often as anofficial adjunct to the normal archaeolog-ical services, the situation for geophysi-cal prospecting is markedly different.The recent date of much of the work,together with the specialized nature ofthe subject, when added to practicaldifficulties, often of a bureaucratic orfinancial nature, have all tended to limitthe practical application of the methods.Indeed, the biggest single shortcomingof the present situation is the lack oforganizations capable of applying themethods. Probably the most importantgeneral conclusion is that there is a real,and even urgent, need for official helpin setting up centres for the applicationof the methods. Whilst more experimen-tal work is still necessary, the methodshave already proved their worth inarchaeology. However, they cannot andwill not be of any real value unless themeans exist to apply them. One wouldthus like to take the opportunity offeredby this important handbook, of stressingonce again the need for official action,both through the existing centres men-tioned below and through new organi-zations whose creation is demanded bythe development of the subjcct.
8 4LI
87
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. I.inington
Fig. 9.A comparison bctv:ccn the dilicrcntprospecting methods. Method
Air photography Surface surveys
overall cover low levelphotography
Principalapplications
discovery ofsew sites
details ofsites
discovery and Qualitativeideas on sites
TIP ofInformationobtained
photographs of crop orsoil mertitss
distribution of materialor of crop or soil.arks
Archaeologicalconclusions
existence, nature andplan of sites
exiitence sad roughidea of nature of sites
Difficulties dependent on soil useand time of year
morally toosubjeit've
Lialtations fairly shallow sites vainly shallow siteson arable land
Interpretationof results
relatively staple-
difficult as resultsnormally inconclusive
Cost ofequipment
relatively high none
Cost of use high low
Speed individual work fast butonly as pert of Ionsterm work
relatively fast
"Asturbancoto deposits
non. cons
RESEARCH CENTRES FOR GEOPHYSICALPROSPECrING
As mentioned above, the centres active inthe field of geophysical prospecting are sofew in number that it is worthwhile listingthem. Almost all t. serious tork has beendone in Europe, where the main centres arc:
Fondazione C. M. Lerici, Roma, Italy(address: Via Vcncto xo8, Roma). Activein all aspects of ground prospectingmethods, and the only centre to undertakeregular prospecting campaigns on a largescale.Laboratory for Archaeology, Oxford
88 University, Oxford, England (address:
6 Keble Road, Oxford). A research labo-ratory which also concerns itself withprospecting problems.Research Laboratory for Field Archaeo-logy, Rheinisches Landesmuseum,German Federal Republic, Bonn, (ad-dress: Colmanstrasse 16, Bonn). Mainly,of necessity, limited to problems withinthe Rhineland. However, its work has awider general interest.
Other work has been accomplished inFrance, the United Kingdom and in Poland.However, so far this has tended to representindividual activity rather than that of moreorganized centres. Outside of Europe, soma;work has also been done in the United
85
Prospecting methods in archacology
dasplinj techniques Geophysical methods
cots samples
_
drilling analysis magnetic electrical others
discovery of nee sitesrapid checking of areas
investigation ofknown sites
investigation of known sites
core of materialfrom thedeposits
objects andoverall natureof deposits
variations In chemicalor botanical substances
variations In geophysical measurements
existence and type of sites additional Informationon nature of sites
nature and plan of sites
limited to earth-type depositscollection ad classificationof samples necessary
additional laboratoryfork necessary
liable tointerference
from modernSMUT!,
dependent tolarge degreeon moisturevariations
not of practicaluse at present
sample: give Information at single spirits only relatively shallow sites
direct evidence On type and nature of site fairly difficult
very low moderato tohigh
low (but laboratoryfacilities necessary)
moderate tohigh
fairly loutsmoderate
probablymoderate tohigh
low moderate moderate moderate moderate uncertain
moderate tofast
moderate to
fast
relatively slow moderate moderate tOslow
uncertain
IIslight disturbance tstcessary none none probably none
States, in particular at thc University Mu-seum, University of Pennsylvania, Phila-delphia.
PUBLICATIONS AND COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
At present the only general course of in-struction on prospecting methods is thatorganized by the Lerici Foundation and heldannually at the University of Romc. Thisaims to give a general introduction to allthe main methods, in terms suitable for bothspecialists and a general archaeologicalaudience.
As for the centres active in the field, thenumber of publications dealing with ground
prospecting techniques is somewhat limited.Three publications of a periodical natureexist. These are:
Archaeometg, published by the ResearchLaboratory for Archaeology, Oxford Uni-versity. This deals with both general re-scarch problems and prospecting methods.Normally it is an annual publication, 7 vo-lumes having been issued up to mid-x966.Prospetioni Archeolosithe, published bythe Fondazionc Lerici. A new publication,the first number of which was issued in1966. It aims to concentrate on all thediverse aspects of prospecting. An aver-age of from one to two numbers a yearare planned.
86
89
Carlo M. Lend and Richard E. Linington
90
Fig. zo.Magnetic survey of a ring ditch atStanton Harcourt, England.
m
87
Archaeo-physika, published by the Rhei-nisches Landesmuseum, Bonn. A semi-periodical publication, including articleson prospecting methods. Volumes are tobe issued as appears convenient. So farone volume has been published (1965).
As far as other works are concerned, aselect bibliography is given below.
AITKEN, M. J. Physics and archaeology,London Interscience Press, 1961.
Prospecting methods in archaeology
FONDAZIONE C. M. LERICI. Various publi-cations both on general aspects and onparticular prospecting campaigns.LERICI, C. M. Alla scoperta delle CiviltaSepo lie, Milano, Lerici Editore, 196o.LINING-row, R. E. (American Scientist,vol. sz, no. 1, March 1963) reprinted inthe Bobbs-Merrill series of the SocialSciences.
APPENDIX
EXAMPLES OF GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING
Air photography has now become a wellestablisned method in archaeological pros-pectin and nearly everyone has an idea ofthe type of results that can be obtained.However to ;s is still not true in the case ofthe geophysical methods of prospecting.It !;as thus been thought worthwhile includ-ing this short appendix, which gives a fewexamples of practical surveys, in the hopethat these may neip show both somethingof the nature of the methods and their pos-sible use.
t. Stanton Harcourt, England
Fig. to shows the results of a small magneticsurvey on a Bronze Age ring ditch. Thearchaeological feature of interest consistedof a shallow ditch cut down into the naturalgravel and filled with mixed gravel andloamy earth deposits. The higher magneticsuss tibiiities of the earth compared tothe gravel resulted in the ditch giving amarked magnetic anomaly as shown by thegraph in the lower part of the figure. Anarea survey enabled the exact position of the
ring ditch to be found; as shown by thecontour diagram in the upper part of thefigure. This example shows how the methodscan be of great use on the simpler types ofarchaeological site, especially those whereditch systems occur, such as some types ofhabitation, fortified enclosures, etc.
2. ....:ybarir, Italy
Another fairly simple example is shown "nFigs. II and 12. Fig. It gives a samplemagnetic profile across a hurled stone wall.The presence of the wail causes a magneticanomaly because of the contrast betweenthe stone of the wail and the more magneticearth deposits on either side. That is thereverse effect to that of the first example. Asthe wall was both massive in size and formeda single isolated feature, it gave a particularlylarge and clear anomaly. It was thus possibleto follow the wall fairly easily by means ofa series of transverse lines, some of whichare shown in Fig. 12; for each line, themagnetic anomalies are shown in black. Itcan be seen that the course of the wall, 91
Carlo M. Lerici and Richard E. Linington
Fig. t i.Magnetic ancttat.y for a isrgc buried wallat Sybaris, Italy.
Fig. tz.Plan of part of the survey
92 of the wall shown in Fig. I.
Prospecting methods in archaeology
Fig. 1;.Plan of the archaeological zone at Bo Ionia,Spain, showing the areas surveyed.
Fig. 14.Sample graphs of the electrical resistivityvariations from zone B at Bolonia.
20
101
oo
10
0
./----.1\'..\\--**--"^%.
83
10 20
-----..-------.---11\ ''''\'`,...^-""--***-0
0 ty0
10 20
30
20.
10
00
50
40
30
20
10
30 40
B7
30 40
8 24
0
10 20
871
0 10 20 30
i
Carlo M. Leda and Richard E. Linington
836
81
8 3582
B3
84
4
B 19 B 17 B 21
B20Alb
B 18135"
38
B7
B8
B9
B1
61
6 22 a1111.1
8 23 RUB 12 umuia 24 alialla INB 13 mainU
.," Cl Cl N all g
NM
I
814 to 03 03 03 03 CO C3 03 to
B15
816
631
0 5 10 mlfull mil
shown dashed in the figure, is quite clearover most of its length and can easily bedistinguished from the other anomalies,which are probably due to other archaeo-logical features in the adjacent areas. Whilstthe present example concerns that of a wall,similar results could be obtained for manyother types of linear archaeological feature.
3. Bolonia, Spain
Figs. 13 to 16 show the results of an electricalresistivity survey on the site of a Roman cityin southern Spain. The survey was under-taken in order to check on the nature andlimits of the archaeological zone in con-nexion with a project for the construction ofa tourist village on the site. Fig. 13 gives ageneral plan of the area showing the areassurveyed (shaded). It will be noted that afair amount of the city walls could still betraced from surface indications, even ifbadly damaged in places (shown in heavyline on the plan). In area B, no tracesoccurred and it was thought that possiblynothing remained in this area. However, aseries of electrical traverses revealed markedanomalies on the presumed line of the wall,as for example lines B3 and B7 in Fig. 14.Fig. 15 shows a plan of the surveyed trav-erses in area B with the electrical anomaliesadded, whilst Fig. 16 gives an interpretationof the results in terms of the presumedarchaeological features. It can be seen that
Fig. 15.
Plan of the surveyed lines in zone B, at Bolonia.
9-..1
the city wall could be traced throughout theuncertain area, whilst in addition, interestingdetails such as a tower and a probablegateway were also revealed. It was thuspossible to change the construction plans toavoid disturbing the buried archaeologicalfeatures.
4. Pyrgi (Santa Sava), Italy
The above three examples have all been ofrelatively simple cases which are typical ofmany archaeological sites. Clear resultswere obtained very quickly and without anydisturbance of the archaeological deposits.The last two examples show how informa-tion can often still be obtained even undermuch more complex conditions. Fig. 17shows a symbol diagram of the magneticsurvey undertaken at Pyrgi on the site of asmall Etruscan port. Previous excavations,in the rectangular area towards the top lefthand corner of the figure, had revealed alarge temple structure. It was thought thatthe adjacent area to the south of the templewas probably archaeologically sterile; how-ever, as a check, a geophysical survey wasundertaken. This revealed the complexpattern of results shown in the figure.Despite their complexity, it still seemedpossible to undertake an interpretation; thisis shown in Fig. 18. It should be stressedthat this interpretation was made directlyafter the geoph: sical work and before any
Fig. 16.Interpretation of the survey shown in Fig. 15.
Prospecting methods in archaeology
NM
T
0 5 10 Mif fit 111111
92
Carlo M. Laid and Richard E. Linington
-
:*. .:..:.'0. :::.-:::.:.:- . :..;..:
:_. f *'.`:*:0
. ,:°ono::.:* y:::...
0:*
. **.*
:**::::*.:0::::::::: : :*:
_ ::i:i.::...:'i.. :...:;::::* :.:
:. :
.".*::.:. ... .- _ _ .._ . . _
_. .
.4
It
-
0. 0. . o -- -7 -*-
-0 0:4-
x-
- . -
'' :............-. . +
- : : : -+ _- .-
.AB o
74.1 ; ..'
Fig. 17.Symbol diagram of a magnetic survey at Pyrgi
96 (Santa Soma), Italy.
0 10 20 30 m
Fig. 18.Interpretation of the results shownin Fig. 17.
9-)
further excavation had been undertaken.The most important feature forecast wasthat of a large structure, number i in thefigure, which seemed to be a further temple.Indeed, subsequent excavation proved thisto be the case, as shown by the plan ofFig. 19. An extra unexpected addition tothe general success of the survey work wasthat, in testing a further anomaly (feature 4)lying between the two temples, the exca-vators discovered the remains of a smallshrine in which were found three scrolls ofthin gold sheet covered with inscriptions inEtruscan and in Punic.
5. Cerveteri, Italy
The final example is that of a survey on theEtruscan necropolis of Cerveteri. Fig. 20gives a magnetic contour diagram of thesurvey results. Although very complex, thisdoes show various features. In the case ofchamber tombs, one would expect that thecontrast between the air space in the tombsand the fairly highly magnetic tufa rockwould cause marked anomalies associatedwith a decrease in the magnetic fieldintensity. A detailed study of the results,coupled with theoretical calculations of thetype and form of the anomalies to be ex-pected, showed that the results were prob-ably due to a series of rows of chambertombs, with the tombs in each row beingfairly close one to another. It can be seenfrom the plan of the tombs, given in Fig. 21,that the subsequent excavation proved thatthe interpretation was quite exact in thatfour rows of tombs were found. In fact, itwas possible to locate the majority of thetombs before any excavation took place.Although at-first sight the results may seemto be impossibly complex, even here itproved possible to discover 'information ofconsiderable value from the geophysicalsurvey. Thus there can still often be someuse for the methods even on fairly complexsites, although much will depend on theindividual circumstances.
Prospecting methods in archaeology
0 10 20m
Fig. 19.Sketch plan of the excavated features withinthe area shown in Fig. 17.
94
97
Carlo M. Leda and Richard E. Linington
',5:7,t,J.,:;,-,,,,,77q:_,....Tt,,,:-.7 ,,I,I,
,9-..4..,,-..,..,.>1)1 ,,_r,
,/ ,y7 f,,,,]- 0, , , ,,
" ,,,..r..
, i r:,.....: C ,
)1 '''' ,.'-----=:-__:// \-q, \s"----;,-",_
1"*/\:.,4 -I' if sp vv\-i4.0.)/Y:;-- Ty
,t*, Ki --- .-''''\:' 1-,1 ..1),-, , , , V
/v ,9 \-''-.,...lj '.7,.,'t,.),t ..) (31?//i.\/..,,.:// \ '''.;'''-: -::,, .''-''-'f.'.:1 / \*
( A \0_
0 2 4 6 11 10 m
0 2 4 6 8 10 m
Fig. zo.
Magnetic contour diagram of partof the necropolis of Curveted, Italy.
Fig. 21.Plan of the tombs found on excavating
98 the area shown in Fig. zo.
95
Brian J. Ford
The recovery, removal andreconstruction of skeletal remainssome new techniques
The great rate of post-war redevelopmenthas led to wholesale excavations for pur-pc, ,es of civil engineering, and rebuildinghas encouraged a growth in archaeologyto preserve and record a thorough accountof remains before they are permanentlydestroyed. The techniques of excavationand documentation that such sites requireare well known in many casts, yet in onerespect they are inadequate. This is in thefield of human remains, which, though theycan reveal considerable data of paramountimportance to the archaeologist and histo-rian, and even, occasionally, to the medico-legal expert, are often ineptly handled andanalysed, with the inevitable result thatsigns are destroyed, and so the final recordcannot be effectively completed. Museumcollections are often replete with fragmen-tary human skeletons, partly held togetherwith primitive glues or strips of adhesivepaper, or partly filled with massive unsightlyareas of brillant white plaster -of- paris. Manyof the techniques mentioned in the literatureare repeated without the benefit of newermethods, such as the use of polymerisingplastic materials, and others still advocateinefficient, untidy handling methodology.A recent account (Adams, 1966) describesthe delicate excision of vertebral fragmentsfrom a z,7oo-year-old mummy of Egyptianotigin: the subsequent restoration of theremains was carricd out by using plastcr-ol paris and paraffin wax. It is unfortunatethat such techniques are still used to supple-ment an otherwise delicate and precise pro-
gramme of analytical work. The techniquesoutlined here, some of which have beendcscribcd elsewhere (Ford, 1966), involvethe application of polyesters to this spe-cialized field; the plastics show themselvesto be of great applicability to this kind ofwork.
Utilizing these newer materials, it hasbeen possible to develop an entire schemeof general applicability to the discipline,which makes it possible to carry out anexcavation and analysis with a greateramount of assurance, that the maximumamount of information may be satisfactorilyderived. However, it is necessary to considerfirst what criteria any such scheme mustsatisfy. These criteria arc:1. That the remains, whether well or badly
preserved in the earth, must be amenableto handling through means advocatedin the scheme; the concepts must beof general, and not limited, applic-ability.
z. That the techniques dcscribcd mustbe uncomplicated, repeatable, and effec-tive; the use of toxic, volatile orunstable materials and liquids shouldbe excluded, and only a small numberof babic requirements should be invol-ved.
3. That the reconstruction work whichpermits the most thorough reassemblyof the remains must not impede sub-sequent analytical examination, nor mustthe procedures used distort the generalappearance of the remains.
96
6
99
Brian J. Ford
4. That the final reconstruction must be asthorough as possible and enable theremains to be restored as nearly as pos-sible to their original state.
We will now consider the handling ofthe remains through the various stages ofexcavation and reconstruction.
EXCAVAT:ON
No doubt any excavation will be part of arecorded site examination, and details ofexact location, depth and relative positionof associated objects (walls, ditches etc.)will be noted in the normal excavationreport. However, it is necessary to ensurethe proper annotation of these data, as theymay be of prime importance in interpretingthe remains, and it is easy for them to beoverlooked.
Skeletons of individuals interred casually(plague-pit burials, battle-field victims, en-tombment in alluvial or volcanic deposits)are usually supine and may show signs ofpost-mortem dislocation. Those of individualsburied according to rite vary considerably,and may be considered under the followingheadings:
1. Extended burial. The body is laid supine,with many different attitudes for thelimbs (there may be poor correspondencebetween skeletons even within a givengroup), possibly with a preferential'orientation (e.g. east/west), and often inassociation with tokens or weaponsburied at the same time.
z. Flexed burial. The remains are laid onone side, as though sleeping.
3. Contorted burials. Skeletons show atypicalattitudes, possibly due to casual inter-ment, or occasionally resulting fromritual crouching or (as in some Africansystems) the binding of the body in anattitude compatible with its presumed
too 'after-life'.
4. Fragmented burials. The remains may befound in the form of bodily fragments ina container, chamber or urn; or ascremated skeletons. Cremation may resultin the presence of many different signs;high temperatures lead to distortion ofthe charred bones, whereas a low tem-perature cremation, though instrumentalin causing heavy calcination of the bones,clay leave few traces of distortion.Cccasionally the remains may showperipheral charring coincident with trans-verse fracture in which the charring isseen in section. This is evidence that thebones were broken after cremation. It isalso necessary to find evidence of thepurpose of the cremation, which may beaccidental or ritual; even fragments ofcharred bone may be of use in radio-carbon dating.
Once an area of bone has been uncovered,a further judicious clearing of the area bycareful use of trowel and brush will allowthe orientation of the skeleton to be seen.By following articulations logically, theposition of the burial can be readily inferred.Settling of the surrounding earth may leadto dislocation and radical distortion in theposition; of limbs; the occurrence of lesserchanges, such as the sinking of the mandibledown towards the chest, is almost invariablewhen the remains are at all decomposed.Recent remains are subject to legislation insome countries, and it may be necessarybefore proceeding further to obtain theconsent of the authorities (United Kingdom,Home Office, 1964) in order to avoidstatutory penalties. The clearing of soilfrom the remains must be done with care.If the end of a partly-covered long-bone islifted before it is properly cleared, transversefracture will inevitably occur. It is especiallyimportant to make sure that the skull iscleared in lobo before it is removed from the
Plate II.A typical excavation of human remains(Photo: Thomson House, Cardiff).
97
I
A
4
ift
r
31*
a.Ilst.
,N
OP
1
plc
IO2
. ,
AIL
Plate 12.
Radiograph of remains reconstructed withpolymer; reconstructed areas (arrowed)clearly visible due to transparency ofpolyesters to X-rays.
99
t.'
- 1.'t 4* :1'
4
.1:-.31111111
Plate rj.Reconstruction of arca missing from skull:r. The damaged arca;2. Glass fibre cut to size is cemented with
drops of Cataloy blend (C);3. Cataloy blend (A) is roughly used to fill
the cavity;4. The arcs is first levelled with a sanding disc;f. Final smoothing is carried out with thc aid
of abrasive paper;S. The transparency of thc repair is shown
under X-rays (note a rotation of + 150of (6) relative to thc other photographsin this series).
100103
Plate 1.1.
Prosthetic replacement of missing coronoidand condyloid processes of mandible.
Plate I)
Vertebra with artificial arch.
Plate te.A reconstructed skull: areas of plasticindicated by dashes.
Plastic
104 x "
101
earth if breakage is to be avoided. However,in the case of softened or badly decomposedskeletons, it is advisable to remove thebones with surrounding soil en bloc for latercleansing in the laboratory. In the case- ofseparated bones, these may be gentlyrestored to their original positions duringthe excavation process, so that accuratemeasurements and photographs may betaken of the skeleton before removal takesplace. A typical excavation with which theauthor has been concerned is shown inPlate I I.
REMOVAL
Removal commences with the gentle sepa-ration of the bones from the substratum ofsoil. Not until the bones have been soseparated can lifting commence. The bonesof the hands and feet are lifted first, and areplaced in polyethylene bags with a smalllabel of identification; the bags are thensealed with staples or wire and packed withnewspaper packing into boxes.
Lifted next are the ribs, commencing withthe structures nearest the pectoral girdle.Where entire ribs can be removed, albeitpiece by piece, it is advisable to place themin individual plastic bags with annotatedlabels; in other cases is it possible to placemerely the right and left rib cage separatelyinto bags. It is obviously essential to insiston clear, unambiguous labelling of parts atthis stage. The labels should bear the fol-lowing information:
Excavation reference number, which willenable the exact location, date and particularsof the excavation to be located in the record;side of body (L or R); area represented.Thus the bones of the left foot from theskeleton shown in Plate 1 I were insertedinto a bag with a label reading:
`13VAG/z/L foot'
This form of annotation can be madewithin.a few seconds, yet it enables com-plete recovery of relevant details later.
Reconstruction of skeletal remains
The sternum is then removed, and isusually found in a collapsed and decayedstate. It should be placed in bags in theorder in which the fragments are lifted,numbered from proximal to distal, a con-vention used universally in the scheme.Thus the fragments of the skeleton inquestion were labelled:
`13VAG/z/stern. r' etc.
The mandible is then lifted, along withassociated teeth from the lower jaw. Asearch is made for the hyoid; often this ismost difficult to find, whether through decayor simply through inadequate searching.
The bones of the skull are then carefullyremoved. The facial structures particularlyare liable to fracture or even total disinte-gration during this process so great care isneeded. Only the heavier cranial structuresare lifted; attempts to lift the facial bones bythemselves are usually disastrous.
When the skeleton lies face-downwards, ithas been found that the most satisfactoryway of lifting facial structures is by removingthem complete with the mass of soil inwhich they lie; this will be dictated largelyby individual circumstances.
The long-bones of the legs are thenraised, followed by those of the arms. Theseare packed carefully in long bags; in well-preserved examples, the entire limbs froma 'skeleton may be lifted and transferredtogether to a box; the bony structures aresufficiently unambiguous for pooled storageof this kind to be applied to the long-bonesfrom an individual skeleton, though it isinadvisable to use the principle elsewhere.
The pectoral girdle is raised next, the twohalves being retained in separate containers;then the pelvis may be lifted, This is adifficult structure to lift in one piece, and itmay help to transfer the various segmentsof the girdle (for convenience they may beknown as 'left', 'right', and 'central', beingthe regions of the ilium/ischium/os pubismass, and the central vertebral arrangementof the coccyx respectively) separately.
102
105
Brian J. Ford
Finally the vertebral column can beraised and, in view of the ambiguity whichmay be incurred, it is best to place eachindividual vertebra in a separately annotatedbag (labelled C1-7, including the atlas andaxis as Cr and Cz respectively, Tr-rz, L1-5).
Cardboard packing cases are perhaps bestadapted to the task of removal. The remainsmay be packed in these with wood-straw ornewspaper, as necessary, to ensure stabilityduring transfer back to the laboratory. Amanual of skeletal structures, such as thehandbook written by D. R., Brothwell, canbe useful in interpreting remains; however,an anatomical text used in conjunction withextensive practical work is best, since athorough acquaintance with bones is neces-sary for efficient work; Gray's Anatomy ofthe Human Body or Gerard's Manuel d'Ana-tomie Humaine are examples of study ma-terial.
RECONSTRUCTION
Washing of bones frequently results indamage to them; the use of polyester ma-terials to strengthen them is advisable, andhas been found to be eminently practicable.`Cataloy' compound, supplied by MessrsHolts (Croydon, England), has been foundto be well adapted for this purpose. Woodendowel rods inserted in the lumen of long-bones have been advocated (Brothwell,1963), but this practice is unwise. Laterdrying of the bone, combined with relativemoistening (and therefore swelling) of thewooden rod merely leads to rupture of themedullary cavity :,nd splitting or disinte-gration of the bone. However if the lumenis gently cleared of soil (which may beretained for pollen analysis), the cavity maybe filled with a fairly thin paste of thepolyester material which, after setting,allows the cleansing of the outside of thebone to be completed with ease. It has beenpossible in the laboratory to undertake trialcomparisons of bones with and without this
ro6 kind of support and to demonstra.e con-
t'
clusively the benefit of such reinforcement.It is necessary to attempt washing smallfragments in order to ascertain theirstrength and resistance to the process; ifsuccessful, washing can then be completedwith warm (not hot) water containing nodetergent or soap: the latter are bothsuperfluous and may hinder later work. Atechnique of pressure-impregnating bonesof a brittle nature has been described (Purvesand Martin, 1950; Angel, /943) in which thematrix of the bone is permeated with a solu-tion of a plastic material such as Alvar;however, many such bones can be sparedthis kind of impregnation, which precludeslater analysis of the matrix region by micro-chemical tests, by the use of a core of thepolyester material. Cataloy paste, which issticky or viscous in form, contains both`filler' and 'hardener'. Cataloy powder,however, is also available. It is supplied witha liquid, and by varying their relative pro-portions, a whole range of consistencies,from a pourable liquid to a firm paste, maybe made as the occasion demands. The pro-portions of components which producenormally used consistencies are outlinedbelow; others may be found by interpola-tion.
Consistency of mixture
A stiff pasteB medium pasteC thin paste (may be
applied with brush)
Parts by volume of:
powder liquid
3I
3 4
The mixture (C) is suitable for reinforcinglong-bones as described; (B) is applied tofractured bones as an adhesive, and as suchis ideally adaptable for skull reconstruction.The opacity of the solidified polymer toX-rays is low, as is shown in Plate 12, andso the areas that are rebuilt are easily visibleon an X-ray plate. Utilizing glass fibresheets, it is possible to prepare prostheses
1 Di)00
with which to make good missing parts ofthe skeleton. This is a procedure outlinedin Plate z3; the glass fibre mat is used toocclude the damaged area, and the applica-tion of a paste made to the specifications of(B) above enables the area to be rebuilt. Thefinal contour is restored using progressivelyfiner grades of abrasive paper; even delicateand badly preserved skulls are amenable torepair in this way, the plastic, indeed, greatlyincreasing the structural integrity of thereconstructed bone. Cylinders of glass fibre,prepared with blend (C) above, may befilled with paste (B) and united to bonyfragments with the stiff paste (A) in orderto replace missing elements: Plate 14 showsa successful repair of a jaw articulation bythis method. It is also possible to constructan artificial vertebral arch (Plate rf) toease rebuilding of the final skeleton.
The advantages of the technique are asfollows:(a) The bones, even if in a damaged or
fragmentary state, can be speedily andaccurately repaired with a repeatablemethod;The maximum amount of informationcan be gained from the reconstructionfor, even if, for example, sutures areobscured, the hidden detail is revealedsimply by X-ray examination, thoughit is naturally advisable to ensure thatsuch detail is not obscured in the re-construction procedure;
(c) Only two components and the mini-mum of apparatus is needed; the tech-nique can be used in the field;
(b)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Reconstruction of skeletal remains
The repair is permanent, and addsconsiderably to the strength of thereconstruction;The artificially-introduced areas areclearly visible because they differ incolour frohi the native bone, thoughthe tone of the plastic blends pleasinglyand unobtrusively with the bony struc-tures themselves (Plate z6); the re-mains are thus ideally adapted for laterexhibition.Bones for radio-carbon or palaeosero-logical analysis may be excised fromthe skeleton since the bone is notmaterially altered during reconstruc-tion.
SUMMARY
Skeletons must be carefully exposed, thebones cleared of all obstruction beforelifting, and the remains, when packed, se-curely labelled and separated. Washing anddrying must be carried out with great careand after trials of method. Polymerisingmaterials, such as palester paste, have beenshown to provide a great deal of reinforce-ment for damaged bones during cleaning.Finally, the use of these plastics enables athoroughly reliable and permanent repairof the skeleton to be achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am indebted to Mr. G. Hinde for hisco-operation at a radiological examinationcarried out at the Royal Infirmary, Cardiff.
104
107
Armralami
Brian J. Ford
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADAMS, C. V. A. 1966. Surgery on Shcpcnmut,Medical News, London, 195 (c); 3.
ANGEL J. L. 1943. The treatment of archaeo-logical skulls, Anthropological Briefs, (3) 3,New York.
BROTHWELL, D. R. 1963. Digging up bones. Lon-don, British Museum.
Folio, B. J. 1966. Das Ausgrabcn and Restau-rieren mcnschlicher Skclettc, Der Praparator.Zeitschrift fur Museums-Terhnik, Bonn, vol. 12,no 4, Okt. 1966, pp. 1o6-1 to.
Folio, B. J. 1967. A 12th century murder. Med-ical News, London, 262, to.
,
zo8
FRAZER, J. E. 1958. (Ed. Braethnach A. S.)Anatomy of human skeleton, 5th ed. London,Churchill.
PuavEs, P. E.; MARTIN, R. S. I950. Somedevelopments in the use of plastics in museumtechnology. Museums Journal, London, vol. 49,no. 293.
StalpsoN, K. 1954. Forensic Medicine, 5th ed.London, Arnold.
UNITED KINGDOM. HOME OFFICE. 1964. Licenceto remove human remains issued to theauthor, Burial Act of 1857, section 25.
4 f N_k:i_Iti
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbach
Hints for ethnographers
INTRODUCTION
This chapter could not cover all the disci-plines that ethnology embraces and will dealonly with ethnography proper i.c. therational search for objects, and the necessarydocumentation on their identification andorigin. A region or a human group cannotbe ethnologically studied in a few weeks.A survey, to be comprehensive, if notexhaustive, demands several visits; the areamust be seen and lived in at all seasons andin all its extremes of cold, heat, damp,drought. The actual collecting of objectstakes less time; if scientifically done, itprovides tae ethnologist with valuableinformation, necessarily revealing humandata, especially about techniques, which hehas not always had the time or opportunityto study in the field. The idea that only thebeautiful or unusual is worth bringing backto the museum is out of date; the 'humbletoil of these anonymous groups that go tomake up societies' (Levi-Strauss) often pro-duces objects that are just as interesting asthe unusual, or perhaps even more so.
Thirty years ago, a museum could stillacquire a mask, a drum, a pendant, a vessel,and know only its geographical origin. Now,probably only the amateur collector willbuy if the identity is doubtful or unknown.
Whether the items be modest or out-standing, crude or perfect, lay or religious,an ethnographic collection is primarily aworking instrument, a document in the t..wfor investigation during the study.
A feature of our own times is the extra-ordinary mixing of populations, contactsbetween civilizations which penetrate anddestroy one another to rebuild anew, andthe ethnographic object very quickly be-comes a museum piece or a document forthe archives, because the community, per-haps, did not come to know writing earlyenough, or simply rejects what belonged toits forbears.
In the present overthrow of traditionswhich most peoples prefer to ignore, rejectdisdainfully or are sometimes even ashamedof, the ethnographic object loses its normalsignificance as its power of evocationincreases.
Up until the bcginning of the twentiethcentury, pcoplc in many parts of Europe,in Alpine areas for example, lived by cen-turies-old traditions that the 1914-18 warsuddenly upset. Improved roads and theopening up of valleys brought new ideas ofcomfort and new beliefs; new techniquesand ideas often led pcoplc, somewhatungratefully, to a total rejection of the past.Here and there, fortunately, there werecollectors who saved, if not all at least apart of the old heritage, who collectedeveryday objects and implements andrecorded old beliefs and legends. Theobjects, luckily, are now in museums. Butnot all have been saved. Thousands of therelics of science disappeared, bought up bydealers Interested only in making money, orsimply destroyed. The Bethmale Valley inthe Pyrenees offers one of many examples of
U
109
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbach
a lifc that has been completely transformcd.In forty years of patient rcscarch Mr.Jacqucs Bcgoucn has collected much ofthc remaining cvidcncc of the culturc of apeople `isolated by thc vcry formation ofthese high vallcys, lacking all means ofcommunication ... developing as a self-sufficient unit, making everything by itself,for itself; a purc creativity, artisticallyevolved from its own vcry distinctivc imagi-nation. Having nothing to imitate, itsimaginative reactions continued to be en-tirely creative, and this it is that makcs themsublime'?
Vandals, they arc alas everywhere, makeforays into thc most rcmote villages andsell their plundcr on every market. In 196$,African dealers arrivcd at thc GenevaMuseum and showed us masks from Mali,coolly informing us that they were forwearing on 14 July ...
Vandalism can ncvcr be condemnedfiercely enough. By giving an unletteredpcoplc who know nothing of machines therudimcnts of hygiene, litcracy and mechan-ics, we obtain no right thereby to despise,plundcr and dcspoil thcm. I havc particu-larly in mind an Australian example. Thechttringa2 plays a very important part in thclifc of thc aboriginal, rcprcscnting the placcwhere his spirit, even- his totcmic anccstor,dwells; hcncc its sacrcd valuc to him, hisgreat care of it, the strength he derives fromit and his ingenious hiding-places for it. Yctvandals, regardless of thc disastrous conse-quences of thcir crimc, havc managcd todiscovcr these hiding-placcs and steal thcirsacrcd contcnts. Some district-officers nowkeep these churingas locked up in thciroffices out of thc reach of criminals but atthe disposal of thcir owners who havc placedthc objects in their care and who, from timeto time, come to meditate before the chu-ringar, brought out from the official safesfor thc occasion.
Museums arc increasing in number, andpride of placc should be taken by ethnogra-
x ro phy museums, for they are the reflection of
civilizations, whether or not technicallyadvanced. `Modern industrial and cconomicdevelopment, although its benefits cannotbc denied, must nevertheless endanger thcnatural and cultural hcritagc indispcnsableto thc equilibrium and happincss of man-kind'?
The ethnography muscum, contributingto thc knowledge and thc rcciprocal know-lcdge of pcoplcs, is thc repository of thisheritage, a tangible invcntory of immenseimportance. While there is still time, suchmuseums should bc sct up everywhere.Evcry government should want to prescrvcthc full picture of its land, the manners andcustoms, thc old crafts and ancicnt bclicfs.The ethnography muscum will alonc pro-vidc subsequently a mcasurc of changcsince the advent of new techniques andidcas, allow the changcs and experiments tobc evaluated and thc profit and loss accountto be drawn up.
Thosc who had thc good fortune to traveland bring back evidcncc from all over theworld of the ways in which people livc anddeposit it in ethnography museums, havepermancntly guaranteed this matcrial againstdcstruction. They have been. the pioneers.Unfortunately, they oftcn forgot aboutdocumcntation, with the result that somc-timcs wholc scctions of muscums rescmblecollcctions of bric-a-brac.
Museum records contain description likethis: `Primitive wcapon, brought back byMr. X.' If thc item is interesting, it mayrepay research. Who was this Mr. X? Per-haps his descendants can be traced. Andthen it is discovcrcd that he was ne,erabroad, probably found the stone axedescribed as a primitive weapon during anouting to a lake or at the bottom of hisgarden, and that it is ncolithic l We often
('''lA 0 i
1. Jacques Begouen: 'La Vallee de Bethmalc,Ariege, Pyrenees', Bulletin de la Sou I le Arilgeoisedes Sciences, Lettres et Arts, Vol. 21, 1965.
z. Stone amulet of the Arunta tribe.3. ICOM News, Feb. 1966, p. 3o.
have to publish descriptions of items withoutpedigrees in the specialized journals, on theoff-chance that some expert may be able toidentify them. It would be a great advantageto have a more wietly circulated-version ofthe famous Intermieliaire des Chertheurs et desCurieuxl to centralize such research, causeof so much worry to directors of ethno-graphy museums, and so eliminate thepractice, usually unsatisfactory in any cast,of sending photographs to museums and tooverworked specialists. Publication aftersuccessful identification would help mu-seums to a better understanding of peopleswhose mentality is a complex and many-sided puzzle that has been the object ofmuch scrutiny; and to little avail.
MELD RESEARCH
Field research does not always lend itself tostandardization. As Marcel Griaulc rightlysays '`a search, even if methodical, mustpermit a thousand variations that cannotbe codified'. Alfred Metraux goes evenfurther, :Arming that 'a taste for the formulaand for classifying is one of the worst dan-gers to the new science of man'. But wemust get rid of the empiricism, source ofthe vandalism mentioned above. Museumcollections must be built up by methodicalprospecting on the basis of precise questions,not by the random local forays of irrespon-sible people with no idea of ethnography.
Anyone who has not worked in ancthnography museum should have a goodknowledge of the human sciences beforeundertaking field work. This, obviously, isnot always possible. If it were, these recom-mendations would be pointless, since theyare primarily intended for people who haveno special training but who are neverthelessreally interested in human life and have aneye for the significant detail that leads toan authentic object; they must also be bothpersevering and tactful, for the ethnographercan easily make himself 'absurd and evendetestable' (Marcel Griaule).
I lints for ethnographers
Indiscretion is always round the corner.Anyone preparing an ethnological expedi-tion would do well to consult Griaule'sMithode de l'Etbnographie,2 or Notes andQueries on Anthropology'
A distinction must at once be made be-tween the field collector and the expert. Thefirst skims the surface; the second works indepth, but can do so only if the collectorfirst provides the raw material, chosen withknowledge and care.
The many young people who today areinterested in going exploring should readFrancois Balsan's latest book (Les E:cplora-tars, Paris, 1966) and Sturtevant's Guide toField Collecting of Ethnographic Collections.4Most lose this first enthusiasm. A fewremain (wc know some) who feel they havea vocation and an ideal. These are the oneswho will go out and are capable of bringingback real ethnographic documentation evenafter a very brief training, once they havea plan to follow. Only those 'who bringback something the first time and whopersevere' should be kept on (Balsan, op.cit. p. it).
Marcel Griaulc recommends two fieldmethods, intensive and extensive. They canboth be followed by the collector, but as hewill remain less time in the field than willthe ethnologist (who is, in addition, con-cerned with social structures and all thatderives from them: religion, law, techniques,history, institutions, and so on), theextensive method will suit him bcttcr.
On the job, he must have patience,waiting until he is known, liked, accepted
t. L'Interntldiaire des Cherebeurt et des Curieux,Mcnsuel de questions et reponses historiques,litteraircs, artistiques et sur toutcs autrcscuriositis, i6 rue Montpcnsicr, Paris-tor.
2. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1957.3. London, Routicdgc & Kcgan Paul, for the
Royal Anthropological Institute, 6th edition,1951.
4. Washington, Smithsonian Institution, Mu-scum of Natural History, 1967.
As pc..r. 00
III
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbach
I I Z
by the local people. On no account must herush things. The first weeks of gradualcontacts will also be useful in enabling himto get used to a different way of life, toacquire a feeling for the objects he is tobring back to his museum and so be ableto document them better. Markets andbazaars can be live museums in places likeFez, Cairo, Damascus and Aleppo, wherehe can not only sec what people come tobuy, but can actually see the craftsmen atwork and the objects being made.
Once I wished to bring back for our ownmuseum objects that can be found today ina home in Nepalpots, dishes, chests, binsfor food and grain, drinking vessels, andso on. I had noticed that it was often themen who I:Dught the pots and brass vessels.I went with a local to some Kathmandudealers, where we bought what I woulddescribe as a set of kitchen utensils. Myreputation, already dim because of thepurchase a few days earlier of a leaky pot,suffered still further; the story went roundthat the country I came from was so poorthat I had to go as far as Kathmandu tofind myself household goods!
There is nothing wrong with buying arepaired object, and it is an excellent ideato buy articles as they are actually beingmade if the opportunity is offered, so thatthe manufacturing techniques used can bestudied. Having several specimens of thesame object allows the museum to displaythe item under several guises (matter, form,technique, use, and so on) in different sec-tions. Moreover, one sample can be reservedfor an analysis of the materials and tech-niques: the alloy welding, hammering, turn-ing, moulding, sewing, and so on.
Ethnography encompasses so much thatit is impossible to tell the collector exactlywhat he should bring back. It would needa survey of the entire earth, with its ownglossary for each region and civilization(nomad, semi-nomad, pastoral, sedentary,agricultural, etc.); and a survey of all thecraftswhich will not necessarily be prac-
tised in the same way everywhere (theAirican smith certainly dots not use thesame methods or tools as the Asiannordoes the African weaver, the sculptor,tanner and s ) on). Clothing and ornamentsvary not only from continent to continentbut from tribe to tribe and according tooccasion (ceremonies, rites, mourning).Two books by A. Leroi-Gourhan (L'Hommeet la Matilre, 1943; Milieu et Terbniques, 1945)and Notes and Outfits (op. cit.) give plenty ofsketches of items worth collecting, andmany helpful comments.
In -the following pages we shall refer onlyto essentials. The collector's problems arealways complex; we can therefore onlyoffer suggestions, while trying neverthelessto pinpoint the problems as accurately aspossible.
The collector must at all costs concen-trate, not on the letter of the suggestionsbut on their spirit; keep his eyes and hisears wide open, be forever on the lookout,and try to adapt what is suggested here tohis chosen area with all the tact and intelli-gence of one who loves his fellow men andwants to preserve as faithful an image aspossible of a dying or changing civilizationand at the same time enrich his own mu-seum.
His harvest can be enhanced through thestudy and cart he devotes to illustrations byphotograph, sketch and drawing. Onreturning home, the objects should bebrought to life by placing them in a realisticdisplay showing how and for what they areused (Fig. zz). Black-and-white photographylends itself better to enlargement, is easierto handle in the museum and more accuratethan colour photography (Plate r7). Butcolour, too, is necessary, and it is a goodidea to take a separate camera for each pur-pose.
CARE AND IDENTIFICATION OF OBJECTS
Each object should be numbered as it isacquired by means of a piece of sticking-
N.)
plaster, or by means of a small metal-framed cardboard label attached by string.The number should be entered in a flexiblenotebook that will fit in the pocket. Thedata to be entered will of course vary, butshould always include the name of the placeand tribe or group; a description of theobject, its native name, purpose, and uses;the time of year; whether used mainly bymen.or by women; the constituent material;the fullest possible details regarding fabri-cation; whether made more particularly bywomen or by men; whether made forpersonal use or for barter, trade or export;whether common or not. The price paidshould be entered in a separate column.
Museums being scientific establishments,their collections must be backed by docu-mentation whose reliability is guaranteed bythe strict criteria observed by the collector.
As items accumulate in his camp, tent,room or premises provided by some kindlyauthority, he must number and take careof themclean them if necessary (he willalways find a rag but should take brusheswith him), and dust or spray with an insec-ticide. Spraying is obviously easiest; thereare DDT and xylophene sprays on themarket that he should take with him. Thisconservation is provisional, the rest will bedone in the museum; field equipment isnecessarily rudimentary and there is nopoint in wasting time, energy and moneyon full laboratory facilities.
The final packing often presents prob-lems, and the possibilities should beinvestigated beforehand. In some places,practically nothing is available, neitherpacking cases, nails or pap..:. Materials musttherefore be sent on ahead, including Indianink or paint, and brushes for writingaddresses on the packets. Straw or dry grasscan nearly always be found, to wedge be-tween objects and stop them from knockingagainst each other. Items should first bewrapped, if possible, in crepe paper ornewspaper, which has been sent on ahead;if paintings on glass are wanted, it is neces-
Hints for ethnographers
sary to take rolls of adhesive paper toprotect the glass by strips stuck diagonallyacross the surface.
Fragile objects must of course be packedsepatately, and earthenware should not bepacked with stone or metal implements.Packing, it is worth emphasizing, deservesspecial care, for on it, too, will depend thesuccess of the mission.
In short, the collector who sets out toassemble a collection must equip himselfbeforehand with patience, kindliness, con-sideration and respect for others; and withnotebooks, handy registers, pens and pen-cils, drawing paper, measuring tapes, cam-eras, films, tie-on labels, brushes, insecticides,adhesive paper, sticking plaster and packingmaterial. Keenness, observation and finessewill look after the rest.
DWELLINGS
Dwellings have much to offer the ethno-grapher, who will find in them a rich andvaried source of material for his collections.
They can include anything from a but ofsimple bark (Australia) or branches (Afri-can pygmy or Fuegian); stone or woodcottages, middle-class architect-designedhomes, one-storied pise dwellings withoutfoundations, two-storied wooden-frame pisedwellings, log-cabins, and so on; or tents,varying in materials and construction.
Some general features can be noted whichwill be useful later: plans, layout, buildingmaterials, favourite sites, village formation(concentric, linear, scattered), and so on.Lots of photographs should be taken, insideand out, to facilitate realistic reconstructionin the museum. All accessories should benoted:
I. Comfort: seats, beds, blankets, head-rests, back-rests, pillows, cradles, movablepartitions, lighting, heating, etc.
2. Storage: chests, shelves, cupboards, bas-kets, bags, jars, brooms, hangers, etc. 113
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbach
3. Cooking: the fire (it may be outside) andhow it is made, stove, brazier, fuel, fanor blower (possibly horn or bambootube); the utensils: pots, jars, dishes,saucers, bowls, spoons, cups, goblets,mortars, pestles, grinders, spice-boxes,ladles, scoops, graters, skimming-ladles,churns, everything in short, that is usedin cooking, eating and drinking, pre-serving and washing, and everythingused to keep and carry water.
Position of the objects in the kitchen,living-room or other quarters should becarefully marked on a sketch (Fig. z ;) incase it is decided later to make a partial orcomplete reconstruction in the museum.
The constituent materials should beinvestigated on the spot, as it is sometimesvery difficult to do so later in the museum.
Ridge ornaments, ridge- or corner-tiles,gargoyles, painted or carved woodenshutters, doors, joists, locks, bolts, padlocksand tent-pegs are useful outside samples tobring back.
All types of roofing should be studied,and the means of holding it in place.
If roofs are thatched, it is worth watchinga roof being thatched, even to lend a hand,to observe and photograph the ridge (oftenintricate and artistically plaited), and tobring back the implements used.
If there is a loft, permission should beobtained to go there and sketch it, for itaffords the best view of the structure of thetruss (i.e. the assembly of tie-beams, prin-cipal rafters and purlins) that forms the roof.
CLOTHING, ORNAMENTS AND ACCESSORIES
Clothing worn by men, women and childrenshould be studied in detail, from head tofoot.
Head-gear is unknown in some parts ofthe world, being replaced by ornamentssuch as headbands, diadems, crowns. Head-gear or ornaments may differ for everydaywear or for ceremonies, and according to
114 activity (e.g. some peoples wear crowns
only for hunting), according to sex, andsometimes even age. The range is infinite,from a simple veil or cloth to the hugescrew-pine hat of Southern Asia, andincluding the skull-cap, turban, woven capand the fur-lined Eskimo hood.
Shoulder covering varies too: shawls maycover the shoulders only or go down to thewaist; ponchos; capes may be short or reachdown to the ground, enveloping the body;shirts and blouses, plain or embroidered,long or short; waistcoats, coats and over-coats.
Many different means are employed tocarry childrenheadbands, slings, straps,belts ...
Items fastened at the waist include belts,sarongs, trousers, skirts, pagnes and loin-cloths, worn by men and women.
Lastly, footwear, so varied that it cantake up a whole section without boring themuseum visitor.
It is interesting to see how clothing iscared for and cleaned. Investigating the waydifferent articles are made will inevitablylead the collector on to different crafts(weaving, basket-making, tanning), that weshall review briefly later.
Careful note should be made of thesignificance of colours, which may varyaccording to whether the wearer is single,engaged, married, or widowed, and accord-ing to festivals or ceremonies. Ornamenta-tion by embroidery, painting, ribbons, andso on, may also have a special significance.
A fairly large number of ornaments andaccessories must be collected.
Hair ornaments are relatively few: pins,combs, slides and ribbons. Brushes andcombs are needed to keep the hair tidy. Faceadornment or shaving should be observed,and everything used in the process shouldbe collected (kohl or kohl cases, nose-rings,labrets, eyebrow tweezers, toothbrushes,dentifrice, make-up). People blow theirnoses and clean out their ears; the objectsused for these purposes are interesting too,and sometimes are very original.
Ear-rings, rings, necklaces, reliquaries,pendants, bracelets and anklets (and howmuch more besides) are not always justornaments, but may imply protection,wealth, status (single, married, widowed),rank or calling. This should always bechecked.
Painting and tattooing the body are otherforms of ornamentation that should berecorded, and the implements used ac-quired.
We can also include in this sectionumbrellas, sunshades, walking-sticks, scep-tres, fly-whisks, fans, and so on. Someornamental accessories are reserved forwidows or priests. For each item, we repeat,the native word should be noted.
Smith, metal-worker, goldsmith
Metallurgy is as old as history, and widelypractised. The smith may command pro-found respect and even inspire fear; he mayalso be despised. 'In African mysticalthinking the forge is a holy place, a sanc-tuary of earth forces that are feared butessential to the proper functioning of humansociety' (B. Holas, Industries et Cultures enCate-divoire, 1965). 'Different kinds ofmagic charms are necessary to "transform"ore into metal' (K. Birket-Smith, I-Astairede la Civilisation, Paris, Payot, 1950. For theYakuts, 'smiths and sorcerers hatch fromthe same nest'. In these circumstances, itwill not always be easy to get hold of thetools and instruments of metal-working.
To brighten the fire, a fan or blow-pipeis used by metal-workers and goldsmiths(found among all peoples skilled in theworking of gold and silver), a bellows bysmelters and smiths (skin bags open at thetop, ending in a nozzle, enclosed in anearthenware or wooden case fitted with acrude valve; bellows with a single or double,vertical or horizontal piston made of wood,bamboo, etc.) As kilns and furnaces are
Hints for ethnographers
not transportable, good photographs andsketches to scale must serve instead.
The smith's tools are many (fire-iron,tongs, crucible tongs, mortar, crucible,anvil, hammer, anvil-tongs, soapstone orearthenware moulds).
Those of the goldsmith are finer: auger,die, bone, hardwood, or metal stamps chas-ing-chisel, gravers, small hammers, files,moulds, cooling tubs; roughly the sametools will be used by the metal-worker.Specimens of these crafts should be collectedas well as the tools.
The lost wax process does not requiremany tools. It would be interesting to bringback, for demonstration, a specimen thatcould be shown at different stages of fabri-cation.
Tanning
Animal skins are widely used for clothing,containers and other objects (bags, satchels,coca bags, belts, amulet cases, scabbards,quivers, wallets, prayer .skins, drumheads,and so on), even cannons, used by theChinese during the Nepal campaign at theend of the eighteenth century.
In some places the skin is used stillcovered with its hair or coat and merelydried or tanned; or the hair may be takenoff, thinned down and the skin made moreflexible. Scrapers or slickers which varyfrom place to place, cutting-boards, cuttingtools and awls are the main tools. Tanningneeds supports and vats which it will oftenbe impossible to bring back; photographsand sketches must serve instead.
Sculpture
Achievements in sculpture have beenmagnificent and are well-known: Congoleseand Melanesian wood-carvings, Indianwood-carvings along the north-west coastof America, Nepalese wood-carvings, ivorycarvings in China and Japan, stone in Peru,Mexico, India and southern Asia.
-
115
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbath
The sculptor is included in this sectionbecause he is often considered as craftsmanrather than artist. His craft is not alwaysclearly defined and may be just the sidelineof a moderately skilled artisan. Sometimesthe smith is also a wood-carver. Goingmore deeply into the matter it is found,howeveras A. A. Gerbrands did in NewGuinea for examplethat sculpture may bethe major occupation and that the artist, nolonger the craftsman, is recognized as suchwithin a given group.
In most cases, the fundamental purposeof the sculpture is liturgical.
Axes, adzes of varying size, chisels,gouges, knives, abrasives and saws are prac-tically the only instruments used. It isessential to photograph the sculptor atdifferent stages of his work and to bringback partly completed items. Obtain, forexample, a mask barely roughed out withthe axe, then make the artist start again andstop when he has finished with the adzes,and obtain specimens similarly at the gougeand the knife stages.
IVenoing
In this section we include basket-making,which is mostly done by women. A speci-men or two of each type of basket, containerand so on should be brought back withphotographs illustrating their fabricationand uses.
The same recommendation applies in thecase of rope and string (nets, bags, clothing,matting, and so on) made of hemp, raffia,esparto, jute, grass, palm fibre and leaves,rattan, animal or even human hair. All thesematerials receive treatment, which should beobserved, and are pounded, steeped, cardedand rippled, operations that require specialequipment which shou ld likewise be collecte d.
In some places which have no wovenmaterials as such, `tapa' (pounded bark) ismade; special beaters are used, and calibersin the decoration. The making of felt should
6 also be observed.
Looms, upright and horizontal, rangefrom the very simple to the very compli-cated, and the collector must adapt hisarrangements accordingly.
Before leaving for, an area where weavingis highly skilled, he should do some prelimi-nary s):udy. As suggested earlier, he mightalso let)cl a hand, which is the easiest way ofgetting to know the equipment (cards,heddles, battens, bobbins, pulleys, shuttles,weights, and so on). A complete loomshould, if possible, be reconstructed in themuseum, and brought to life by usingplenty of photographs of the originallocation; or even better, a loom in operationwith a piece of work still on it (Plate z8)should be acquired.
The preparatim of woollen or cottonthread involves equipment worth collecting(whorls, distaffs, spools, spinning-wheels,and so on).
Pottery
Domestic pottery-making, now dying out,recalls one of the most common and oldestcrafts in the world, and merits thoroughstudy. 'The extension of pottery-making isreadily explained by the presence of claydeposits. Pottery was sold nearly every-where, and quite far away. Research shouldstart with an inventory of domestic andreligious objects' (Mauss, Manuel d'Ethno-graphic, Paris, 1947). That inventory canbegin in the market-place and graduallypenetrate more and more deeply intoeveryday life. Subsequent investigation,possibly at the museum itself, should deter-mine how far the clay-bed is from the placeof manufacture, and whether its choicederives from some ancient belief (clay issometimes dug fairly far from the place ofmanufacture, although there are beds nearbybecause, for religious or other reasons, thenearer beds are regarded as less propitious).The place ofextraction and the transport usedto take the clay to the place of manufactureshould be observed and photographed.
1 13
Plate 17.
The image and the object. In the exhibitiongalleries, the photograph explains eitherthe manufacturing or the utilization of theexhibit. It is a useful substitute to explanatorynotices in countries where illiteracy stillexists. Boganda Museum. Department ofFolk Art and Tradition. (Photo: B. Sullerot,Musee de l'Homme, Pads).
114
V>c.,-;
k
z
'4' 5,, r5.?
e`
z
Plate 18.
The horizontal loom used by Hausa weavers(Niger). Ethnographical Museum, Neuchatel.(Photo: J. Schoepflin, Neuchatel).
uS
(a)
Fig. 22.
Drawings by Hans Erni for thcEthnographical Museumof Neuchatel:(a) the apprentice blacksmith's:
first job making an awl;(b) analysis of movements hand.
116
(b) "9 9
4
SCALE
0 2 4 g 'WAow===pli=m=1I 5 5 q
(a)
InTRANCt
.26 75 t"SCALE 0...--5rd ,,tw=sw:Tc.
11
Fig. z3.
Sketch or: the living quarters and workshopof the smith Captini, at Tahoua(a) The living quarters. i, the macbiera
(workshop); 2, the ebigura (living quarters);
S...4tdo
It
Plate tp.
The moulding of Tahoua pottery. Photogtaphexhibited in the Ethnographical Museum,Neuchatel.
3, store-room; 4, house for the women;5, chief's house; 6, voirri (parlour);7, goat pen; 8, millet silo; 9, banco;to, horse enclosure; it, kitchen; i 2, watercontainer; 13, wood pile; 14, tools andutensils.
(b) The workshop: A. the smith;B. an apprentice; C. visitor's mat;i, scales; 2, water; 3, bellows;4, the anvil and the hearth(sketch by Raoul Gabus for the
. Ethnographical Museum of Neuchatel).
117
For a proper understanding of the fabri-cation, it is necessary to watch: (1) workingover of the clay by hand, foot, or machines;mixing with other materials (gravel, straw,reed, etc.); (z) modelling (hand, wheel,moulds) ( Plate rs); (3) drying (duration,place; sun or shade); (4) firing (in open, kiln;duration, number of firings); (5) joining(handles, spouts); decoration.
The potter's implements 2re compara-tively few: wooden or other beaters; bamboo,reed or wooden knives; smoothing-tools(shells, stones, bone, ivory, strips of wood);rudimentary stamps and brushes for thedecoration.
Objects of baked, or dried, clay can bebroadly divided according to purpose intothree main groups: (I) food: cooking (pots,etc.), eating (dishes, plates, etc.) storage(jugs, bowls of all sizes, lids); (z) drink:carrying (jugs, jars, vases, etc.), storage(containers of all shapes and sizes), drinking(bottles, bowls, goblets, cups, etc.); (3) fur-niture and architecture: small stoves, flowervases, building bricks (often of dried andunbaked clay), irrigation pipes, tiles (alsooften dried and unbaked), chimney cowls,wash basins, etc.)
The following points specifically concernpottery but can refer to nearly all objectscollected. Who makes the tools or otherutensils? There is often a local specializationby sex. Sometimes it is the woman andnot the man who works the clay. If thewoman is the potter, can the husband sellobjects made by his wife? Or does shealone sell? Does she receive the proceeds ofthe sale? It will similarly be interesting toknow whether the pottery (or other object)is produced by the family, an individual, orthe community, or whether it is madeindustrially; whether a potter makes someobjects but not others (some specialize inmaking only jugs or granary urns, and soon); how is the pottery marketed: market,shop, door to door, to order, locally,elsewhere; what are the conditions of sale
Hints for ethnographers
or barter: special season, special street,square, quarter?
STOCK-RAISING, AGRICULTURE, HUNTING
AND FISHING
Sedentary peoples and nomads or semi-nomads alike keep animals, with obviousdifferences in the degree of domestication,and in the objects that can be collected.Apart from bridles and halters, yokes,sometimes admirably carved, and collars(not forgetting large blue beads to ward offthe evil eye) should be collected, andmuzzles,. bits, blinkers, wooden or metalbells (some may already have been found atthe metal-worker's or carver's), pack-saddles, saddles and side-saddles, saddle-cloths, stirrups, spurs, riding whips, goadsand whips; shearing, branding and bleedingtools, watering-troughs, curry-combs; milk-pails, butter-churns, cheese-tubs and butter-prints. In some places, special milking-stools can be found.
Stables, cattle-sheds and pasturages mayrepay observation and even yield collectionpieces such as carved stakes, and perhapsamulets, for which an explanation should besought.
There is little variety in agriculturalimplements throughout the world. It needsa fairly lengthy stay in any one place towitness all the different stages of crop-growing theretilling, breaking, digging,sowing, harrowing, ridging, harvestingand to see all the implements in use, but anattempt should be made to acquire as manyas possible. In many places there are specialmarkets or fairs, with a great array ofagricultural equipment but, above all, trybarter with the local growers. Implementswill also be found at the smith's. Duringthe ploughing and sowing season, hoes,swing-ploughs, ploughs, spades, harrows,clod-crushers and so on can be seen inaction; irrigation channels will be repaired,fertilizers collected, prepared and spread,scarecrows put up. 111
Marguerite Lobsiger-Dellenbach
122
The harvest season will bring out awhole range of sickles and scythes, and besure to see the threshing and winnowing(winnowing-baskets, flails, tribula). Crainbrings us to the granaries, silos and storagecontainers of every description. The trans-formation of grain into flour involvesmillstones, pestles, rudimentary mills; flourleads to the baker's, with its bread-bins,tallies, scales, and so on. The different meansof conveyance merit attention, and completethe picture.
Miniature implements made to amuse thechildren and also to enable them to help inwork on the land should not be overlooked.
Very few populations now live solely byhunting and fishing, but many sedentaryand semi-nomadic peoples, farmers andanimal breeders hunt and fish, this oftenconstituting an important aspect of the localeconomy. A large variety of weapons areinvolved (clubs, daggers, spears, javelins,bows, arrows, blow - pipes, slings, spear-throwers, boomerangs, harpoons, fish-spearsand so on) which can be collected over aperiod, together with canoes and boatsorat any rate the main parts (prows, poops,decorations, oars, boat-hooks). Traps, nu-merous and very cunning, are not alwayseasy to observe, as hunters and fishermenare loath to reveal their secrets. In manycases, poisonous substances are used, andtheir preparation needs implements thatshould be coilected if possible.
CEREMONIES, AMUSEMENTS
Here, the collector must be left a free hand.
4..7_Ei9
No ethnographer, collecting material forexhibition later in museum showcases, canpossibly hope to make ac the same time aprecise and elaborate survey of the manyceremonies that he will have occasion toattend, This is a job for the ethnologistand a very long-term one.
While studying dwellings, for example,the field-worker may come upon householdgods that are accorded rites, with offeringsmade in special vessel; and have censorsswung before them. He. will attend sowingand harvest, funeral and marriage cere-monies with their particular masks, statues,disguises, ornaments and accessoriesallmaterial he should try to acquire.
Amusements, too, vary considerably fromone people to another. Many gamesdice,cards, and so onhave been invented, fromstring games to chess. Ball games and topsarc practically universal. Dolls and carvedmodel animals are often made by the chil-dren who play with them. This is a vastsector, difficult to explore; and there are noshort cuts.
The virtually universal pipe, and percus-sion, wind, string and other musical instru-ments can also be included under thisheading.
The above seems to cover most humanactivities that can be illustrated by museumobjects. If prospected in the manner sug-gested in this guide, any region can beaccurately and comprehensively represented.
H. Ladmirant
Field work techniques in geology and 8
mineralogy'
There are two different approachcs to thecollection of geological specimens for amuscum:
the specimens can be assembled to illus-tratc the geology of a region, orrepresentative spccimcns can bc assemblcd,selected for their intrinsic interest, thcirbeauty or thc extent to which thcy willenrich the muscum's collection.
In the following pagcs we shall concen-trate on thc techniques relating to thc first ofthese approaches, but it is obvious that theycan be applied to the second approach too.
PRINCIPLES
Field geology, which is based on observationand induction, is the study of rocks in sift.It deals with their naturc, their gcographicallocation, thcir rclationship to ncighbouringrocks, thcir age, the conditions in whichthey werc formed, and their evolution.With a knowledgc of all thcse factors, it ispossible to reconstruct the geographicaland geological history of the region and toforecast the nature and characteristics of thcrocks lying beneath the surface. The surfaccinformation is assembled on the geologicalmap, which is the basic document uscd inprospccting for natural mineral resources.
Although there have becn rapid develop-ments in certain techniques such as photo-geology and airborne geophysical surveying,and although, broadly spcaking, the ratioof field work to laboratory work is growingless, it is obvious that the basic and decisive
information can only bc obtained by inves-tigation in thc field.
The field workcr must be capablc ofobserving, dcscribing and taking measurc-mcnts which are precise, complete andcapable of being understood both by himselfand by othcrs. He must givc thc mostcareful attention to the collection of speci-mens, in view of thc variety of invcstiga-dons which may subsequently bc carriedout on them in thc laboratory.
Except in certain countrics with an aridor glacial climate, in which erosion systemsmay expose thc rocks over large unbrokenarcas, thc geologist generally has only alimitcd number of outcrops to work on, thcrcmaindcr of the rock being hiddcn by aweathered layer of varying thickness, byloose material of rccent origin, or by theformation of a soil carrying dcnsc vegcta-tion. Thc outcrops are not individualisolated phenomena; they are the visiblcparts of rock formations which continuein the sub-soil.
The general principle of geological map-making is relatively simple: by studying acertain numbcr of points in detail, thcgeologist has to reconstruct a picture of asurface with such accuracy that it can yieldinformation concerning the third dimension,i.e. the depth.
i. It is a pleasure to express my gratitude toMessrs. L. Cahcn and J. Lepersonne whohave given me the benefit of their advice onthe drafting of this chapter.
120
123
H. Ladmirant
Geologists are often taught that the out-crop must be studied and described sothoroughly that there will never be any needto come back to it. But this is a counsel ofperfection, which can rarely be followed.Instead of wasting hours in describing therocks by amassing pages of indiscriminatedetail, the geologist should begin by askinghimself what information is vital and whatdetails can be ignored. The csscntial pointis that he should undcrstand the purpose ofhis work.
Unlike private firms and some govcrn-mcnt departments, whose activities areintended to achicvc practical and immediateresults, the geological dcpartmcnt of amuseum is normally concerned with basicgeological problems and with compre-hensive studies.
T1 scope for geological research in anycountry is tremendous, and it would be idleto attempt to do everything at once.Research institutions are so expensive, andthere is such a shortage of specialists thatthe problems to be studied must be selectedwith great care. Some of the many problemswhich, for various reasons, cannot be tackledimmediately, will probably be dealt withlater on, perhaps in a few years, perhaps intwenty years' time. It is therefore essentialto adopt a short-term approach, but to bearin mind the possibility of subsequentdevelopments and to attempt to foreseethem as far as possible. When carrying outsurveys in the field, for instance, it isadvisable to include among the specimensof granitic rocks a few well-chosen largepieces, weighing so kg or thereabouts,which can be used later on for gcochrono-logical measurements by means of thezircon dating method, even though thedcpartmcnt may not at the moment have itsown gcochronological laboratory and can-not afford to have these studies carried outin outside laboratories. There is littledifficulty in collecting such specimens ifthis is done as part of a systematic survey,
124 but much time and money will be wasted
if a special expedition has to be arranged ata later date to collect a few spccimcns.
Not only must full and factual records bekept at all times when the field work isbeing carried out, but these records mustbe filed and stored, as they come in, in sucha way that any research worker can haveaccess to them and consult :Iva) at any time.
In the developing count.tes, particularlyin large countries where the geological mapof scale itzoo,000 is in course t,f production,the muscum should collaborate with thecountry's geological survey department,if one exists, in the initial preparation of thisimportant basic document.
PRELIMINARY STUDIES AND PREPARATION
(a) Selecting the region
Choosing a region for study is not somethingwhich can be undertaken lightly; those whoare responsible for a rescarch programmemust always bear in mind a number offactors which are likely to influence thequality of the results and the time requiredto achieve those results. Both scientific andpractical factors have to be taken intoconsideration.
Any existing and accessible generalgeological and geograph5cal informationabout the region and about adjacent regionsor countries will help to determine whichareas are of interest and what precisely is tobe studied.
Generally speaking, air photography canyield so much information that it would bealmost unthinkable nowadays to undertakea regional geological survey without makinguse of photogeology. Hence the existenceof air photo coverage will be a decisivefactor in the choice of a region.
The area to be studied cannot followarbitrary geographical boundaries; it mustbe based on the shapc and sizc of the gcolog-ical formations. The choice will also dependon the specialized knowledge of the staffand the scientific equipment available in the
121
laboratories. Newly established muscumswill bc well advised to choose cicarly definedprojccts which can bc carried out in arelatively short timc; three years for instance.An assessment should be madc of all thcdiflicultics which arc likely to arise in con-ncxion with the programme, the survcyteam and the possible follow-up work, inorder to avoid starting on a project whichis beyond the scientific and financialrcsourccs of thc museum concerned.
In addition to thc administrative problcmsof organization, and possibly also of co-ordination with thc activities of otherauthorities, a number of practical factorsarc involved, of which the most importantare: accessibility, topography, conditionand density of thc communications network,amount of vegetation, climatic conditionsand supply situation.
(b) Preliminary :Indies
Field work begins in the laboratory. Beforestarting out for the lick], the geologist mustassemble and study all the existing docu-mentation. This will include geological,geographical and photographic date. Alltoo frequently, geologists embark on a newsurvey project without studying prcviouswork on the subject. In so doing, they losethe benefit of a body of knowledge whichhas been acquired at the cost of considerableeffort and is often extensive and of highquality. This attitude also leads to a duplica-tion of itineraries. One of the major tasksof a museum is precisely to assemble andkeep up to date all the published andunpublished documentation concerning thecountry itself and the neighbouring regions.
Geological documenes. Many regions have al-ready been the subject of isolated geologicalsurveys which are so varied in their ap-proach and interpretation that they cannotbe assembled into a coherent pattern. Thisapplies in particular to developing countriesin which only a few main exploration
Ficld work techniques in gcology and mineralogy
routes have bccn mapped, some detailedlocal survcys have bccn made for miningpurposes and the first small -scale geologicalsketch plans have bccn made.
The main items of documentation con-cerned are reports madc by explorationteams, prospectors' notes, copies of geo-logical reports and commentaries madc bymining companies and governmental author-hies, published and unpublished works,old geological maps and collections ofspecimens of rocks and minerals. Anyinformation about the terrain which can begleaned from these documents should bcsystematically marked up on the maps in theform of a dot with a serial number togetherwith any availablc information concerningthe strike and dip of thc strata. The mapsshould be accompanied by a register, inwhich the name of the observer, the sourccof the information and a summary of theoriginal description should be enteredagainst the corresponding number. It isoften a very laborious task to transfer theold itineraries, owing to the vagueness ofthe old topographical maps. It will often benecessary to refer to aerial photographs inorder to pinpoint a particular place.
Carlogragical material. The basic tool forall field work is a geographical map of goodquality on which every fact observed shouldbe carefully located. The geologist shouldnot forget to consult old maps, which canoften provide valuable information concern-ing place names.
In economically developed countries,maps are generally available on a scale ofnso,000 or even largersometimes up to1: to,000with contours marked in. Forsurveys in new countries, planimetric mapson a scale of titoo,ocio or preferably of1:50,000 are adequate, provided that theyarc of good quality. It is the task of thenational geographical services to prepare thestandard map ofthe country. Nowadays carto-graphy is usually based on aerial photography.But although aerial mapping is quicker
122125
H. Ladmirant
/ I % .
/ / % \/ // /
/ 1 \_,
Fig. 24.
The three-camera system of aerial photography,known as Trimctrogon. The three photographs,taken simultaneously, cover a strip ofground from one horizon to the other.
than traditional map-making methods,it always involves a large-scale operationwhich has to be spread over many years. Itmay be, therefore, that maps covering thearea which are of interest to the geologisthave not yet been prepared. In this case, themuseum must be provided with a minimumof equipment and a minimum of personnelcompetent to produce planimetric maps ona scale of 1:5o,000 from aerial photographs.The geologist may have to take part in thiswork, and he should be familiar with thetechniques involved.
The most suitable method, giving suffi-cient accuracy at low cost, is that of aero-triangulation by the assembly of slottedtemplates, followed by the transfer of thephotographic interpretation by means of acamera lucida. A good way of drawingplanimetric maps of areas with averagerelief displacement is to use the radialplanimetric plotter. Readers who are inter-ested in these techniques will find fullinformation in the works listed in thebibliography.
Photographic documents. Photographic docu-ments include aerial photographs, flight mapsand photographic mosaics. Flight maps are
z6 small-scale planimetric diagrams showing
the flight bands or flights lines; they areindispensable for locating and positioningaerial photographs.
An assembly of a number of aerial photo-graphs, normally between to and too, whichare re-photographed to form one largephotograph, is called a mosaic. Mosaics aresimilar in size to topographic maps. Thereare various types of mosaic, differing inquality and accuracy, according to themethod of assembly.
Nowadays aerial photographs are of greatimportance both in reconnaissance mappingand in detailed survey work; they havelargely replaced the traditional prospector'splane table.
There are several different types of aerialphotograph, depending on the position ofthe camera when the photographs are taken.
Much the commonest type is the verticalphotograph, which is taken with the camerapositioned vertically, whereas oblique photo-graphs are taken with the camera inclinedat an angle, sometimes at such an angle thatthe horizon is included.
For photographing large areas which areisolated and sparsely populated, the threecamera system is sometimes employed. Thissystem, called Trimetrogon photography,employs a vertical camera in the centre andtwo other cameras placed symmetrically oneon each side of it, so that the full width ofthe terrain is photographed as far as thehorizon. Thus the three photographs, whichare taken simultaneously, cover a strip ofground from one horizon to the other(Fig. 24). This system has the advantage ofcovering a very large area with a minimumamount of flying, but it has the disadvantageof restricting the scale of the photograph.It should also be mentioned that the`distant' half of the oblique photograph isunusable owing to the very small scale, thelarge number of blind angles in hilly groundand the effect of mist.
In the great majority of cases systematiccoverage4by aerial photography is carried outby means of vertical photographs. High
4019/
quality photography is required, which isprovided by the majority of modern cam-eras, and strict standards have to be observed:the axis of the camera must be within3 degrees of the vertical, the scale must bebetween 1:3o,000 and 1:50,000, the photo-graphs must be in large formateither18 cm X 18 cm or 23 cm X 23 cmtheymust be taken along rectilinear and parallelflight bands or flight lines, there must be anoverlap of at least Go per cent between twoconsecutive photographs in the same stripand an overlap of about to per cent betweenthe photographs in two consecutive strips(Plate zo).
All these photographs are made in blackand white. Colour photography appearsto be ruled out at the present owing to theprohibitive cost and the often inadequatequality.
A vertical aerial photograph is not an ortho-gonal projection of the ground and cannotbe used as a map. Differences of altitudecause distortions, which are sometimessubstantial, in the representation of theground, and a geologist who is embarkingon the interpretation of aerial photographsshould make hinrelf familiar with theparticular characteristics of the medium.
With the aid of photogeology, which isbased on the study of relief features, drain-age patterns, type and distribution of vege-tation and shape and distribution of tones,it is often possible to obtain a rough pictureof the lithology and structure of an area.
It is impossible to deal here with theprinciples of photo-interpretation; ourbibliography mentions several very well-illustrated books which cover this subjectvery thoroughly.
We must stress the importance not onlyof studying the drainage pattern but alsoof observing the details of the shape ofrivers. Falls, narrowings of the channel andsharp bends are almost always related togeological causes (Fig. 25).
Every observed detail which appears tohave geological significance should be
Field vork techniques in geology and mineralogy
marked directly onto the photograph withthe aid of special wax pencils. These dataare then transferred to the control point map.The method of transfer depends on thedifference in scale between the photographand the map and on the amount of detailshown on the map: it may be done simplywith the aid of proportional compasses orby a camera lucida or by photographicprojection. This preliminary photogeolog-ical study can show up outt-rops, geologicalstrata with their strike and dip, contacts be-tween different kinds of rock, folds, faults,joints, schists, intrusive masses, dikes, anddiscordances.
It also enables the geologist to familiarizehimself with the arc to be visited.
(c) Making preparations for a field project
Three factors are involved in the preparationof a field project, none of which must beoverlooked: human, geological and tech-nical.
The human factor. The responsible authoritymust show great psychological insightin selecting a team which, for severalmonths on end, will have to share the samelife, and put up with physical conditionswhich may often be difficult. Any clash ofpersonalities or of temperament is likely tobe a serious handicap to the harmoniousexecution of the project. It is now taken forgranted that a reasonable standard of com-fort and appropriate food are essential pre-requisites for efficiency. The geologistshould undergo a general medical examina-tion, receive any dental treatment whichmay be required, and undergo the necessaryinoculations. It is important that the teamshould not feel cut off from the rest of theworld and, in particular, that they shouldknow what steps to take in case of accidentor serious illness. If the field project isbeing carried out in uninhabited countries,the team should be equipped with a hand-book of first aid and an emergency medical kit.
124127
IL Ladmirant
Geological factors. In most cases it willbe possible to determine from the prelimi-nary study which areas are to be givenpriority for survey purposes, and hence todecide exactly what problems are to betackled. If the photogeological survey hasshown that the region is formed of regularlyfolded sedimentary rocks of regular synan-ticlinal type, it will be easy to plan a seriesof traverses crossing these folds at rightangles (Plate 21). In the case of uniformcrystalline formationsgranites and mig-matitesthe traverses will be arranged soas to carry out a series of observations atregular intervals throughout the area, withamore detailed examination of the contactswhich are assumed to exist between suchgeological units. It would be a great wasteof time to carry out a series of observationslike this on a plateau formed of horizontalor sub-horizontal sedimentary strata, andin this case it will only be necessary to cuta few sections along water courses or,better still, in a cliff.
Aerial photographs, again, will enablethe traverse to be planned in the light of thelocation of outcrops, the relief of the area(Plate 22), the adequacy of the means ofcommunication and the state of the bridges.A complete programme should be drawnup for the field work, but some flexibilityshould be allowed in carrying it out. It isuseless to attempt to draw up an excessivelydetailed programme, setting out the workto be done and the route to be followedevery day. A programme of this kind wouldsoon be disrupted by the many incidentswhich beset the geologist in the field: amember of the party may be injured, avehicle may break down, there may beseveral days of storm, sometimes an inter-esting and unexpected geological discoverymay justify delay.
The technical element. The plans for anyfield project will be conditioned by thefunds, the time, and the number and corn-
tz8 petence of staff available. The leader will
begin by gathering information from peoplewho know the area well. This informationshould cover climatic conditions, the lengthof the good season, the average, maximumand minimum temperatures, the distributionand amount of rainfall; these factors willdetermine the type of clothing and campingmaterial to be taken. It is essential to knowthe pattern of population and the locationof populous centres with their facilities forthe supply of food and -fuel. If there isplenty of big game, this may be a help inrecruiting temporary native labour. If amotor vehicle is to be used, account shouldbe taken of the varying conditions in whichit will have to operate, and provision shouldbe made for replacement tyres and spareparts.
Field work often involves camping. Itwould take up too much space to deal herewith the type of equipment required andthe method of organizing camp life; readersare referred to the book by J. W. Low (t 957)in which some thirty pages are devoted tobasic hints on safety and to innumerablepractical details of camp life.
The following equipment will be requiredfor geological field work: geological ham-mer, sledge hammer, chisel, compasses,magnifying glass, watch, altimeter, camera,steel tape, drawing material, notebooks,scissors, adhesive plaster, collecting bags,enamel paint, topographical maps, airphotographs, pocket stereoscope; and pos-sibly also surveying equipment: plane table,alidade, and stadia rods. In some cases moresophisticated equipment, such as a radiationcounter, may be required.
0,5
/'".4141410
19g. z5.
This drawing is taken from a topographicalmap of Africa, showing the drainage systemonly. The diagrammatic section A-B can bedrawn solely from a study of the shape ofthe drainage pattern.
129
A
127
afililis
Place 20.
Systematic air photography. The photographsarc taken vertically, at regular intervals,so as to give the necessary coverage(Photo. Carl Zeiss, 7082, Oberkochen, FederalRepublic of Germany).
Plait 22.
This air photograph of a lame equatorialforest clearly shows two folds running N-E.It will be understood that if the geologisthas not seen and located these formationsin advance from photographs, he can easilypass quite close to them, even a few hundredmum away, without suspectingthe existence of these characteristic reliefs.
Plate
This air photograph clearly showsan anticlinal geological structure with theclosing of the fold um ants the northein edgeof the photograph. The axis of the fold runsapproximately N zoo W. The correspondencethe massive sandstone series G, which forma very characteristic morphological element,can be seen on both sides of this axis.
A
128
A limestone 'zone (A), only a few metresthick, slum s up very clearly by photogeology,because its course is marked by a growthof euphorbia. A survey of this area couldbe limited to one major east-west traversein the south and a few traverses in the northto find out the limits of the closure of the fold,the blurred outlines of which are shown here.
A
tax
Plait 2 j.
The field geologist locates the outcrops bya stereoscopic examination of air photographs(Photo: Carl Zeiss, 708; Oberkochen,Federal Republic of Germany).
ry .4.
Ida
AA.Piive
,p-4, pp
P'
129
ea.
WORK IN THE FIELD
(a) Planning the work
For large-scale projects, lasting a year ormore and involving several geologists orprospectors, two types of camp will berequired. A permanent or semi-permanentbase camp should be set up for severalmonths, preferably in a centre of population.This camp will be the meeting point for thegeologists; specimens will be collected hereand packed up for transfer to the museum.Equipment and provisions will be storedhere. The camp should provide, in additionto a modicum of personal comfort, suchaids to work as a typewriter and equipmentfor reproducing maps on ozalid paper. It isessential that this camp should be establishedat a place where there are facilities forcommunicating with the museum, so thatreports can be sent back every fortnight andinstructions received from the museum.
When out on survey expeditions, thegeologists should set up 'fly' camps whichwill be used for one or two nights.
The areas to be visited by the variousteams should be divided up equitably, takinginto account distance, difficulty of access,geological complexity and the experience ofthe geologists concerned. It will be founduseful to have a small-scale topographicalplan on which the squares of the grid can beshaded in to show how the work is goingfrom week to week and to give an up-to-datepicture of progress (Fig. 26).
When in the field, the geologist willnormally devote the latter part of the day toputting his notes in order, completing asketch, classifying his specimens and study-ing air photographs of the area to be coveredon the following day.
In principle, the geologist should preparea weekly report and a monthly report, witha final report at the end of the project.
The weekly report should give a factualsummary of the work done; it should bepurely descriptive and enumerative, and it
Field work techniques in geology and mineralogy
Fig. 26.Extract from a small-scale plan markedto show the progress of surveys being madeby three teams.
is therefore advisable to use a standard form.The monthly report should be fuller. It
should include a copy of the geologist'snotes on observations made and a mapshowing the observation points used; thelatter can frequently be replaced by anoutline tracing of the air photograph onwhich the drainage pattern and the referencepoints have been marked in. A copy of thistracing should bP made on ozalid paper andthe geological interpretation drawn in withcoloured pencils. In the body of his report,the geologist should set out in summaryform his ideas on the geology of the areaconcerned and put forward any suggestionshe may have for his future programme, ifnew data seem to justify a modification ofthe programme. One copy of these reportsshould be kept at the base camp, and theother copy sent regularly to the museum.
It is better to mark in the whole line of thetraverse on the map or photograph ratherthan merely plot the observation points,
130
133
H. Ladmirant
A
iFig. z7.Locating a point X on a map or aerialphotograph by the three-sightings method.
The three big items which are of imme-diate concern to the geologist in the fieldare: to plot his exact position on the mapor photograph, give a correct descriptionof the outcrop and collect representativespecimens.
Locatingone'sposition. In systematic geologicalmapping, the degree of accuracy requiredin locating the observation points will dependon the scale of the map which is to beprepared. For instance, when maps are beingprepared on the scale of 1: zoo,000 locationsshould be plotted to the nearest so m. Plot-ting one's exact position on a map or photo-graph is by no means as easy as is generallyassumed. Owing to the wealth of details andreference points which they provide, aerialphotographs are much more useful thangeographical maps.
When carrying out a geological surveywithout any simultaneous topographicalsurvey, the geologist should consult the aerialphotograph constantly, from the momenthe leaves his camp, and check his movementson it regularly (Plate 23).
To locate a point on a featureless surfacewhich has no landmarks such as a solitary
134 tree, the edge of a field, etc., the following
simple and rapid method can be used: fromthe point to be located, note the horizontalsightings of three easily identifiable pointsin the landscape (A, B, C), using a sightingcompass or a small theodolite. The anglesbetween the sightings should be wide, notless than 900. Accuracy can be checked bycalculating the three angles, which shouldadd up to 3600.
The three sightings are ther. drawn finelyon a piece of tracing paper, which is laidover the photograph or map and adjusted sothat the three lines pass over the points(A', B', C') corresponding to the pointssighted upon. The point which is to belocated will automatically lie at the inter-section of the three lines, and it can bemarked on the photograph by prickingthrough with the point of a needle (Fig. 27).
This method can be employed equallysatisfactorilywith maps or aerial photographs.If photographs are being used, and if thearea exhibits much surface relief, i.e. if thecontours exceed so m, the distortions whichare inevitable in photographic representation(conic perspective) will make it necessaryto sight upon points which are at aboutthe same altitude as the point to belocated.
Observations. The term 'outcrop' includes notmerely rock formations which are naturally orartificially exposed, but also the bedrocksin prospect holes; a study of displaced rockscan also help to explain the geology of theregion. The best places for finding well-ex-posed rocks can often be located in advanceon aerial photographs and topographicalmaps, which normally show quarries and roadand rail embankments. In addition to theitems mentioned above, the geologistshould keep a watch for various indicationswhich are likely to be of geological impor-tance, including: the morphological detailsof a cliff face, a small rise in the ground,some particular feature of a river, the shapeof a sink hole, the appearance of the vege-tation and the type and colour of soilexposed on tracks.
Every useful item of information shouldbe entered in a notebook. Squared paper willbe a help in setting out certain data and isvery useful for sketches and sections. Aduplicate notebook, with carbon paper,should be used. Each notebook should openwith the observer's name, a skctch of thecompass used, showing the type of gradua-tion, the local magnetic variation, and a listof abbreviations used.
The observation point should be mark-ed on the photograph by pricking it withthe point of a needle. On the back ofthe photograph, the needle hole shouldbe surrounded by a small circle, aboutthree millimetres in diameter, and a refer-ence number should be written alongsidethis.
Every observation should be given anumber. The work of several geologistsmay be identified by placing the observer'sinitials before the numbers: for instance,J. D. 873 will indicate observation point873 recorded by Jules Durand.
When using maps on a scale of 1:5o,000,adjacent observations referring to the samelandmark should be grouped under thesame number if they refer to outcrops lyingwithin a radius of about is° m of the
Field work techniques in geology and mineralogy
landmark. If they are separate features, atleast 5o m apart, and clearly identifiable onthe photograph, they should be prickedseparately and marked by small letters, e.g.1834 a.
In the case of very big outcrops, thepoints to be marked are those at whichspecimens have been collected or measure-ments made. An indication should be givenof the area involved, and, if necessary, alarge-scalc plan shoIlid be attached, showingthe relative position of the observationpoints.
In the course of his surveys, the geologistshould ask the local inhabitants or hisguide for the names of rivers or villages,which should then be marked directly onthe map. When starting a traverse, he shouldalways make a note of the date, the pladeand time of departure and the directionfollowed.
On reaching an outcrop, he should beginwith a general examination to determineits size and shape and the amount of weath-ering to which it has been subjected. Heshould also make sure that the outcropconsists of firm rocks and not of looseboulders. Each outcrop should be given afresh reference number, accompanied bythe time, the number of the air photographon which the outcrop has been marked, andthe sheet number of the map concerned.The features of the outcrop should alwaysbe listed in the same order, following a pre-arranged plan. This list should be drawn upin accordance with the categories of rocksencountered: it will obviously be subjectto modifications, additions and deletions,in the light of the progress of work. Inorder to ensure that no important feature isoverlooked, this list should be placed at thefront of the notebook.
All descriptions should be purely factual,any theories or interpretations being re-corded in quite separate paragraphs. Thenotes should be full and accurate (but notverbose); the geologist should never relyon his memory.
132,
135
1i. Ladmirant
136
The description of an outcrop shouldbegin with general features, passing on todetails at the end.
We give below, for guidance, a list,which is not intended to be exhaustive, ofthe main features to be taken into con-sideration in the :case of an outcrop ofsedimentary rocks:
general appearance, shape, dimensions,presentation and thickness of beds,nature and thickness of interbeds,description of the rock: name identi-fiable minerals coherence hardnessgranularity colour of the weatheredsurface and of freshly-broken rock,sedimentological features: nature, size anddistribution of detrital elements, cross-bedding graded bedding ripplemarks desiccation fissures lenticulararrangement banding criteria indi-cating the normal and overturned posi-tion nodules inclusions geodes
marker beds,tectonic features: folding microfolding
joints schistosities faults,presence of fossils, their nature andposition,contacts between different kinds of rock,special features of weathering of meta-morphism,modification on contact of eruptiverocks,mineralization.If a detailed study of a large section is
required, it is advisable to describe the bedsstarting from the stratigraphic base andworking up towards the top.
Pbolograpy. Photographs are an excellentmeans of illustrating observations; they alsohelp the geologist to recall certain aspectsof an outcrop and of the landscape.
The geologist's equipment should there-fore include a small high-quality camera,preferably a miniature camera equipped withthree standard lenses and an exposuremeter. A wide-angle or panoramic lens isessential in order to obtain an extensive
Y
view of the landscape or to photograph acomplete outcrop which has to be takenclose-up, as in the case of a gorge or moun-tain pass. The telephoto lens is used to takelarge views of the detail of a conglomerateor contact, fossils, sedimentation figures,inclusions, etc.
Colour is an important geological featurein rocks; it can be reproduced most faithfullyby means of good quality colour transparen-cies. If only one camera is available, it shouldbe loaded with colour film, from whichblack and white prints can always be madeif required. The ideal arrangement is to havetwo cameras, one for colour and the otherfor black and white. There are now camerason the market with interchangeable backswhich make it possible to change over fromcolour to black and white or vice versa ata moment's notice. The use of colour filtersdemands some experience of photographictechniques, and the geologist who is notaccustomed to them would do well to avoidtheir use.
It is not easy to photograph rocks, as theygenerally lack any sharp colour contrast.The photographer cannot control hislighting, and statistics show that half of thesurfaces to be photographed are in shadow.When this is the case, flash photography canbe used for close subjects (at a distance of afew metres). Always remember to indicatethe scale of the objects being photographedby laying on the rocks a familiar object,such as a hammer, compass or pen, the sizeof which is well known.
The geologist should endeavour to makehis photographs attractive pictures as wellas valuable documents, by selecting theangle from which he takes the photograph,by giving the picture a foreground and bypaying attention to composition. Thenumber of each photograph should berecorded in a notebook and it is often usefulto add a few words describing some char-acteristic of the object photographed, sothat it can be identified subsequentlywithout any fear of confusion.
133
The photographic technique which cangive the best results is the one advocatedby L. \V. Le Roy under the title of 'photo-stratigraphy'. This technique consists merelyin taking a series of four or five photographsof one outcrop, reducing the distance eachtime. The first photograph puts the outcropin its setting; the second shows the completeoutcrop; the third covers part of it; and thefourth, taken at a distance oft or 1.5o m,brings out certain details.
Stereoscopic photography can be ofgrcat service in some cases, particularly inbringing out irregularities in badly-litsurfaces without any shadows. There arespccial cameras on the market dcsigned totake two photographs simultaneously. Theyare rclativcly expensive, as they have twinlenses, besides which they add to the bulkof the field geologist's equipment. With alittle experience, however, it is possiblc totake stcrcopairs', for stereoscopic viewing,with a single-lens camera. A stcrcopair'consists of two photographs of the sameobjcct taken from different but neighbour-ing camera stations so that they will be onthe same scalc. The procedure is as follows:
take the first exposure, making an exactnote of the picture area covered:roll the film on for the next exposure,move the camera sideways to right or left,point the camera at the same object,ensuring that the picture area is the sameas in the first exposure,take the second exposure.The distance between the two camera
stations is called the base. The rule to beremembered is that the wider the bast, thegreater will be the exaggeration of distancealong the axis of the camera, i.c. the greaterwill be the impression of depth when thephotographs are viewed through a stereo-scope. When photographing at relativelyshort distances up to zo or 3o m thephotographer stands at the same place andmerely bends his body slightly so that thecamera is moved about zo cm to the left orright. For landscapes, the sideways move-
Field work tcchniqucs in gcology and mineralogy
ment should be about one pace. It is advis-able, however, to begin by making severaltests using different lenses.
Measurements. The correct surveying of a tra-verse, with accurate measurements of anglesand lengths, comes under the heading oftopography, and it would take up too muchspace to describe the methods here. It maybe of interest, however, to mention thesimple cyclometcr method. The .cquipmcntconsists of the front forks of a bicycle,complete with wheel and handlebars. Asmall cyclometer is fitted to the wheel, andthis is used to measure the distance covered.The angles can be measured with reasonableaccuracy by means of a compass fitted withsmall sights. The traverses made by thisprocedure must either be closed, i.c. termi-nating at the starting point, or they mustbe based on two fixed points.
At least one of the instrument stationsshould be a position which can easily beidentified on an aerial photograph or map,if possiblc a geodetic point.
It should also be mentioned that simple,light and portable instruments are avail-able consisting of a compass with sights,clinometer, telemeter with stadia rod, andalidade.
It is essential that the description of anoutcrop should be accompanied by thefollowing measurements:
dimensions of the outcrop, thickness ofbeds and veins, size of enclosures,boulders, etc.,direction of strata, veins, contacts, faults,fractures, schistositics,inclination of the above,altitude of the outcrops.The dimensions listed above are normally
measured with a two -metre steel tape.Measurement of the strikegenerally of
the bedding planeis carried out with theaid of the geologist's compass. The first stepis to examine the outcrop and find a truebedding plant, 'making sure that it is a
typical one; it is always possiblc that there
:134137
H. Ladmirant
may be a small irregularity in the bedding.The simplest, but least accurate, method ofmeasuring is the contact method. Thecompass is held horizontally (this can bechecked by means of the little spirit levelwhich is built into the compass case) andplaced on the surface which is to be meas-ured so that the edge of the compass whichis parallel to tht north-south line is in closecontact with the surface. It is then onlynecessary to wait until the needle comes torest and to read off from the dial the bearingindicated by the blued point (Fig. z8).
When dealing with large solid beds suchas quartzite strata several metres or dozensof metres thick, surrounded by soft schistosematerial, great care must be taken to ensurethat the planes marked as bedding planesare in fact bed surfaces and not joints. Thisis a frequent source of error.
An important precaution, which shouldalways be taken when measuring the strike,is to move one's hammer at least threemetres away. The compass needle is alsoliable to be affected by the close proximityof metal posts, railway lines or a motorvehicle.
The geologist's compass incorporates aclinometer; this is a small pendulum, the
138 free end of which moves along a graduated
Fig. 28.
Measuring the strike and dip of geologicalstrata.
arc. When measuring dip, the compass isheld vertically, perpendicular to the strike.To make sure that the compass is in thecorrect position, it should be tilted slightly,when the correct angle of dip will alwayscorrespond to the highest reading on theclinometer.
When the surface being studied is exten-sively exposed, greater precision in measure-ment can be attained by employing the`indirect' method, i.e. by moving a shortdistance away from the outcrop andaligning the edge of the compass with theplane by sighting instead of contact. Thisgives an overall measurement which is notaffected by small surface irregularities.
When recording observations in thenotebook, the strike should be indicatedfirst, followed by the dip. The clearest wayof recording this is:
s: N 400 W; d: 270 SW
It is not advisable to make an immediatecorrection for magnetic deviation and quotethe angle of strike by reference to true north,because awkward mistakes can be made ifthis is overlooked, which is always liable tohappen. Always indicate clearly what thesemeasurements refer to (bedding, schistosity,etc.ru
An altimeter is an instrument workingon thc principle of thc measurement ofatmospheric pressure; there arc some com-pact modcls on thc market. If the %.:asurc-ment is being madc by direct reading,howevcr, a series of corrections will alwayshavc to be madc afterwards; for dctails thereader is referred to the manufacturer'sinstructions. Certain precautions must betaken at the outset to deal with one impor-tant correction, namely that for variations ofatmospheric prcssurc. A base station, lessthan too km away, should be equipped witha recording barometer or an altimeter, thereadings of which should be noted everyhour.
If it is not possible to provide a controlstation of this kind, it will be necessary touse the theoretical barometric pressurecurve based on the observations of the localmeteorological service. If this informationis not available, the geologist must checkthe pressure variation curve himself, bytaking frequent readings whenever he isable to stop at the same place for twenty-four hours or more. Altimeter recordingsshould always be accompanied by an indi-cation of the time.
It often happens liat soft or loose forma-tions of relatively recent origin, eitherhorizontal or sub-horizontal, partially covera developed and more or less pcneplainsubstratum. In such regions, measurementsof altitude arc the only means of reconstruct-ing the position of the surface of uncon-formity and of calculating the strike and dipof the overburden. The geologist also needsto know the altitude in order to be able todetermine and correlate the peneplains andterraces.
(b) Collecting specimens
The purpose of specimens is:to illustrate and support geologicalobservations,to illustrate the stratigraphic scale,to indicate exactly the composition of
Field work techniques in geology and mineralogy
marker beds, define the metamorphism,study the nature of the eruptive rocks,etc.,to enable fossils to be investigated andidentified,to enable various studies to be carriedout, including the determination ofisotope relationships (absolute geochro-nology by means of radiation measurc-ment) and traditional chemical analysis,to enrich the museum's collection ofrocks, minerals and fossils.In principle, every obscration should be
illustrated by a specimen. In practice,however, this procedure would involvecollecting an excessively large number ofspccimcns, and the geologist should there-fore limit their number, bearing in mindtheir probable degree of usefulness; heshould not, however, be afraid to increasethe number, as it is always better to do thisthan to collect too few and to have to returnto the field later.
Rock spccimcns should generally bebetween eight and fifteen centimetres ineach of the three dimensions. Each specimenshould bear the number of the observationpoint. If several spccimcns arc taken fromthe same point, they should be given sub-sidiary numbers thus:
J. S. 827/x or J. S. 1224/3.
Where the material is of a heterogeneousnature -- ptygmatic folds, rough conglome-rates, contacts larger spccimcns will berequired. As far as possible, all specimensshould be taken in duplicate, so that onecan remain at the base camp for referencewhile the other is sent to the museum. Thereference number should be marked on thesample indelibly with enamel paint and alsowritten on a label to go with the specimenin its bag.
An easy way of provisionally numberingthe specimen is to attach a piece of adhesivetape to the surface (which must be com-pletely dry) and write the number on it,either with a ball-point pen or, better still with
"6139
H. Ladmirant
140
an indelible pencil. Specimens of hard rockshould be put in linen bags, and soft, friableand loose materials should be placed inplastic bags.
It is advisable to indicate the orientationof all samples, i.e. to record their positionso that this can be reconstructed in thelaboratory. The normal procedure is asfollows: a piece of adhesive tape is attachedto the chosen face of the outcrop; the strikeand dip of this face are measured, and theinformation written on the adhesive tape;the piece of rock is then detached from therock-face. Specimens marked to show theorientation should be taken whenever theyare likely to be required for structural orstratigraphic studies. In the case of specimensof sedimentary rocks, it may be sufficientmerely to mark the top and the bottom inrelation to the stratification. This relativeorientation can easily be indicated by thesign or used to indicate the top andthe bottom respectively.
Particular care is required in packing thespecimens. To prevent movement duringtransport, they should be tightly wedgedwith paper or some other packing material,because any rubbing or jolting is likely not
merely to damage the samples, but also tospoil the labels on them, or even make themillegible.
Some minerals which are highly fragile(needles), or soluble in water, should bepacked first of all in thin paper (tissue paperor similar) and then in cotton. Woodshavings or paraffin wax can also be usedto pack the box.
Some fossils, such as ammonites whichhave suffered epigenesis by marcasite orpyrite, must be protected from damp. Frag-ile specimens can be strengthened bycoating them with a binding material suchas gum arabic, dissolved in a little water.
A final point: no attempt should be madein the field to remove fossils from the rockspecimen; this is delicate work, which oftentakes a longtime and needs special equip-ment.
Rock and mineral specimens intendedmainly to add to the museum's collectionsshould comply with the general conditionsindicated above, but they should be selectednot only as representative samples but alsofor their intrinsic interest (rarity, beauty or,in general, any feature which distinguishesthem from normal specimens).
137
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AMERICAN SOCIETY OP PHOTOGRAMMETRY. 1952.Manual of pbotogrammetly, znd ed., 876 p.
BANDAT, H. F. von. 1962. Aerogeolog. Houston,Texas, Gulf Publishing Co. 342 p.
COLWELL, R. N. t96o. Manual of photographinterpretation. American Society of Photo-grammctry. 868 p. (Very extensive biblio-graphy.)
FURON, R. 1962. Formulaire du giologue, znd ed.,Paris, Paul I.echevalier. 228 p.
GERARDS, J.; LADNIIRANT, H. 1963. Laphoto-giologie au service des travaux priliminaires a lamire en valeur des ressources minirales. Memo-randum on item A. 5.2.x. Geneva, UnitedNations Conference on the Application ofScience and Technology for Development.(oc. E./Conf. 39/A186.)
I It; ttAuur, J. 1956. Manuel de photograunnitrie.. Paris, InstitutGeogtaphique National. 2 vols.,
4i5 P.
Field work techniques in geology and mineralogy
LAIIEE, F. H. 1961. Field geology, 6th ed., NewYork and London, McGraw-Hill. 925 p.
Low, J. \V. t 952. Plane table mapping. New York,Harper Brothers.
. 1957. Geology field methods. New York.390 p. (Harper's geoscience series.)
Mn-Left, V. C. 196 Photogeolog. New York,McGraw-Hill. 231 p.
Rmsz, E. 1962. Principles of cartography. London,McGraw-Hill. 315 p.
SCIGNOBOSC, H. t948. Cours de topographic gine-rak. Paris, Charles-Lavauzelle. 56o p., 422 illus.
SMITII, H. T. U, x943. Aerial photographs andtheir applications. New York, Appleton-Cen-tury-Crofts. (An excellent introduction toaerial photography.)
UNITED NATIONS. 1960. Proceedings of the UnitedNations aerial survey methods and equipment.67.p. (ECAFE, Min -oral Resources-Develop-
mcnt Series, no. 12.)
138
141
L. 0. Williams
Field work techniques in botany
INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of field work is toprepare voucher specimens for subsequentexamination in the course of floristic, eco-logical or other studies of a region for whichknowledge of the vegetation is required:These specimens should eventually bestored in an herbarium, where they will beavailable to students who may wish torestudy them and where they can be pre-served for all time.
In addition to the work of gathering theactual specimens, adequate field data con-cerning these specimens should also becompiled. This data should be recorded onlabels to accompany not only the originalspecimens, but also such duplicates as maybe collected at the same place and at thesame time. Usually, such field data is firstwritten into a field book at the time ofcollection, the labels being prepared laterfrom the data in this book. After the workof preparing the labels is completed, thefield book should be deposited at the insti-tution of the collector.
The careful selection and preparation ofspecimens in the field and the preparationof adequate field data for these specimens isessential if the work is to be of permanentvalue. Poorly prepared or inadequate speci-mens with poor field data are practicallyworthless. If they have to be sent to aspecialist for determination they may berefused, or determination satisfactory to theproject may prove to be impossible.
PRELIMINARY CONDITIONS AND
PREPARATIONS
The choice of the region to work on isnormally dictated by the purpose of thestudy. If, for example, it is desired to dofield work related to a floristic study of thevegetation of a country, then the basicregion to be studied will be quite differentfrom that selected if the object is to investi-gate the ecology of sheep-raising in thatsame country, or to carry out a forest survey,
The time involved in a study will also belimited or controlled by the type of studyand the size of the region. A forest surveyof a mountain in Wyoming may take onebotanist from a few days to a few weeks.A forest survey of Peruvian Amazonia, onthe other hand, may take a group of bota-nists, foresters and collectors twenty orthirty years. The size and complexity of thestudy to be made should be carefullyassessed as far as possible in advance so thatprovision can be made for adequate financeto complete the work.
Obviously, the more accessible the regionis to the person making the study, the moreeasily he will be able to carry out the variousfield programmes involved. A botanistworking in Liberia, for example, will findit easier and more profitable to work on themultitude of problems that his own countrypresents than to spread himself and hisresources over too large an area. Eachparticular problem studied will give anindication as to what portion of the country
9103 0
143
L. 0. Williams
should be worked next and what materialwill be required.
Many field studies, however, especiallyin the tropics, are undertaken by men andinstitutions far away. This may be dictatedby the research interests of that institutionand the men who staff it. An example of thisis the writer's institution, where certainregions of the ncotropics have been understudy since the end of the nineteenth cen-tury and where one of the finest researchcollections for that part of the tropics hasbeen accumulated.
Preliminary studies to field work on theregion selected may be simple or compli-cated. A forest survey of a mountain inWyoming may involve nothing more com-plicated than getting some collecting ma-terials together, loading them into a field car,going to the mountains to make the collec-tions and observations necessary to the studyand then going home. The preliminarystudies for a forest survey of such a regionas Amazonian Peru may take a good dealof library study, consultation with peopleacquainted with the region, making arrange-ments for staying in the region, and move-ment and use of the material once the teamis in the region to be studied. A preliminarytrip into the region by the person doing theplanning can be very useful for makingcontacts upon which the success of theproject may depend.
The preparation of an expedition may be veryeasy (most are) or difficult, depending onthe region. If one is working from head-quarters where all the facilities are available,it may simply be a matter of going out tothe place to be worked, gathering thespecimens, then coming back in and pre-paring the material collected.
The preparation of a long expedition, ora continuing one to little known regionswhere transportation and other facilities arenotable by their scarcity, may require
144 considerable thought and preparation.
i..._ .
In expeditions to foreign countries, wehave found it desirable, where possibel, toco-operate with an institution in the countrybeing studied. The advantages are mutual.The national institution will get throughthe expeditions materials that might bedifficult to secure with its own resources.The local scientists will have at their disposalfacilities, political and others, that may beinvaluable to the success of the expedition.They may also have facilities available inremote regions where it is hoped to work.A most valuable asset that the local scientistis likely to have is the basic knowledge ofthe country.
The preparation of an expedition to aremote area must be carefully done. If mostof the materials to be used are to come fromanother country, which is -often- the case,then these must be procured and shippedwell in advance so that they are availablewhen needed. Everything that is neededmust go in this advance shipment, for oncethe expedition is in the field, somethingforgotten will cause difficulties.
Scientists have a habit of planning ex-peditions that may stretch to the limit thefinancial backing available. While it iscommendable to try to get as much materialas possible, in complicated expeditions itmay be wise to limit the field work to whatmay reasonably be done with funds available.
FIELD WORK
lVork plan. There are as many work plansfor collecting botanical specimens as thereare botanists. The work plan will be dictatedto a considerable extent by whether the workis being done at some distance or near toheadquarters or a semi-permanent basecamp. The kind of country being workedand the weather and climate conditionslikely to be experienced will have a veryimportant influence on planning.
If the weather permits drying by sunheat, then materials can be collected andbrought from the field and put immediately
Platt 24.
(a) A held press showing Larryingstraps to permit expansion, and closingstraps. This press is made of mahogany;it measures about 3o X 45 cm.
(b) The same press opened out.
(a)
141
(b)
(c)
=11116.--'-1:--
(d)
142
(c) Detail of closing strap.(d) Detail of expansion strap.(e) Detail of fastener used with closing strap.
t
(e)v ,V71.71..°
t,
Platt 2J.(a) One -press boad, sire 30 rx 45 on.(b) Detail of construction of press board,
the rivets arc copper. The wood usedin this case is hickory.
(a)
(b)
143
4
1
144.
Plate 26.
An aluminium corrugatc, size 3o x 45 cm.
Plak 27.Scqucncc for prcss: prcss board, dricr,corrugatc, dricr (plant), drier, etc., andfinally a closing prcss board.
into press and dried. Depending uponmaterials and temperature, drying maytake from two to four days. If onereturns to headquarters or to a good basecamp each day, where artificial heat is
available, then again it is advisable to putmaterial into presses and begin drying atonce.
When one is away from headquarters,and especially if drying conditions aredifficult or slow, it is perhaps best to pre-serve the material in formalin until returningto headquarters. This is especially true ifone is working in humid forest areas. How-ever, if it is necessary to dry in the field, itis easy to devise a method using the ma-terials at hand. Presses may be filled in theusual manner and the heat applied to these.Open, fire may be used, but continual caremust be taken not to burn equipment andspecimens. When it is known that condi-tions will be damp, kerosene lanterns, lampsor stoves, gasoline lanterns, or other typesof heaters, may be taken into the field.Little else is needed besides the ordinarypresses with some skirts to help direct theheat and a framework on which to set thepresses.
When one is working in humid areas along way in distance or time from head-quarters, drying may be so slow thatwithin a short time, all the available dryingequipment is tied up. Valuable time willthen be lost waiting for material to comeout of the press so that more can be put in.Under such conditions it is usually preferableto collect as great a representation of thevegetadon- as possible to avoid using fieldtime in the routine of caring for the pressesand keeping the heaters going. We havecome to the conclusion that if we are to beaway from headquarters more than a day,then all material goes into formalin and isdried at headquarters at leisure. The collec-tors thus spend most of their time collectingrather than in the relatively unproductiveoperation of drying while in the field. Thissystem increases the 'take' considerably.
Field work techniques in botany
Methods of collecting botanical specimens varyfrom collector to collector and may alsovary according to the materials being col-lected. If a general collection for floristicstudies is being made, then it is well to takeeve. 'Fling that is in determinable condition.Even if a plant is a common species, it isstill best to take it, for no one can carry allthe details of a flora in his head, especiallyin tropical regions, where the number ofspecies, and often related species, is verygreat and frequently not well known.
The actual procurement of specimens isusually not difficult. Small trees, shrubs orherbs present no problem. In tropical foreststhe procurement of specimens from theforest giants, however, may be a lesssimple matter. It is sometimes impossibleto tell from the ground if a tree is in flower.And if it is in flower, how can the flowerbe obtained? The time involved in fellinga tree is so great that it is rarely practised.Often a length of cotton clothes line with arock tied on the end can be entangled inbranches and these broken off. One situationthat should never be passed by is a clearingoperation where trees are being felled. hiswill make available the tree tops and all theepiphytes and other plants that grow onand among these branches.
What should actually be taken? Every-thing for which there is a reasonable ex-pectation of determination. If somethingsterile is important in a study, then take itand hope that it can be determined. If thestudy is a special one, then the collectormay limit his collections to those plantswhich he wants.
The selection of specimens should becritical. If a herbaceous plant is being col-lected, then be as sure as reasonably possiblethat all the plants collected and put underone field number are all the same thing. Thisproblem is relatively easier when shrubs ortrees are being collected. Branches from asingle shrub or tree will usually supplyenough specimens to make up the numberof duplicates desired.
145
149
L. 0. Williams
150
The actual tools used to collect with mayvary from collector to collector. The writeruses a fairly heavy machete as an all-purposetool. It can be used to dig, to cut or to chop.Trowels are often used; a geologist'shammer is a useful tool in hard or rockyground; a pair of pruning shears is anexcellent tool for use in collecting woodymaterial; a good quality pocket knife isalways useful; a good cotton clothes linewith a rock or stick attached is a handymeans of breaking down branches that aretoo high to reach; saws or cutters on long,extensible handles are useful in specialsituations.
Field presses or other devices to hold theday's accumulation are necessary. Fieldpresses should themselves be light in weightso as not to add to the load excessively(Pktes.24-27). They shotild open and closeby a simple device and be extensible as theybecome fuller and fuller. Newsprint may beused in these presses to hold each collectionand to keep the materials separated. We havefound that large plastic bags are eminentlyuseful when collecting in the wet forest orwhere it is rainy. They are not so good touse in dry sunny regions because of the heatwhich they trap. Coffee sacks are also usefulin some situations. The old vasculum is stillused and is useful in dry regions wherespecimens may be small. In most circum-stances, however, they are too small, or iflarge enough, too heavy for use in tropicalregions where material piles up rapidly.
FIELD DOCUMENTATION
Data must be kept for all collections andshould be written down in a field book assoon as possible after the collection is made.Every collector should number his collec-tions serially and should never repeat hiscollection numbers. These numbers shouldgo on all labels, the same number being usedfor all duplicate specimens of one collection.
Characteristics of the plant should berecorded where these are not obvious from
the specimen. Flower colour should bementioned for it is fugaccous. If the plantis a shrub this should be recorded, as it isoften impossible to tell from a specimenwhether it was from a tree or a shrub. Thesize of the plant should be given if it is notobvious from the specimen. If the plant isan epiphyte, a parasite, a saprophyte, thisshould be recorded. For trees it is well togive diameter of the trunk at breast height(DBH) or above the buttresses. The habitatof the plant should be accurately given (forexample 'pine savannas', `primary rainforest'). Geographical data should be givenwith care, and in remote regions where thenames of geographical features are not wellfixed, it is not unreasonable to give positionby latitude and longitude. Elevations areoften essential and are given for preferencein metres. Major political divisions shouldbe given for all collections.
In the preparation of labels for collectionsthe data from the field books are transposedin proper order. It is customary to put atthe head of the label the name of the majorpolitical entity where the collection wasmade, for example `Peru', not 'Plants ofPeru', for we may assume that the personusing the specimen knows it is a plant.Following 'Peru' in smaller type, may bethe name of the institutions sponsoring theexpedition (Fig. 19). This has been referredto as `the commercial'. The collectionnumber may be put at any convenient place,usually following the name of the collectoror preceding the scientific name. Thescientific name should follow, or a spaceshould be left for it if it was not knownwhen the label was prepared. If the materialwas determined by a specialist, it is custom-ary to add this information after the scien-tific namedet. Wurdack, 'pa or Wurdack,1966 is usually sufficient. The native namemay also be given at the beginning of themain body of information if it is known. Ifthis name is in an indigenous dialect thename of the people or dialect should begiven. Then there may follow the data
1 /161
mentioned above in field notes, first de-scribing the plant (i.e. forest tree to z8 m,t., m DBH); then flower or fruits; thenhabitat; then geographical location; then theelevation and date. The name of the collectoror collectors should be the last item on thelabel. However, there are as many formatsfor labels as there are persons who preparethem: the main requirement is to ensurethat all essential information is entered onthe label. Something that may be commonknowledge to you may not be known tosomeone else. If the specimens are vouchersfor a special study, put this on the label,perhaps at the base.
Labels are not usually prepared in thefield for it is not a good use of availablefield time; any convenient time afterreturning will do. It will be found that muchtime may be saved if as much of the fielddata can be printed as possible (Figs. 29, 3o).If field work was carried on, say, at theconfluence of the Ucayali and Pachitcarivers, in a certain province, near a certainvillage, at such and such longitude andlatitude, for several days, then this infor-mation at least will be applicable to a largenumber of collections and had just as wellbe printed. The paper used for labels shouldbe of good quality. Information written onpaper that crumbles with time is lost forever and the specimen that it accompaniedbecomes essentially valueless.
Fig. 29.The labels illustratedcollections and showpreparing labels:(a) A general label in
and collector are c(b) A special label for
All Field data andmust be written in
(c) Labels completely
were used for specialour method of
which the countryonstant.a specific project.
names of collectors
printed out.
Field work techniques in botany
PERUField Museum of Natural History
Jose Schunke V.
(a)
TREES OF PERUU. S. Foust Products LaboratoryMose Natural Nistoey Museum
(b)
Mir nee, even field number . was visited pedodically to obtain complete helbarunsmums' which wu demeaned end dtusibuled by Chicago Newest Hue«? Museum. The teenwu then felled to abeam wood spennuos foc leans and dated:taloa by U. S. Focal ProducesLab:stew?. The made! wu all collected undee U. S. Public Low 480. Proj. am. by SenkioSmuts! y de Gus Lhae. Punj
HONDURASChicago Natural History Milk=
23288Valeriana urticaefolla HBK.
Flowers white; scattered over moist slopes in
oak-pine forest area in the mountains between MontanaUyuca and La Montaita, about 15 km. east of Tegucigalpa,
department of Morazfin, alt. 1,500 meters.
January 3, 1963.
Louis 0. WilliamsTerua P. Williams
(c)
147
L. 0. Williams
COSTA RICAChicago Natural History Museum
Escucla Agricola Panamericana
Cut-over cloud forest area near El Cation, 40 km. south of Cartago,province of Cartago, Cordillera de Talamanca, alt. 2500 m., Janu-ary 26, 1965.
Lotus 0. Williams, Antonio Molina R., Teri,. P. WElliains. Dorothy N. Gibson.
GUATEMALAChicago Natural History Museum
Escuela Agricola Panamericana
Montane cloud forest area on outer slopes of Tajumulco Volcano, SierraMadre Mountains about 8-10 km. west of San Marcos, department ofSan Marcos, alt. ±2300 rn., December 31, 1964-January 1, 1965.
Louis 0. William,. Antonio Molina R., Terua P. Williams, Dorothy N. Gibson,sod Chester Lalkowski.
NICARAGUAChicago Natural History Museum
Escucia Agricola Panamericana
Cutover hills about 15 km. northeast of Matagalpa along Rio LasCaSas, Department of Matagalpa, alt. ±700-800 m., January 14,1965.Louis 0. William,. Antonio Molina R., Tema P. Williams. Dorothy N. Gibson.and Chester Laskowski.
148
STABILIZATION OF BOTANICAL. MATERIAL INTHE FIELD
If thc field work is bcing done near head-quarters where major drying apparatus isavailablc, or at a field camp sct up fordrying in the field, then drying may bestarted the same day the collcction is madeor at most thc following day. This is theideal situation and specimens are perhapsbcst prcparcd in this way, using artificialhcat to hurry the drying.
The specimens are laid out on newsprint,the number of the collcction written on eachsheet in pencil (some 'modern' pens use inksthat are unstable) and absorbent drier paper,a corrugatc and another drier placed on it.The procedure is then repeated until thestack is 6o-90 cm tall. The stack is thenpi-aced" betiveen press'boards and tighteneddown, using good cotton clothcs line orweb straps for the purpose (clothes line ischcaper and perhaps better) (Fig. 30. Thepress is then put ovcr the heaters. It willbecome slack and need tightening afterI 5-zo hours. Specimens should not be driedso fast that they become brittle or dis-coloured. Specimens dry at different rates;two to four days is normal. Fleshy plantsmay take a week or two.
When working away from headquarterswe have devised and used over the years a
Fig. 3o.Labels in which the majority of the datais printed on to the label.Numbers, scientific names, as well as specificdata for each collection must be writtenin the spaces provided.
systcm that will permit us to prcscrvcspecimens for up to six wecks before weget back to headquarters and dry them out.The system is simple, safc and rapid. Intwenty years we have lost a fcw specimensby mould, but so fcw as not to be significant.
The specimcns arc prepared betweennewsprint just as though thcy were to beput into prcss immediately. The newsprintis first 'painted' with formalin, thc specimenput in and arranged, thc top half of thcncwsprint closcd and painted with formalin.The next piece of ncwsprint is placcd ontop (it will stick because of the formalin onthe sheet below) and 'painted', the nextspecimen is placed and arranged, and so on.Whcn the bundlc is 15 -:o cm thick it shouldbe wrapped up tightly in a piece of plasticabout x x 1.5o m, tied securely with stringand stored in a cool place. If desired, ancwspaper can be put on either side of thcbundlc, bcfore it is put into thc plastic, andwetted with formalin. This gives a littlemorc protection to thc bundles.
If the specimcns are to be put into presswithin a week, thc formalin used may bc5 per cent. Up to two weeks before dryinguse xo per cent. Forma lin of 15 per centconcentration will hold the specimcns foras much as six wecks.
The disadvantage of this systcm is thcresultant discoloration of the specimens.
Fig. 31.Side view of a loaded prcss.
Field work tcchniqucs in botany
Advantages arc that the specimens dryquickly (in about z days) and arc apparcntlybug-proof, perhaps permanently.,
Whether specimcns are dricd from freshmaterial or from matcrial preserved informalin they should be taken from the pressas soon as they are dry and not left untilthey become brittle.
Standard drier (blotter) paper may beobtained from several firms. Cardboardcorrugates may bc used in the presses topermit circulation of hot air. Thesc usuallycollapsc and become inefficient in a shorttime. Aluminium corrugates arc muchsuperior and last for ycars. The only supplierof these known to thc writer is GcncralBiological Supply House, 8zoo S. HoyneAvc., Chicago, Ill. 6o6zo. Their 1966catalog= lists.thcm at S80.00 per hundred.
Suitable ncwsprint can usually bc hadfrom the local ncwspaper, or by buying oldpapers in the markct.
x. A much more detailed account of the prepa-ration of herbarium matcrial, cart of herbariaand many spccial techniques will be foundin F. Raymond Fosbcrg, and Marie-HeleneSachet Manual For tropical Herbaria, Rcg.Vcg. 39, 1965, p. 1-132, illus. Obtainable fromInternational Bureau of Plant Taxonomy,1o6 Lange, Nicuwstraat, Utrecht (Nethcr-lands).
IS3
. L. 0. Williams
,
154
Press boards can be made by any car-pcntcr. Thcy should be about Go X 45X 1.z5 cm and havc two cross bracts tostrengthen them and to carry the straps orropes (Fig. 3z).
Cotton ropc (6 mm) is cxccllent fortying prcsscs and is chcap. Any othcr ropcor web straps will also scrvc.
A dricr box using cicctric light bulbs canalso be made by any carpenter and wiredby an electrician (Fig. 33). The pressesshould rest on top of the drier, not inside it.The box is made to join tightly at the ends,sides and bottom; three bulb holders arefixed on the bottom and not more than sixa cm holes are drilled around each holder.Air is drawn through these holcs past thehot bulbs and is heated and continues up-ward through the presses.. Bulbs of zoowatts may be used on the first day, thenreplaced by too watt bulbs for slowerdrying or to avoid brittleness in the speci-mens.
Specimens may be taken from the pressas soon as they arc dry. A simple test is to'feel' the specimen for moisture. A fingernail drawn across a leaf will leave a tracklighter than the leaf surface if the leaf is dry,but darker if the leaf is not dry.
Dry specimens should be tied into bundlesand stored where moisture or insects cannotdamage them until such time as they areready to be studied and prepared forlabelling and distribution.
The shipment of specimens from onecountry to another may be regulated orrequire permits, such as export or sanitationpermits. Most countries do not prohibit,tax or collect duties from import of scientificmaterials. Regulations, if any, may varyfrom country to country.
60crn
A
0
C D
B
Fig. 32.A press board.
Fig. 33.A drier box, using electric bulbs asa source of heat.
gv
120 cm
BIBLIOGRAPHY
International code of botanical nomenclature adoptedby the International Botanical Congress (ytb.)Montreal, 19/9. Utrecht, International Bureaufor Plant Taxonomy and Nomenclature, 1961.
USHER, G. A dictionary of botany, including termsused in biochemistry, soil science, and statistics.Princeton, N.J., Van Nostrand, 1966.
K. Kung, R. Miler and W. Huber
Field work techniques in zoology
A. THE SKINNING OF LARGE MAMMALS INTHE HELD
I. Preliminary remarks about shooting
When it comes to shooting large mammals,in order to turn them into specimens thatare worth exhibiting, care must be taken tosee that they are shot cleanly and with theproper ammunition. The point is, firstly,to spare them unnecessary suffering and,secondly, to obtain skins that are not un-necessarily damaged by the shot. Large exitholes may make a skin unusable. If thepreparator is not himself a good shot, heshould leave the shooting to someone whois, and attend solely to the skinning of theanimals and to the preparation in the fieldof the skins and such other parts of theirbodies as are required.
z. The work of the preparator
The first thing is to photograph the animalthat has been killed. Here, detailed photo-graphs of the head and other parts of thebody which are difficult to copy come invery useful later on. Sketches and notes tocomplete the photographic material arehighly desirable. In this connexion, acoloured sketch should be made showing,in particular the size, shape and colour ofthe eye and the diameter and shape of thepupil (Fig. 34). Coloured sketches of bareparts of the skin, as for example on mon-key's heads, are also necessary, as these partsnearly always have to be coloured in after-wards on the dried skin of the animal. If an
Light brown
18
7
t
1
i1
Fig. 34.Drawing of the eye showing its diameter (i8),the diameter of the pupil (7), and itscolouring.
1 51
I0
15
K. Kling, R. Miler and W. Huber
animal is to be shown later in a diorama, itis recommended that coloured photographsbe taken of its habitat.
The skinning should be started as soonas possible. The preparation process is asfollows:
(a) Slitting open the skin (Fig. 35). The animalin our illustration a red buffalois laidon its back. Then the skin is slit straightfrom the lower jaw to the tip of the tail,passing to one side of the penis and testiclesin the cast of males. Care should be takento see that only the skin is cut through andn.4 the muscles underneath. This is bestacliicved if the knife is not pulled but pushed
r 36 with the cutting edge facing upwards in the
Fig. 35-View of the underside of a dead animalshowing the three incisions in the skin:(a) centre-line incision; (b) first crosswiseincision; (c) rear crosswise incision.
cutting direction. After the lengthwise cut,the two cross cuts are made. The cuts arebegun below the dew-claws or, in the case ofbeasts of prey, in the centre of the palm orthe sole of the foot(Figs. 36, 37) and are taken,initially, as far as the carpus or the tarsus,as the case may be. From here, the skin i3opened on the inside from the forearm andupper arm or the leg or thigh right to thecentre of the belly or the breast.
Additionally, in the case of animals withhorns or antlers, the skin is cut on theupper side, as shown in Fig. 38. It is cutthrough round the horns and backwards atan angle to the centre of the hcad and fromthere a little further along the centre-lineover the back of the head and the neck. The
152
Fig. 36.
4
Fig. 37.Line of cut for removing the hooves. Line of cut for removing claws and pads.
Fig. 38.Top view of the head showing the incisionsin the stun around the horns.
153157
K. Kling, R. Bah ler and W. Huber
158
Fig. 39.Line of cut en a monkey's hand for removingthe skin from the skeleton of the hand.
x54
length of this centre-line cut depends onthe size of the horns over which the skinhas to be pulled.
(b) Skinning. The skinning is begun in theregion of the breast. The edges of the cutare lifted by hand and the connective tissuebetween the underside of the skin and themuscles is carefully cut through with aknife. In this way, one slowly works one'sway forward towards the back and towardsthe outside of the extremities. This workrequires some practice, as it is importantnot to tear any holes in the skin. In order todetach the skin from the hind legs and fromthe tail, where it connects up with the rectumand also, in females, with the genital orifice,it must be cut through as deeply as possible.Special care must be taken in detachinghooves, claws or nails from the foremostphalanges. These horny formations are part ofthe skin and must remain attached to it. Thecutting lines are shown in Figs. 36, 37 and 39for hooves, paws and for a monkey's hand.As on the body, the skin here is alsodetached, starting from the cuts, from allaround the phalanges.
The most difficult thing, which is noteasy to describe, is the preparation of theears, eyelids and lips. In the case of the ears,the skin must be cut out as deeply as pos-sible in the auditory canal. Then theexternal ear is turned inside out like a glove,by detaching its skin on the outside fromthe cartilaginous sustentacular tissue. Theear cartilage therefore remains attached tothe underside of the skin of the external ear
and is not, as might be expected, removed.Now the skin can be removed right downto the eyes. The fragile eyelids must beseparated from the cranium as far down aspossible in the orbits. Once this has beendone, the cranium can be skinned rightdown to the lips. They should be detachedfrom the skin of the mouth along the jawsand inside the visible edge of the lips wherethey fold under. Once the upper lip hasbeen cut through, it is detached from theinside as far as the nasal cartilage, which isthen cut through. Only then, i.e. when theskin has been completely detached from thecranium, is it carefully separated from thenose membrane.
To put it briefly, the dead beast is there-fore skinned by working from the belly-side towards the back and from the tailtowards the head.
(c) Preservation of the skin in the field. Scissorsand a knife are used to remove any re-maining flesh and adipose tissue from theskin. Blood stains should be cleaned withcold water. Then the skin is laid out on theground with the hair side underneath, amixture of two parts of common salt(NaCI) and one part of potash alum(K Al SO4) is rubbed into the inner side andit is finally covered with a layer of this saltcompound. This both draws water from itand preserves it sufficiently to preventdecomposition from setting in for someconsiderable time, even in a damp state.Time and circumstances permitting, it isrecommended to lay the skins out over amakeshift wooden lattice frame so that theair can also get at the hair side. To protectit against insects, it should be treated onboth sides with an insecticide. Skins shouldnever be left to dry in the sun, as thisdestroys the fibres in the leather layer.
(d) Measuring the skinned animal. Accuratemeasurements are necessary for the sub-sequent reconstruction of the animal's body.It is laid on its side with its legs and head
Field work techniques in zoology
in as natural a position as possible, and twooutline drawings of it are made, on whichthe measurements shown in Figs. 4o, 41 areput in. In Fig. 4o, these are straightlinemeasurements. If by any chance a measure-ment is made over a curve, a special noteof this should be made. The measurementsgiven in Fig. 41 are circumference measure-ments of the neck, body and extremities,and also measurements taken horizontal tothe syinmctry plane, which are calleddiameters. These measurements should besufficient to reconstruct an animal's bodywith the necessary accuracy. It should benoted, however, that they cannot recordthe finer details concerning the shape of thebody. They are simply to help the preparatorto determine the rough shape, as it were, ofan animal and its proportions. The prepa-rator, who has to prepare specimens, can-not get by without a good knowledge ofanatomy. In addition, it is always advisableto note down or photograph any specialfeatures of the structure of the body.
If the complete skeleton of the animal isnot going to be preserved, just the craniumand a foreleg or a hind leg should be pre-pared. The cranium serves later as the basisfor modelling the head, of which a specialdrawing should be made showing itsmeasurements (Fig. 42), and the foreleg orthe hind leg serves to determine exactly theposition of the articulations. These partsof the skeleton are separated from the bodyat the shoulder or at the. pelvic joint andare freed from muscular fat as cleanly aspossible. The cranium is severed from thefirst cervical vertebra and the brain is re-mooved through the foramen magnum.The bone material- is rubbed thoroughlywith salt, treated with an insecticide andpowdered.
(e) Marking the material. So that items donot get mixed up, all the preserved parts ofan animalthe skin, cranium and legbonesmust bear the same number. Metaltags, with the number engraved on them
155
159
K. fang, R. Baler and W. 1 tuber
and which are tied on with wire, are thebest solution. The corresponding measure-ment drawings must, of course, bear thesame number and also state where and whenthe animal was killed. This requirementmay seem very obvious, but unfortunatelyit is very often disregarded and cannottherefore be stressed enough.
(f) Packing and carrying. With the hair sideinwards, the dreid skin should be folded insuch a way that there are no sharp creases.On the other hand, the bundle of skin mustbe sufficiently compact for the parts of theskin lying on top of one another not to rub,otherwise this easily leads to chafing. Thepacking material and mode of transportused depend on the climate. Skins must aboveall be protected against damp. Strong plastic
12.11.58 RED BUFFALO .9
bags serve the purpose very well. If onlyfor the sake of cleanliness, the bone materialis also packed in the same way.
3. Expedition equipment for hunting largemammals
Equipment for this purpose should includea portable medicine chest, photographicequipment, field-glasses, drawing materials,coloured pencils, metal tags (numbered), atape-measure, callipers, large and smallknives, a steel, a small whetstone, scissorsof different sizes, a hammer, nails, wire,pincers, tweezers, a saw, an axe, bush-knives,string and rope, strong plastic bags, thread,needles, soap, towels, common salt (NaC1),potash alum (KAISO4), and insecticide(DDT).
143
Fig. 4o.Measuring the skinned animal.
16o Length measurements.
156
78
Field work techniques in zoology
. DIAMETER
Fig. 4I.Measuring the skinned animal.Circumference and diamctcr measurements.
4119.........--
DIAMETERS .. Fig. 42.Measuring the head before skinning. Lengthand diameter measurements.
157
z6x
K. Kung, R. Raider and \V. Huber
B. PREPARATION OF BIRDS AND SMALLMAMMALS
I. Preliminary rema, kr about shooting andtrapping
While birds are generally killed with a shot-gun, various small mammals are caughtwith traps. This is not the place to describethe various methods of catching specimensor the different types of traps used. Thesetting of traps requires specialized know-ledge also of animals' habits. The respon-sible preparator will use only traps thatcause the animal no suffering. He musttherefore limit his choice to types thateither kill the animal cleanly or catch itwithout causing any injury. If the animal iscaught alive, it is the trapper's duty to killit humanely. With the larger animals thiscan be done with a well-aimed shot using asuitable weapon. In the case of small mam-mals such as mice, a powerfuli.e. lethalanaesthetic is recommended. The animal,with or without the trap, is put into a con-tainer which closes tightly and into whicha wad of cotton wool impregnated withchloroform or sulphuric ether has beenplaced.
Small and tiny mammals, unlike the largeones, are not skinned, but stuffed like birds.It is now proposed to describe in detail howbirds are stuffed and then to discuss brieflythe difference between the stuffing of birdsand the stuffing of mammals.
2. The stuffag of birds
The process consists of the following stages:(a) slitting of the belly; (b) severing of the legs;(c) removal of the tail; (d) removal of the wings;(e) luying bare of the neck and cranium; (f) cleaning
and poisoning of the skin; (g) stuffng and sewingup of the skin.
(a) Slitting of the belly (Plate 28). The deadbird is laid on its back and the feathers onits breast and belly are parted so as to lay
bare the skin. Then its skin is slit openwith a sharp scalpel from the tip of thebreast-bone right down to the anus and theskin is detached from the muscles sideways.
(b) Severing of the legs (Plate 29). When theskin has been detached sufficiently to showthe thighs, they are pulled as far as possibleout of the enveloping skin and the legs aresevered at the knee-joints (N.B. not betweenshanks and feet). The muscular thighs there-fore remain attached to the body.
(c) Removal of the tail (Piaie 3o). Now theskin is carefully detached right down to thebase of the body, and the exposed caudalvertebral column, which carries the tailfeathers, is severed as close as possible tothz.s body.
(d) Removal of the wings (Plate 3%). Bydetaching the skin on the breast, which iscarefully eased back and not, as might beexpected, slit open, the upper arms are nowexposed and, like the thighs, are drawn outof their enveloping skin and severed fromthe body at the shoulder joint. Next, themuscles of the upper arm are removed. Themuscle of the forearm and the hand mustalso be cut away. In the case of large birds,the skin on the underside of the wingbetween the radius and the ulna is slit openand the muscles are drawn out with a pairof tweezers. With small birds, it is enoughto cut away the muscles of the forearm.With practice, they can be pulled out fromthe elbow joint. The skin of the wing shouldon no account be detached from the fore-arm, as the setting of the secondary feathersis otherwise destroyed.
(e) Laying bare of the neck and cranium(Plate 32). This operation requires a greatdeal of care and practice. The skin isloosened round the neck and the latter ispulled back rather like a finger being pulledout of a glove. When the head has beenbared as far as the ears, the middle ear is
158
pulled out of the cranium with the tweezers.Then the skin is turned back further insideout as far as the eyes and it is separated fromthe cranium as deep as possible in the orbits,without damaging the eyelids. Next theskin is detached as far as the root of thebeak. The eyes, which are now exposed,are lifted out of their orbits and removed.Lastly, the muscles of the head are cut away,the cranium is severed from the neck, thetongue is cut out and the brain is drawn outthrough the foramen magnum. Thus, thebody, together with the neck and thighs,has been removed from the skin and can betaken away. It will now be used for pre-paring a measurement drawing and, ifnecessary, for determining the bird's sex(see below, p. Ip). Throughout the opera-tion, the different parts of the body, as andwhen they are exposed, should be powderedwith starch-flour. The object of this is tobind the blood, tissue fluid and fat, as thesesubstances otherwise easily stain the feathers.
(f) Cleaning and poisoning of the skin. Duringthe process of skinning, the skin is naturallyturned inside out. Before the skin can beturned right side out again, it must bestripped of all muscle and fat, and thecontents of the uropygial gland must beremoved. Then it is given a thoroughpoisoning treatment with arsenic solution(Na3A,03). This poison must be handledwith the utmost precaution. Nowadays anarsenic substitute is frequently used instead.
(g) Stuffng and serving up of the skin (Plates 33-3J). After it has been poisoned, the skin isturned right side out. To give it a littlefirmness, it is fitted with a wooden stickwhich, with the top part wrapped in cottonwool and inserted into the cranial cavity(Flaky), projects a few centimetres beyondthe tip of the tail. Next the skin is packedloosely with cotton wool, or a similarstuffing material and then the belly incisionis sewn up (Plate 34. Lastly, the legs aretied to the wooden stick. Before the skin
Field work techniques in zoology
is placed in a paper bag to dry, with thewings carefully arranged in their restingposition, the feathers must be meticulouslysmoothed out.
3. General information
It is always possible to turn carefully pre-pared bird skins into items that can beexhibited. This involves reproducing theshape of the bird's body. It is thereforeadvisable to make a drawing showing itsmost important measurements and, moreespecially, the length of the thighs and theposition of the hip and shoulder-joints.Also to be noted are the diameters of theeye and iris, eye colouring, the colour of thebeak and feet and, if necessary, of bare partsof the skin. If the skin is to be of any scien-tific use, there should, of course, be anindication of where and when the Isltd waskilled and of its sex (see p. 17o).
4. Preparing skins of mammals
The skins of small mammals are preparedbasically in the same way as bird skins. Thedifference is simply that the skeleton of thefront and rear extremities remains com-pletely attached to the skin, and that the rearextremities are severed from the body notat the knee-joint, as in the case of birds, butat the hip-joint. To remove the muscles, theskin can be turned back as far as the carpusor the tarsus, and in the case of larger ani-mals, if necessary, as far as the phalanges.Muscular fat should be removed as cleanlyas possible and the bones of the extremitiesshould be treated with arsenic solution orarsenic substitute before the skin is turnedback again.
In the case of skins which are later to befashioned into stuffed animals worthy ofbeing exhibited, the cranium is left in, asin the case of birds. Here too, of course, thehead muscles and brain must be carefullyremoved. If, however, skins are requiredfor scientific purposes, the cranium, which
(-).7.- 9
163
K. Kung, R. Willer and W. Huber
together with its teeth is important fortaxonomic investigations, should be re-moved completely. This is done in the sameway as with the larger mammals. Once thecranium has been isolated, the craniummuscles, tongue and other soft parts areremoved as cleanly as possible. The brainshould be removed with a spatula or with aneedle through the forantm magnum. Ifpossible, it is desirable to leave the cranium,which has been cleaned, in water over night,in order to soak out any haemoglobin,which easily penetrates the bony tissue andis difficult to remove afterwards. Before theskull is packed away, it is dried and salted.of course given a tag which bears the samenumber as the skin to which it belongs.Craniums which have been tmtzed thus arelater soaked, degreased and bleached in thelaboratory.
S. Preservation of dead creatures when beingbrotgh/ in in large numbers
It is not always possible to find time to skinthe birds or small mammals which havebeen killed, either because too many arecoming in at the same time or because fieldconditions do not enable the immediatepreparatory work to be done. In such cases,the dead creatures must be kept fresh andat the same time protected against decom-position. The best course is to slit theabdominal cavity lengthways, remove theentrails and to line the cavity with cottonwool that has been impregnated with alcohol7o per cent. An impregnated pad of cottonwool should also be stuffed into the mouth.Great care should be taken to see that skinor feathers do not get stained with blood.To prevent this, the edges of the openedabdominal wall must be sprinkled with adrying agent such as starch, potato-flour orpowder. Then the skin or feathers aresprayed with DDT or another insecticide,and the dead creatures are placed in plasticbags of the right size. Here they are well
164 protected against desiccation and, provided
they are stored at as cool a temperature aspossible, will keep from one to two dayseven in high summer temperatures.
6. 13quipment for the preparation of birds andsmall mammals
Preparation equipment includes the follow-ing items: portable medicine chest, photo-graphic equipment, nets and traps, draw-ing materials, coloured pencils, a tape-measure or ruler, tags, an injection syringe,a few brushes for poisoning and powdering,scalpels and knives, a steel, a small whet-stone, dissecting scissors, round-nosed scis-sors, tweezers, assorted spatulas for skinningand for removing the brain, sewing silkand needles, twine, stuffing material (cottonwool, kapok, fine wood fibre, tow), woodensticks of varying thickness and length, thincardboard, pins, a small brush for dryingwashed skins with starch, packing material,chemicals: starch, arsenic solution, saturatedor arsenic substitute; as a preservative, ifnecessary, formalin and alcohol 7o per cent.
The preparation of arsenic substitute: Chop up5o g of white soap and dissolve in Soo g ofhot watcr. After cooling, add zo g of alum,10 g of camphor and 5 g of potassiumtartrate and mix the solution with kaolinuntil it is of a syrupy consistence and can beapplied with a brush.
C. PRESERVATION OF FISH, AMPHIBIANS ANDREPTILES
I. Preliminary remarks about catching
The catching of fish and amphibians presentsno special difficulties and need not be de-scribed here. The catching of reptiles is moredifficult; it is something that has to belearnt. Anyone who is inexperienced shouldnot try dangerous experiments, especiallywith poisonous snakes, but let himself beguided by a snake-catcher who knows hisjob.
_16°
F
Plate 28.
Belly incision.
Plate 29.
Severing the legs at the knee-joint. 165
161
4'tsAt .E41411111INX.-Aw
Plate 3o.
Severing the tail.
Plate 31.
66 Severing the wing at the shoulder-joint.
162
ON,
00,11,
<
Plale j2.Exposing the head and cranium, removalof the eyes.
Male jj.A wooden stick wrapped in cotton woolis introduced into the skin.
163
167
168
171,..Z3,Nr
r 164
Platt 3.1.
The skin is stuffed with a fibrous material.
Platt E.The legs are tied to the wooden stick,and the skin is wrapped in a paper bag.A label is attached.
For killing fish, acetone chloroform(trichlorbutyl tertiary alcohol) is used. Thefish is wrapped in a damp piece of gauze orother tissue and laid flat in a vessel filledwith water, into which the killing agent isthen poured.
Amphibians and reptiles are killed in aclosed vessel, the bottom of which is linedwith cotton ivool or cellulose impregnatedwith chloroform and sulphuric ether inequal parts. The creatures very quicklycease to move but it takes some time beforethey die. They should be left for about anhour in the vessel in which they have beenanaesthetized.
When travelling, it is simpler to take alongnicotine in the form in which it is sold as aplant-protective agent. A few drops of thisodourless poison squeezed in the mouthare sufficient to kill the animal. Very largereptiles such as crocodiles must, of course,be shot with a rifle. Nowadays, it is alsopossible to use an anaesthetizing gun forcrocodiles and large snakes, after whichthey are killed by being injected with asuitable poison.
z. Preserving whole animals .
Fish, amphibians and reptiles are generallypreserved whole in formalin, alcohol orchinosol.
Ethyl alcohol (Spirit of wine), which can bedenatured, is the most common preserva-tive, even though the object shrinks fairlyappreciably. It is available commercially ina concentration of approximately 95 percent and must be diluted. To keep shrinkageto a minimum, the animals should first belaid in a 4o per cent solution. For their finalpreservation they are then transferred intoa 7o-8o per cent solution. So that the tissuescan fix quickly, a short incision should bemade in the side of the belly. If it is desiredto obtain fully intact animals, alcohol canbe injected into the abdominal cavity.
Field work techniques in zoology
Formalin is a good fixative and has theadvantage of shrinking the tissues less thanalcohol. It is not to be recommended forpermanent preservation as it dissolves thecalcium in the bones. For fixing, a to percent hydrous solution, i.e. one part ofcommercial 4o per cent formalin to threeparts of water, is used. Then, for permanentpreservation, a 4 per cent solution issufficient (one part of formalin to 9 parts ofwater).
The disadvantage of alcohol and formalinis that they have to be carried in liquid formand in sufficient quantity. As a preservativeand also as a good disinfectant, it is thereforesimpler to use chinosol. It can be obtained intablet form and is used as a 15-2o per centhydrous solution. Chinosol produces onlyslight shrinkage of the animals. It alsopreserves the natural colours much longerthan alcohol or formalin.
3. Preserving skins
For practical reasons, generally only theskin of large reptiles is preserved. As a rulethey are skinned in exactly the same way aslarge mammals (see p.155). The inside of theskin is carefully stripped of fat and is rubbedwith a preservative containing arsenic (seebelow). It can then be put to dry or pre-served in alcohol. If there is no preservativehandy, the skin can be salted and dried likethe skin of a mammal. It is also possible topreserve and transport it temporarily in aconcentrated solution of common salt (twoparts) and alum (one part) or in a solutionof dioxane.
4. Equipment for the preservation of fish, am-phibians and reptiles
Items under this heading include: Fishing-tackle, fishing-nets for catching amphibiansin water; silk thread or fishing-line formaking snares to catch lizards; special tongsfor catching snakes; acetone chloroform,sulphuric ether, nicotine; ethyl alcohol,
165169
K. Kung, R. Bihler and W. Huber
Kidney
Uretha
Oviduct
Ovary
Uterus
Bladder
Uretha
Vagina
Vestibule
(a)
Fig. 43.Sexual organs of mammal. The cat:(a) female; (b) male.
formalin or chinosol; Preserratiresjor reptiles'skins: arsenic (Na3A5O3) (too g), water(475 g), washing soap (65 g), kaolin (56o g),spirit of camphor (45 g); tightly sealingmetal or plastic vessels. Material thathas been preserved in liquid does notnecessarily have to be transported in liquid.If necessary, it can also be wrapped in dampcotton wool and placed in tightly-shutvessels or in plastic bags.
D. DOCUMENTING THE COLLECTED MATERIAL
In a museum collection, every animal musthave a label indicating exactly where andwhen it was found and its sex. Dependingon the object of the mission or the aim ofthe research to which the material is tocontribute, further data should also be
17o included, such as its fresh weight or special
r* 4X66
Kidney
Ureter
Vas deferens
Prostategland
Uretha
Bladder
Bulbourethalglands
Penis
Epididymis
Testis
(b)
information concerning the circumstancesin which it was found. The sex of all largemammals can be determined without diffi-culty from the external genital organs.Determining the sex of small mammalsshould also be possible with practice. In allbirds, on the other hand, which show noexternal sexual diamorphism (i.e. no differ-ence in colour, and so on), their sex mustbe determined by- dissecting the internalsexual organs. Some practice is necessaryhere if the preparator in the field, who isoften working in trying conditions, is tomake a reliable diagnosis. If he is unsure orif he has not the time or the opportunity todo this, the skinned body should be pre-served and provided with the same numberas the skin to which it belongs. It will thenbe possible to determine the sex of theanimal afterwards in the museum. A suitable
Ovary
Kidney
Ureter
Rudiment ofright oviduct ,
Funnel
Oviduct
Shell gland(s4 uterus")
Cloaca
(a)
Fig. 44.Sexual organs of a bird. The domestic fowl:(a) hen; (b) cock.
preservative is a 6 per cent to so per centformalin solution or propyl alcohol 7o percent. To enable the liquid to penetratequickly to the internal sexual organs, a shortincision should be made to open the abdom-inal cavity.
Determination of the sex by dissection isrecommended in all vertebrates which thepreparator does not know or cannotidentify, since in such cases he cannot knowwhether there is an external sexual dia-morphism or not.
Figs. 43, 44 should help preparators tolearn how to distinguish between the maleand female urogcnital system of mammalsand birds. To get at the system, the abdom-inal cavity of the dead animal should beopened with a median incision. As thekidneys and nearby ovaries lie on the dorsalsidein birds the testicles toothey can
Testis
Kidney
Vas deferens
Ureter
(b)
Field work techniques in zoology
only be seen if the intestine is carefullypushed to one side. It is generally notnecessary to remove the intestine from theabdominal cavity. If for some reason,however, it is necessary to take it out, itshould only be severed in front at the thoraxand carefully eased out of the abdominalcavity without severing the rectum.
In reptiles, things are exactly the sameas in birds, with the difference that thefemales do not have just one ovary and oneoviduct, but two. In amphibians, it shouldbe noted that the testicles, too, lie in theregion of the kidneys; the seminiferoustubules lead into the front part of thekidneys and the spermatozoa are thereforedischarged into the ureter.
6'7
171
I
;
[A. 2499,
5 . 0 Or) (stg.) ; 28 F
![BPL LIST-KOLKATA MUNICIPAL CORPORATION …ABDUL BORHAN ABDUL KADIR ABDUL MALEK ABDUL SOBAN ABDUL SOBHAN ABDUL AHAN KHAN ABDUL AJIJ ABDUL AJIJ] ABDUL GAFFAR MONDAL ABDUL HAMID KHAN](https://img.pdfslide.net/doc/110x75/5e6b7102b1682455b35c1d59/bpl-list-kolkata-municipal-corporation-abdul-borhan-abdul-kadir-abdul-malek-abdul.jpg)
