Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants

HANDBOOK FOR COGENERATION

AND COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANTS

Second Edition

Dr. Meherwan P. Boyce, P.E.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Boyce, Meherwan P.Handbook for cogeneration and combined cycle power plants /

Meherwan P. Boyce. 2nd ed..p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7918-5953-7 (alk. paper) 1. Cogeneration of electric power and heat. 2. Combined cycle power plants.

I. Title. TK1041.B68 2010 621.199dc22 2009043330


This book is dedicated to myGrandfather

Khan Bahdur Jehangir R. Colabawala MBE(18851975)

His dedication to engineering andhis achievements in bringing power to

India and Pakistanhas been the inspiration that has

guided me through my entire career


TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION iii

PREFACE xv

1. AN OVERVIEW OF POWER GENERATION 1

Distributed Generation ............................................................................. 17Diesel and Gasoline Engines .................................................................. 21Natural Gas Reciprocating Engines ...................................................... 21Gas Turbines ............................................................................................ 21Micro-Turbines ...................................................................................... 22Fuel Cell Technology ............................................................................... 23Solar Energy-Photovoltaic Cells ........................................................... 27BioMass Systems ....................................................................................... 27Wind Energy ............................................................................................ 27

Cogeneration ............................................................................................. 29Cogeneration Qualifications .................................................................. 34Gas Turbine Cycle in Cogeneration Mode ........................................... 35

Combined Cycle Plants ................................................................................ 39Availability and Reliability ......................................................................... 44Properties of Gas Turbine Exhaust ............................................................ 46

Steam Generation Calculations .............................................................. 47Gas Turbine Heat Recovery ......................................................................... 47Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems .................................... 50

Environmental Effects ............................................................................ 50Integrated Gasifier Combined Cycle Plants ................................................. 50Air Separation Unit .................................................................................... 53Residual Nitrogen Injection ...................................................................... 53Coal Gasifiers ............................................................................................. 54Carbon Capture and Sequestration .......................................................... 57IGCC Plants Commercial and Proposed Plants ..................................... 59


vi COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

2. CYCLES 61

Combined Cycle Plant Operation .............................................................. 61The Brayton Cycle ...................................................................................... 61

Inlet Cooling Effect ................................................................................. 63Regeneration Effect ............................................................................. 70Increasing the Work Output of the Simple Cycle GasTurbine .................................................................................................... 74Intercooling and Reheat Effects ............................................................ 75Injection of Compressed Air, Steam, or Waterfor Increasing Power .............................................................................. 77Combination of Evaporative Cooling and SteamInjection .................................................................................................. 81

Advanced Gas Turbine Cycles ................................................................... 81Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle ................................................... 81

Actual Cycle Analysis .................................................................................. 84The Simple Cycle .................................................................................... 84The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle ................................................................... 86The Regenerative Cycle .......................................................................... 87The Intercooled Simple Cycle ................................................................. 89The Reheat Cycle ..................................................................................... 89The Intercooled Regenerative Reheat Cycle ......................................... 91The Steam Injection Cycle ...................................................................... 91The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle ................................................. 100The Brayton-Rankine Cycle .................................................................. 100

Summation of Cycle Analysis .................................................................. 104A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants ....................................... 104

3. PERFORMANCE AND MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT STANDARDS 117

Major Variables of a Combined Cycle Power Plant ................................ 119Plant Location and Site Configuration ............................................. 119Plant Type ........................................................................................... 122Plant Size and Efficiency ...................................................................... 122Type of Fuel .......................................................................................... 128Types of HRSG ...................................................................................... 128Types of Condensers ........................................................................... 129Enclosures ............................................................................................. 130Plant Operation Mode: Base or Peaking ............................................ 130Start-up Techniques ............................................................................. 131

Performance Standards .......................................................................... 131ASME, Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance ........... 131ASME, Performance Test Code on Test Uncertainty: Instrumentsand Apparatus ..................................................................................... 132ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines ................................ 132


ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbine Heat RecoverySteam Generators .............................................................................. 133ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam Turbines ......................... 134ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam CondensingApparatus ............................................................................................. 134ASME, Performance Test Code on Atmospheric Water Cooling Equipment ........................................................................................... 135ISO, Natural Gas Calculation of Calorific Value, Densityand Relative Density ............................................................................. 135Table of Physical Constants of Paraffin Hydrocarbons ..................... 135

Mechanical Parameters ........................................................................... 136API Std 616, Gas Turbines for the Petroleum, Chemicaland Gas Industry Services ..................................................................... 136API Std 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum,Chemical and Gas Industry Services ..................................................... 138API Std 619, Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compressorsfor Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services ......................... 138API Std 613 Special Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum,Chemical and Gas Industry Services ..................................................... 138API Std 677, General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum,Chemical and Gas Industry Services ..................................................... 139API Std 614 , Lubrication, Shaft-Sealing, and Control-Oil Systems and Auxiliaries for Petroleum, Chemical andGas Industry Services ............................................................................. 139ANSI/API Std 610 Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum,Heavy Duty Chemical and Gas Industry Services ............................... 139API Publication 534, Heat Recovery Steam Generators ...................... 140API RP 556, Fired Heaters & Steam Generators ................................. 140ISO 10436:1993 Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries General Purpose Steam Turbine forRefinery Service .................................................................................... 140API Std 671, Special Purpose Couplings for PetroleumChemical and Gas Industry Services ..................................................... 140ANSI/API Std 670 Vibration, Axial-Position, andBearing-Temperature Monitoring Systems ......................................... 140API Std 672, Packaged, Integrally Geared Centrifugal Air Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and GasIndustry Services ................................................................................. 141API Std 681, Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps and Compressors ............. 141

Gas Turbine .............................................................................................. 141Gears ........................................................................................................... 146Lubrication Systems .................................................................................. 148Vibration Measurements ........................................................................... 149Specifications ........................................................................................... 151

TABLEOFCONTENTS vii


viii COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

4. AN OVERVIEW OF GAS TURBINES 155

Industrial Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines ........................................................ 165Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines ............................................................... 168Medium-Range Gas Turbines .................................................................. 169Small Gas Turbines ..................................................................................... 170Major Gas Turbine Components ............................................................... 173

Compressors ........................................................................................... 173Regenerators ........................................................................................ 189Combustors .................................................................................... 190Combustor Design Considerations ......................................................... 194Typical Combustor Arrangements ......................................................... 195Air Pollution Problems ............................................................................ 196Dry Low NOx Combustor ........................................................................ 201Catalytic Combustion .............................................................................. 208Features of Catalytic Combustion .......................................................... 208Catalytic Combustor Design ................................................................... 211

Turbine Expander Section ........................................................................... 212Radial-Inflow Turbine ............................................................................. 214Mixed-Flow Turbine ................................................................................ 215Axial-Flow Turbines ................................................................................ 215Impulse Turbine ...................................................................................... 219The Reaction Turbine ............................................................................. 222Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts ............................................................ 225Turbine Blade Cooling Design ............................................................... 227Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics ............................................................... 231

Instrumentation and Controls ......................................................................................237

5. AN OVERVIEW OF STEAM TURBINES 239

Introduction ................................................................................................ 239Non-Condensing Cycle ........................................................................... 239Condensing Cycle ................................................................................... 239

The Rankine Cycle ....................................................................................... 240Heat Rate and Steam Rate ....................................................................243Turbine Component Efficiency .............................................................243Mechanical Efficiency ............................................................................244The Regenerative - Reheat Cycle ..........................................................244Steam Turbine ........................................................................................246Classifications of Steam Turbines .......................................................... 247Steam Flow Directions ........................................................................... 247Steam Passage Between Blades ............................................................ 249Turbine Stages in Series ......................................................................... 249Single-Stage or Simple-Impulse Turbine .............................................. 250Multistage Impulse-Type Turbine ......................................................... 251Velocity and Pressure Stage Combination ........................................... 251


Velocity-Stage, Curtis-Type Impulse Turbine ....................................... 251Pressure-Stage, Rateau-Type Impulse Turbine ..................................... 251Arc of Peripheral Admission to the Total Circumference .................... 254General Flow Arrangement .................................................................. 258Single-Flow Single Casing Turbines ...................................................... 259Extraction Flow Turbine ........................................................................ 259Compound-Flow or Tandem Compound Turbine ................................ 260Cross Compound Turbine ...................................................................... 260Double-Flow Turbines ........................................................................... 261Steam Turbine Characteristics ............................................................... 261

Features and Structure of Large Steam Turbines in Combined Cycle Plant Application .............................................................................. 262Features and Structure of HP and IP Nozzles and Blades ........................ 263

HP and IP Nozzle Diaphragms ............................................................... 266Blades ..................................................................................................... 268Blade Attachments ................................................................................ 271

Features and Structure of LP Blades .......................................................... 272Gland Seal System ....................................................................................... 276

Interstage Seals ...................................................................................... 277End Seals ................................................................................................. 277

Required Material Characteristics .............................................................. 278Blade Materials ........................................................................................... 280Surface Treatments ..................................................................................... 282Steam Turbine Performance ...................................................................... 282

Change in Main Steam Temperature ................................................... 286Change in Main Steam Pressure ........................................................... 288Change in Steam Flow ........................................................................... 288Change in Reheat Steam Temperature ................................................ 288Change in Reheat Steam Pressure ........................................................ 288Change in Condenser Back Pressure ..................................................... 293Change due to Operational Hours ....................................................... 295Change in Power Factor ........................................................................ 295

6. AN OVERVIEW OF PUMPS 297

Range of Operation ................................................................................ 297Pump Selection ....................................................................................... 301Pump Materials ....................................................................................... 302

Types of Pumps ............................................................................................ 305Process Pumps ....................................................................................................305Sump Pumps ............................................................................................ 305Axial-Flow Pumps ....................................................................................306Turbine Pumps ........................................................................................306Regenerative Pumps ...............................................................................306Gear Pumps ............................................................................................. 307Screw Pumps ........................................................................................... 307

TABLEOFCONTENTS ix


x COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

Centrifugal Pumps .................................................................................. 307Pump Application in Combined Cycle Power Plants ................................. 312

The IP-LP Circulating Pump .................................................................... 312HP Feed Water Pumps ............................................................................ 313The HP Circulating Pump ........................................................................ 314Condenser Pumps ................................................................................... 314Cooling Water Pumps ............................................................................. 314Lubrication Pumps .................................................................................. 314Fuel Pumps .............................................................................................. 315

7. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS 317

Introduction ...............................................................................................317Design Considerations ...............................................................................320

Multipressure Steam Generators .........................................................320Off-Design Performance .......................................................................322Construction of the HRSG ....................................................................323Casing of the HRSG ...............................................................................324Forced-Circulation System ....................................................................324Back-Pressure Considerations (Gas Side) .............................................324Finned Tubing .......................................................................................324Tube Materials ......................................................................................324HRSG Design Requirements .................................................................325Economizers ..........................................................................................326Evaporators ...........................................................................................327Attemperators .......................................................................................329Desuperheaters .....................................................................................330

Deaerator ...................................................................................................333Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems ................................335Design Features .....................................................................................338Once Through Steam Generators ........................................................342HRSG Operational Characteristics ........................................................344HRSG Effectiveness ...............................................................................346Water Chemistry ...................................................................................346Water Treatment Plants .......................................................................348Chemical Storage and Dosing ..............................................................352HRSG Chemical Cleaning ......................................................................352Vibration and Noise ..............................................................................356Filter Housing, Duct Work, and Insulation ..........................................357Diverters, Silencers, and Burners ..........................................................360HRSG Reliability and Durability ...........................................................365

8. CONDENSERS AND COOLING TOWERS 367

Condensers .................................................................................................. 367Types of Condensers ............................................................................. 369


Condensate Polisher Systems ................................................................ 371Available Condensate Polisher Technology ......................................... 376

Condenser Fouling ..................................................................................... 381Cooling Towers ...................................................................................... 383Design of Cooling Towers ..................................................................... 385

Chemical Water Treatment for Cooling Towers ...................................... 389Cooling Tower Biological Control ........................................................ 390Cooling Tower Scale Control ................................................................ 390Dispersants ............................................................................................. 391Corrosion Inhibitors .............................................................................. 391Development of a Cooling Tower Treatment Program ..................... 392

9. GENERATORS, MOTORS AND SWITCH GEARS 395

Motors ....................................................................................................... 395Constant Speed Motors ....................................................................... 396Alternating Current Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors ..................... 396Synchronous Alternating-Current Motors .......................................... 397Power-Factor Correction ..................................................................... 398

Generator ................................................................................................ 399Design Characteristics ......................................................................... 402

Switchgear .............................................................................................. 417Electrical Single Line Diagram ................................................................. 423

10. FUELS, FUEL PIPING AND FUEL STORAGE 425

Fuel Specifications .................................................................................. 427Fuel Properties ........................................................................................ 430Heavy Fuels ................................................................................................ 442Cleaning of Turbine Components ........................................................... 446

Turbine Wash ....................................................................................... 446Compressor Washing ........................................................................... 448

Fuel Economics .......................................................................................... 449Heat Tracing of Piping Systems ............................................................... 450

Types of Heat-Tracing Systems ............................................................ 452Choosing the Best Tracing System ...................................................... 458

Storage of Liquids ................................................................................... 459Atmospheric Tanks ............................................................................ 459Elevated Tanks ..................................................................................... 460Open Tanks ........................................................................................ 460Fixed Roof Tanks .................................................................................. 460Floating Roofs Tanks ........................................................................... 461Pressure Tanks ...................................................................................... 461Calculation of Tank Volume ................................................................ 461Container Materials, Insulation and Support .................................... 464

TABLEOFCONTENTS xi


xii COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

11. BEARINGS, SEALS AND LUBRICATION SYSTEMS 467

Bearings ..................................................................................................... 467Rolling Bearings ................................................................................... 467Journal Bearings ................................................................................ 474Thrust Bearings ................................................................................... 482

Seals .......................................................................................................... 486Non-contacting Seals ......................................................................... 487

Lubrication Oil System .............................................................................. 492Lubricant Selection ............................................................................. 497Oil Sampling and Testing .................................................................... 497Oil Contamination ............................................................................... 498Filter Selection ..................................................................................... 498Cleaning and Flushing ....................................................................... 500Coupling Lubrication ......................................................................... 501Lubrication Management Program ................................................... 502

12. CONTROL SYSTEMS AND CONDITION MONITORING 505

Control Systems ...................................................................................... 505Condition Monitoring Systems ................................................................ 516

Identification of Losses in a CombinedCycle Power Plants ............................................................................. 518The Gas Turbine ................................................................................. 518HRSG ....................................................................................................... 521Steam Turbine ...................................................................................... 522Condenser .......................................................................................... 522

Design of a Condition-Monitoring System ........................................... 524Monitoring Software ......................................................................... 525

Implentation of a Condition-Monitoring System ................................. 527Plant Power Optimization ........................................................................ 529Life Cycle Costs .......................................................................................... 531

13. PERFORMANCE TESTING OF COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT 535

Gas Turbine ............................................................................................ 538Air Inlet Filter Module ...................................................................... 539Compressor Module .......................................................................... 539Combustor Module ............................................................................. 541Expander Module ............................................................................. 541Life Cycle Consideration of Various Critical Hot-SectionComponents ........................................................................................ 541

HRGS Calculations Module .................................................................... 542Steam Turbine Calculations .................................................................... 544


Condenser Calculations ........................................................................... 546Performance Curves ................................................................................. 546Performance Computations .................................................................. 548

General Governing Equations .......................................................... 549Gas-Turbine Performance Calculation ............................................... 554Heat-Recovery Steam Generator ....................................................... 564

Steam Turbines .......................................................................................... 567Plant Losses ......................................................................................... 571

Nomenclature .......................................................................................... 572

14. MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES 575

Philosophy of Maintenance ..................................................................... 575Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness ................... 577Organization Structures ........................................................................... 580

Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance Program ......... 580Implementation of a Performance-Based Total ProductiveMaintenance ...................................................................................... 580Maintenance Department Requirements ......................................... 583Spare Parts Inventory ......................................................................... 588Inspections ........................................................................................... 589Condition and Life Assessment ......................................................... 589Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability ....................................... 590Maintenance Scheduling ................................................................... 598Maintenance Communications ........................................................... 599

15. COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT PROBLEMS 603

Gas Turbines ............................................................................................. 603Inlet Filtration Problems ..................................................................... 606Evaporative Cooling ........................................................................... 607Axial Flow Compressor ....................................................................... 607Inlet Guide Vanes ................................................................................ 611Compressor Blades .............................................................................. 611Diaphragms ......................................................................................... 611Diaphragm Seals ................................................................................. 615Diaphragm Contact ............................................................................ 615Compressor Problems and Failures .................................................... 615Compressor Vanes and Blades ........................................................... 616Cooling Air Contamination ................................................................ 631Combustion Systems ........................................................................... 634Diffusion-Type Combustors ................................................................ 637Dry Low-NOx Combustors ................................................................... 641Dynamic Combustion Monitors ......................................................... 648Transition Piece ................................................................................... 650

TABLEOFCONTENTS xiii


xiv COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

Axial Flow Turbines ............................................................................ 653Turbine Blades .................................................................................... 662Wheel Space ........................................................................................ 671Exhaust Manifold ................................................................................ 672Gas Turbine Expansion Joint Failures ................................................ 676

Heat Recovery Steam Generators ........................................................... 677Failures Experienced in HRSGs ........................................................... 680

Chemical Sampling and Analysis ............................................................ 689Man Service Platforms ............................................................................. 690Freeze Protection ..................................................................................... 691Steam Turbine .......................................................................................... 692HP Turbine Section .................................................................................. 694IP Turbine Section .................................................................................... 699LP Turbine Section ................................................................................... 702Foreign Object Damage/Domestic Object Damage ............................... 706Gland Seal Systems .................................................................................. 708Lubrication System Failures ..................................................................... 709

Bearings ............................................................................................... 715Gears ......................................................................................................... 722

APPENDIX A 725

APPENDIX B 729

BIBLIOGRAPHY 731

INDEX 747

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 761


PREFACE

A Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants discusses the design, fabrication, installation, operation, and maintenance of combined cycle power plants. The book has been written to provide an overall view for the experienced engineer working in a specialized aspect of the subject and for the young engineering graduate or undergraduate student who is being exposed to the field of power plants for the first time. The book has proven to be very useful as a textbook for undergraduate and graduate courses as well as for in-house company training programs related to power generation, and I believe that the new edition will further extend the knowledge of the engineer in this field.

The second edition is not only an updating of the technology, which has taken great leaps forward since the year 2001, but I have also rewritten the introductory chapter to bring the reader new information in the power industry, especially carbon sequestration technology, which will be a topic of great interest in the years to come. The power industry has, in the past 8 years, embraced the combined cycle power plants and, with the new high-efficiency advanced gas turbines, is at the center of this growth segment of the industry. This has led to the rewriting of the following chapters: Chapter 1, An Overview of Power Generation; Chapter 5, Steam Turbines; Chapter 7, Heat Recovery Steam Generators; and Chapter 8, Condensers and Cooling Towers.

A new chapter has been introduced, Chapter 15, Case Histories of Problems Encountered in Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants. This is an extensive treatise on the many problems associated with the combined cycle power plants and some of the solutions that have achieved higher efficiencies and reliability. This chapter explains in depth the problems encountered and with 145 figures fully illustrates the many failures encountered in cogeneration and combined cycle power plant applications.

This book has been used extensively by engineers in the industry, and I have used it in the many courses I have taught in this area. The suggestions from these engineers have guided me in my writing of the second edition of this book. The new chapters have been written with an eye toward the new issues both from a technical and legal point of view in the operating of power plants. In this new edition, I have introduced extensive sections on the chemical treatment of the water used in combined cycle power plants. The chemistry sections and related information have been provided by David Addison of Thermal Chemistry Limited, New Zealand. I have also used many topics that have been well researched by the Electric Power Research Institute in its many publications.


xvi COGENERATIONANDCOMBINEDCYCLEPOWERPLANTS

Cogeneration and combined cycle power plants are not new, but with major improvements in all of the building blocks such as power plant, gas turbines, HRSGs, steam turbines, and condensers, an update of the book was necessary. Technology efficiencies in the mid-1950s are common today, and with a little bit of ingenuity, efficiencies in the low 1960s will be possible. With emphasis on CO2 reduction, these high efficiencies will make it possible to achieve the lofty goals of greenhouse gas reductions. These high efficiencies have totally revolutionized the industry, making the old steam plants a thing of the past.

The use of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants in all industries, and in the power generation field, has mushroomed in the past few years. It is to these users and manufacturers of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants that this book is directed. The book, with its new chapter on case histories, will give the manufacturer a glimpse of some of the major problems associated with his equipment in the field and help the user to achieve maximum performance efficiency and high availability for his plant.

I have been involved in the research, design, operation, and maintenance of various types of combined cycle power plants since the early 1960s. I have also taught courses at the graduate and undergraduate level at the University of Oklahoma and Texas A&M University, and now, in general, to the industry for the past 30 years. I have taught over a hundred courses to 3000 students from over 400 corporations around the world. The enthusiasm of the students associated with these courses gave me the inspiration to undertake this endeavor of updating the book. The many courses I have taught over the past 37 years have been an educational experience for me as well as for the engineers who have participated in these courses. The Texas A&M University Turbomachinery Symposium, which I had the privilege to found and chair for seven years and which is now in its 38th year, is a great contributor to the operational and maintenance sections of this book. The discussions and consultations that resulted from my association with highly professional individuals have been a major contribution to both my personal and professional life as well as to this book.

In this book, I have tried to assimilate the subject matter of various papers, and sometimes diverse views, into a comprehensive, unified treatment of combined cycle power plants. Many illustrations, curves, and tables are employed to broaden the understanding of the descriptive text. Mathematical treatments have been deliberately held to a minimum so that the reader can identify and resolve any problems before he is ready to execute a specific design. In addition, the references direct the reader to sources of information that will help him to further investigate and solve his specific problems. It is hoped that this book will serve as a reference text after it has accomplished its primary objective of introducing the reader to the broad subject of combined cycle power plants.

I wish to thank the many engineers whose published work and discussions have been a cornerstone to this work. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge and give special thanks to my wife, Zarine, for her readiness to help and her constant encouragement throughout this project. I also would like to thank my assistants Donna Masters and Shannon Reynolds for the many hours they have spent in helping me put this new edition together.


I sincerely hope that this new edition will be educational and interesting to read as it was for me to write and that it will be a major reference in the fast-growing field of cogeneration and combined cycle power plants.

MEHERWAN P. BOYCEHOUSTON, TEXAS

September 2009

PREFACE xvii


Documents

Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants