Handbook in Intro to Research Lecture 2

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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Definitions of Research

A scientific investigation of phenomena, which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation

of facts that links mans speculation with reality.

A continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.

A systematic study or investigation of something for the purposes of answering question posed by theresearcher.

he process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner.

A systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the

researcher.

What are the characteristics of research?he following are the characteristics of research!

Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. he collection of the datarelies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theoryLogical. Research is always based on valid procedures and principles. "cientific investigation is done in anorderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the results.Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process. #t starts with a problem and ends with a problem.Analytical.Research utili$es proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive,experimental, or case study.Replicable. he research designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at validand conclusive results.

%ritical. Research exhibits careful and precise &udgment.

What are the criteria of a good research?'ood research can be thought of as that which uses the scientific method. (mory and %ooper )*++-

suggest that good research should meet the following tests!1. Theproblem and the purpose of the research should be clear and specific.

he ob&ectives of the research or statement of the research problem should be clear and specific. #tshould include analysis into its simplest elements, its scope and limitations, and precise specifications ofthe meanings of all words significant to the research.

2. The procedures used should be detailed to permit another researcher to repeat the research.he methodology of the research should be explained in detail.. #t should reveal with candor the

sources of data and the means by which they were obtained.3. The research designs should be well planned to yield objective results.

A detailed proposal should be done to explain very well the procedures of research design to beused, sampling techniques to indicate representativeness of the sample. Direct

observations should be recorded in writing as soon as possible after the event. (fforts should be madeto minimi$e the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data

4. The researcher should be honest to report problems encountered in the use of the design and itseffect upon the findings.

A researcher should be honest enough to indicate the problems he encountered regarding thechoice of his research design and its effects on his findings.

5. Use of appropriate statistical tool is important to yield significance on the study. he role of astatistician should not be overlooked to provide the appropriate statistical tool to be used. he validityand reliability of data should be checked carefully. he data should be classified in ways that assist the

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researcher to reach pertinent conclusions. hen statistical methods are used, the probability of errorshould be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance applied.

6 onclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to thosefor which the data provide an ade!uate basis.

Researchers should not draw conclusions beyond the findings of his study. /ersonal experiencesand opinions should not be part of the conclusions..

Why is research important to man0Research has become indispensable to man. he improvement that research has done to people sincethe beginning is tremendous. Research is important for the following reasons!

". #esearch improves the !uality of life. Researchers search for modern techniques to improve thequality of life of the people. Research may be done along developing of technologies to improveproduction to improve the income of the people.

2. #esearch improves instruction. In order to improve instruction, research should be done. he outputof research should be used in instruction. "everal innovations, methods or strategies have been triedthrough research to improve instruction. %ombinations of methods and strategies had already beentested

3. #esearch reduces the burden of wor$. Many work today has been reduced due to the

advancement in science and technology.4. #esearch improves the !uality of food products.hrough research, the quality of food products

has improved.

What are the various inds and classification of research?Researches are classified according to the following criteria!

*. According to /urpose1. According to 'oal. According to the 2evel of #nvestigations3. According to the ypes of Analysis4. According to "cope

5. According to %hoice of Answers to /roblems6. According to "tatistical %ontent7. According to ime Allotment+. According to the ypes and 8inds of Research

The inds and classifications of research are as follo!s"

According to #urposea. /redictive9/rognostic : determines the future operation of the variables

An example of a predictive9prognostic research is thefeasibility study where the researcher shows that the the behaviorof this kind of person will be different.

b. Directive ; determines what should be done based on the findings. An example of a directive research is a research similar towhat has been conducted because this research has beenconducted based from the recommendation of the previousresearch.

c. #lluminative ; concerned with interaction of the components of the variables

An example of an illuminative research is the study on


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According to $oala. =asic9/ure ; done for the development of theories and principles.

he various theories of management such as the heory > andheory ? were developed as an offshoot of researches inmanagement.

b. Applied ; done to solve some problems or to test the efficiency of theories and principles.

A research on the problems of students .

According to the Level of %nvestigationsa. (xploratory ; study of variables pertinent to a specific situation.


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%ntellectual (onesty. A researchers success and failure depends on his honest collection of data and itsinterpretation. ther traits of researchers are suggested in the following acrostic!

R : Result oriented( : (fficient" : "cientific( : (ffective

A : ActiveR : Resourceful% : %reative : onest( : (conomicalR : Religious

What are the re'uirements of a good research?A good research re'uires the follo!ing"

A. &ystematic)a research proceeds through a series of steps and stages. #t follows a logical flow which mustbe understood by the researcher.

*. Accurate )a research emphasi$es the importance of correspondence between what you say, you haveobserved and what has actually occurred. C. #recise)a research aims at estimating the exact amount of the event that has occurred or may yet to

occur."tatistics is useful if you quantify the incidence of the event being observed. Fuantitative method

is used if the researcher is interested in characteri$ing the event.+. Record)observations must be recorded. #t is necessary to document observations with the aid of

instruments like questionnaires, tape recorders for interviews.E. ,b-ective)ones observations must not be influenced by personal preferences, pre&udices, biases,

attitudes and feelings. "cientific research is undertaken through an assessment of what is rather thanwhat ought to be. "ub&ective influences may take place especially when dealing with human behavior.

. Controlled conditions)refers to aspiring, to eliminate other factors or variables that might intrude into theobservation of the ma&or factors variables to be investigated.

Documentation ensures that other researchers of interested parties will be able to check the validity ofthe method applied for a particular investigation and the quality of the results obtained.

%s research al!ays problem based?"tudies were undertaken in direct response to problems that needed solving. he practical problem:

solving emphasis is a critical feature of applied research, and one should expect such studies to be closelyrelated to action or policy needs. /ure research is also problem solving, but in a different sense. #t is aimed atsolving perplexing questions )that is, problems- of a theoretical nature that have little direct impact on action orpolicy decisions. hus, both applied and pure research are problem based, but applied research is directedmuch more to making decisions.

ET(%C& %/ RE&EARC(

#rinciples of ethics in research?1. &afety or #rotection of #articipants from (arm

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Cnless the research has the potential to provide information of extreme benefit to human beings, aresearcher must do all in his9her power to ensure that participants in a research study or protected fromphysical or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise due to research procedures. A furtherresponsibility is obtaining the consent of individuals who may be exposed to any risk.

0. Ensuring of Confidentiality of Research +atahe confidentiality of the data collected from the sources should be kept by the researcher. henever

possible, the names of the respondents should be withdrawn from all data collections forms by using

numbers or codes. he result of the data should also be held in confidence. he names of individualrespondents should never be used in any publications that describe the research.. Truthfulness to respondents

Deception occurs when the respondent is only told a portion of the truth or when the truth is fullycompromised. "ome believe this should never occur. thers suggest two reasons to legitimate deception! )*-to prevent biasing the respondents prior to the survey or experiment and )1- to protect the confidentially of athird party )e.g., the client-. Deception should not be used in an attempt to improve response rates.

2. Research !ith Children he following are guidelines when using children or minors as participants in a research studyG

a. #nformed consent of parent or guardians is required for participants defined as minors. "igners must beprovided all necessary information in appropriate language and must have the opportunity to refuse.

b. Researchers do not present themselves as diagnosticians or counselors in reporting results to parents,nor do they report information given by a child in confidence. %hildren or minors may never be coercedinto participation in a study.

c. Any form of remuneration for the childs services does not affect the application of these ) and other-ethical principles.

3. Right to 4uality Research


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research findings. (ach of these is an example of unethical client behavior. %ompliance by the researcherwould be a breach.

11. #rotection of AnonymityResearchers and assistants protect the confidentiality of the clients in formation and the anonymity of

the respondents. (ach person handling data should have signed a confidentiality statement.

T(E RE&EARC( #R,#,&AL

%mportance of #roposal A research proposal is the framework of ob&ectives, goals, expected output, inputs and activities to be done.According to =estand 8ahn )*+7+-, it is a blueprint of the plan of the researcher. A proposal contains the budgetrequirement of the pro&ect.

#nitially, a proposal may be in capsule form pending its approval. nce it is approved for implementation by thefunding agency it is transformed into detailed proposal. he format of the proposal varies from institutions to institutionsbut funding agencies require their own formats.

he proposal has several advantages!* #t is a course requirement. (very undergraduate or graduate student can never escape doing research. =ut before he

conducts his research a proposal is a requirement. he sub&ect research is now a part of the curriculum of almost allcourses being offered in the country. A research proposal is always required of each student as an offshoot of thelectures in the course. #t is usually submitted before the semester ends.


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1. Development of the heoretical


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#n some research, instead of statement of the problem, ob&ectives are given. he general ob&ective ispresented first followed by the specific ob&ectives. Research ob&ectives are presented to what are to be attained in thestudy.

'iven this nature, research ob&ectives provide a detailed definition and delimitation of the research problem.@oreover, ob&ectives give particular and specific reference to the question posed at the introduction by formulatingsubordinate items that need to be investigated in order to answer the question .

,b-ectives should meet the follo!ing criteria"

*. &pecific. he ob&ective of the study is definite to a particular area.1. ;anageable. he study can be controlled.. Attainable .he ob&ective of the study is doable.3. Realistic. he study looks into available resources and is practical.4. Time bound. he study should have a duration

.0 Revie! of Related Literature he survey of related literature involves the comprehensive documentation of published and unpublished materialsrelevant to the research problem.

he review of literature is primarily done by going through secondary sources in various libraries and9or accessing thedata through the computer. #n undertaking an adequate related literature survey, researches may follow these guidelines!

1. %dentify the relevant data sources.Data may be obtained from published and unpublished works available in libraries andoffices. ne may refer to indexes or catalogues that compile lists of &ournals, periodicals, books, articles, maga$ines,newspaper, and monographs. Researchers should be able to access libraries in websites, for collections that are relevant tothe topic under review.

0. +evelop a systematic procedure and note)taing sill in collecting literature survey data. Researchers will always befaced with the problem of wanting to gather as much information as possible within a period of time. #n this case, familiarity

with the location of the materials in the library and possessing computer skills in accessing and downloading databased

information will be helpful. ne should start with the latest )preferably the last *I years- bibliographies published locally andinternationally. hen going through the material, the researcher should first read the abstract or executive summary, beforegoing through the entire text, to know if the work is relevant to ones proposed study.

. Write a concise revie! of related literature. he review of related literature should never be an enumeration of annotatedbibliography. Data should be presented by topic or variable based on the ob&ectives of the study. #nformation should not be toodetailed nor too brief to present the study overview. ext should be written in the past tense, citing author and date ofpublication.

0.2 &ignificance of the &tudy

ne of the primary considerations in undertaking research is the immediate or long:term benefit accruing to the end:user. #tis, therefore, vital that the researcher is able to cogently articulate the value of the investigation to various individuals, groups, or

sectors. "tudy:derived benefits may accrue to all or any of the following!

0.3 &cope and Limitations of the &tudy he statement of the research problem requires a detailed explanation of the studys parameters and limitations. hesection on scope and limitation should indicate study coverage with concrete reference to )*- variables, )1- source of data, )-method)s- to be employed in data collection and analysis, )3- timeframe, and )4- constraints that might be encountered in theconduct of investigation, such as non:availability of data, uncooperativeness of respondents, inability of respondents to recallaccurate responses, and confidentiality of some relevant information.


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.1(ypothesis A hypothesis is a supposition of an occurrence of an event that can be tested. #t is an educated guess which can beproven empirical. ne advantage of hypothesis is that it enables researcher to formulate a provisional explanation of outcomethat can serve as a guide in the investigation. ne good source of hypothesis is the results of previous investigations on the

same line of topic to be studied.

wo types of hypothesis!*. Hull hypothesis expresses a no relationship or no difference between two variables, or an assertion that is it hoped to bere&ected.1. Alternative hypothesis )a-. his hypothesis expresses that there is a relationship or a difference between two variables or thecon&ecture top be accepted. he statement of the hypothesis is usually written in the null form )o-.. "tatistically, it is the null hypothesis that is testedor proven. #f the null hypothesis is re&ected, then the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

The ariable;eaning of ariable

A variable is defined as a quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values of

properties. (Sevilla et al., 199!. "umerical values or cate#ories represent these quantities or

characteristics.

$ypes of %aria&le

here are five types of variables. hese are the )*- independent variable, )1- dependent variable, )-

moderate variable, )3- control variable, and )4- interning variable.

* %ndependent variable. his is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to determineits relationship to an observed phenomenon.

1 &ependent variable.his is the response variable which is observed and measured to determinethe effect of the independent variable.

'oderate variable. his is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by theresearcher to ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationship between the independent anddependentvariables.

2. ontrol variable. his is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be neutrali$ed byeliminating or removing the variable.

5.%ntervening variable. his is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but itseffects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables.

Components of the Research #rocesshe basic components of the research process are )*- /roblem #dentification )1-


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;ET(,+,L,$@

What the are the four ma-or research designs?

*. istorical @ethod1. Descriptive @ethod. (xperimental @ethod3. %ase "tudy @ethod

*. (istorical ;ethodistory is a branch of knowledge concerned with the past events, especially those involving human affairs.

Any integrated narrative or descriptive of past events or facts written in a spirit or critical inquiry for the whole truth.istorical Research

#s a systematic critical inquiry of the whole truth of past events using critical method in the understanding andinterpretation of facts which are applicable to the current issues and problems.

Cses of istorical @ethods

istorical method has search the past for solutions to contemporary problems and needs#t gives people a sense of continuity of the past to the present.=y chronicling events of enduring worth which confers upon the individual persons consciousness of unity and

feeling of the importance of human achievement.

@a&or "teps of istorical Research*. %ollection of Data1. %riticism of the data collected. /resentation of the facts in readable form

Analysis And 'nterpretation

ro&lem 'dentification

Assumptions

$heoretical)*onceptual +ramewor

-ata rocessin# and Statistical $reatment

-ata *ollection

esearch -esi#n

eview of elated /iterature

0ypotheses


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"ources of istorical Research*. /rimary "ources ; documents and remains1. "econdary "ources ; materials such as histories of education, bibliographies, encyclopedia and other sources.

0. +escriptive ;ethod he study focuses at the present condition. he purpose is to find new truth.

Descriptive studies are of large value in providing facts on which scientific &udgment is based.

What are the types of descriptive research?1. +escriptive survey

his approach is appropriate whenever the ob&ects of any class vary among themselves and one isinstead knowledge the extent to which different conditions obtain among these ob&ects. #n descriptive surveyit is necessary to determine the psychological and social aspects of research by way of application or

implementation of evidence to recogni$e facts and influence.

0. +escriptive /ormative &urveyhe term normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to ascertain the

normal or typical condition or practice, or to compare local test results with a state or normal norm

. +escriptive &tatushis approach to problem ; solving seeks to answer questions to the real facts relating to existing

conditions.A techniques or quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions in a group of case

chosen for study."tress current conditions with an implication of the idea that things will change.

2. +escriptive Analysishis is method of determining and describing the nature of a thing by separating it into its parts or

several components.

3. +escriptive Classificationhis method is employed in natural science ob&ects. An example is the collection pf plants and then

these are classified.

5. +escriptive Evaluativehis method is design to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study.

6. +escriptive Comparative

#t is a comparative survey where the research considers at least two entities and establishes a formalprocedure for obtaining criterion data on the basis of which he can compare and conclude which of the two isbetter

7.Correlational &urveyhis is designed to determine the relationship f two variables. An example is the relationship of shelf life of a

product with marketability.


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8. Longitudinal &urveyhis study is designed to determine performance of a product in the market every month of December. his

study involves much time allotted for investigation of the same sub&ects at two or more points in time

0.Eperimental ;ethod#t is a problem solving, approaching that the study is described in the future or what will be when certainvariables are carefully controlled or manipulated.

o conduct experiments means to try in order to see what happens.An experiment represents directed observation guided by the purpose of the study and by understanding of

the conditions.

What are the types of eperimental designs?

1. &ingle $roup +esignhis is a design, which involves single treatment with two or more levels.

0. #arallel $roup +esignhis is a design which involves with two or more groups are used at the same time with only one single

variable )control group- is manipulated or changed

. Counter *alanced +esignhis design falls on the quasi:experimental design and called rotation design.#t involves an exchange of two or more treatments taken by the sub&ects during the experiments.he arrangement employed in this design is the 2atin square in which the variable in a form of square occurs

once in each row or column.

2. #retest #osttest $roup +esignhis design involves the experimental group and the control which are carefully selected through

randomi$ation procedures.

3. Complete RandomiBed +esignhis design in which a group of test plants or animals is studied only once but subsequent treatment is

applied to determine the cause of change. here is no control in this design but the sub&ects will undergo randomi$ation procedures

. Case &tudy ;ethod#t is a problem solving technique that the study is described from the past, present and future. #t is an

intensive investigation of a particular individual , institutions,, community or any group considered as a unit whichincludes the development , ad&ustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that suitable for diagnosis of the causeof malad&ustment or favorable development

The Case &tudy*. Recognition and determination of the status of the

phenomenon to be investigated.1. %ollection of data relative to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon..Diagnosis or identification of casual factors as a basis for remedial or development treatment.3.Application of remedial or ad&ustment measures.


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4. "ubsequent follow:up to determine the effectiveness of the corrective or development measures applied.

&A;#L%/$"ampling is the process of choosing adequate and representative elements from the population. =y studying the

sample, *- the researcher is able to draw insights and conclusions for the entire population.

#n data gathering, sampling has many advantages over census or total enumeration. Aside from being able togenerali$e the findings for the entire population, 1- the researcher is also able to save in terms of time, efforts, and cost, -"ampling makes the scope of the study manageable because of the small number of respondents to be covered, and increasethe likelihood of obtaining more reliable and accurate result.

ne ma&or problem that can be encountered is that the sample drawn is not the representative of the population fromwhich it is drawn.


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Advantages of &amplinghe following are the advantages of sampling!*. It saves time, money and effort. he researcher can save time, money and effort because the number of

sub&ects involved is small. here are only a small number to be collected, tabulated, presented, analy$edand interpreted, but the use of sample gives a comprehensive information of the results of the study.

0. It is more effective."ampling is more effective if every individual of the population without bias has anequal chance of being included in the sample and data are scientifically collected, analy$ed andinterpreted.

. It is faster and cheaper. "ince sample is only a Jdrop in bucket,K the collection, tabulation, presentation,analysis and interpretation of data are rapid and less expensive because of the small number of sub&ects.

2. It is more accurate.


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. "tratified sampling. #n this type of sampling, the population is divided into subgroup9strata helps in the selection of

respondents when there are already identifiable subgroups or strata of elements within the population which are of interest to

the researcher. nce the stratification is made, the final respondents can then be selected either by random or systematic

sampling using proportionate number of elements. "tratifying the population based on variables such as gender, age, income

level, si$e of company, nature of business, ownership of firm, establishes the homogeneity within each subgroup so that clear

differences between groups are determined.3. %luster sampling involves the grouping or division of the elements of the population into heterogeneous groups. hen some of

these groups are randomly selected and all the elements of the cluster are studied. #t should be noted that each cluster

sample is composed of respondents with different perspectives and interests. his way of selecting is deemed less costly.

"ome normally occurring clusters in business research are cluster of managers, customers, suppliers, stock brokers,

investors, accountants, and advertiser.

4. Area sampling pertains to the grouping of the population into geographical divisions before selecting the respondents. his

sampling can be done if there exists a clear delineation of communities where the respondents can be found. %ommon

sampling areas are villages, subdivisions, cities, and municipalities.

5. Double sampling means getting a smaller sample from the initial large sample. his design is sometimes called sample within

the sample. Double sampling is usually done when the researcher intends to gather more in:depth and focused data on thetopic of investigation. he initial larger sample provides preliminary information which helps in determining the second sample

set to be drawn from the same sample group.

6. @ulti: "tage sampling is a cluster sampling done in several stages. he type is usually used in nationwide survey, where

each region, province, city, municipality, or baranggay is subdivided and selected, before the actual respondents are chosen.

7.4uota sampling is selecting the predetermined required number from the population regardless of how they are chosen. his

design is usually done in opinion or poll surveys. An example is shown below.

4uota sampling is used through the follo!ing steps"

7.* "tratification of the population.

=ased on previous studies made, the following are the percentage distribution among different income levels in themunicipality! low income )5I-, middle income )I-, and high incomer )*I-.

here are also known areas )barangays and villages- where households of particular income segments can be found.

7.1 /redetermining of quota. =ased on budget considerations, only *II respondents could be interviewed:5I from low:

income, I from middle:income, and *I from high:income households.

7. "election of samples. #nterviews were then conducted among! )a- the first 5I respondents from low:income households

available for interview and found in the low:income barangayG )bI the first I available respondents from middle:

income households from the middle income villages, and and )c- first *I available respondents from high:income

households found in high income villages.

+. udgment samplinginvolves the selection of respondents considered to be in the best position, or most knowledgeable, to

give the needed information. "ome data about the company are known only to key informants, such as the controller,managers, or owners of the firm.

*I. Convenience samplingallows the researcher to gather data from respondents who are conveniently available to provide

the necessary information. he design is used to get information fast.

**. Accidental samplingimplies that information is collected from respondents who, by chance or circumstance, are met by the

researcher in the process of data gathering.

*1.&no!ball samplingmeans choosing initial samples. hese samples will then refer other respondents from whom the same

information may be obtained.


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1. #urposive sampling involves the selection of key informants based on a predetermined set of criteria. hese are people

considered to be the most appropriate source of data in terms of the ob&ectives of the study.

Malidity, Reliability and Csability of Research #nstrument

he qualities of a good research instrument are!*. Malidity1. Reliability. Csability

Malidity#t is the degree to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.he validity of a measuring instrument!

"oundness

(ffectiveness

Application

>ind of validity1. Content alidity

#t is the extent to which the content is truly representative of the content of the course.

0. Concurrent alidity#t is the degree in which the test agrees or correlates with a criterion set up as an acceptable measure.

. #redictive alidity his is determined by showing how well predictions are made from the test are confirmed by the validinformation gathered.

2. Construct alidity#t is the extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or trait.(xamples are intelligence and mechanical aptitude tests

Reliability #t is the extent to which a test is dependable, self:consistent and stable.

@ethods of estimating the Reliability of 'ood Research #nstrument*. est:retest @ethod1. /arallel:forms @ethod. "plit:half @ethod3. #nternal:consistency @ethod

1. Test)retest ;ethodhe same research instrument is administered twice to the same group of sub&ects and the correlation

coefficient is determined.0. #arallel)forms ;ethod

/arallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the group of sub&ects, and the pairedobservations correlated.


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J#n estimating reliability by the administration of parallel or equivalent forms of a test criteria parallelism isrequired.K. &plit)half ;ethod

#t is administered once, but the test items are divided into two halves. he common procedure is to divide atest into odd and even items.

2. %nternal)consistency ;ethod#t is used with psychological tests which consist of dichotomously scored items. he examinee either passes orfails in an item. A rating of * is assigned for a pass and I for a failure.


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"urvey research is the collection of information from a fraction or a sample of a population to arrive atgenerali$ations about the population.

he survey is a fact:finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation. #t is used to collect demographicdata about peoples behavior, practices, intentions, beliefs, attitudes, opinions, &udgments interests, perceptions andthe like. hen, such data are analy$ed, organi$ed and interpreted )%alderon, *++-.

What are the types of survey?"urveys can be conveniently classified by the methods in which they obtain information! personal interview,

panel, telephone, mail questionnaire and e:mail.1. #ersonal %ntervie!his is a face:to:face meeting of individuals interacting purposely together to get information regarding the

research topic )Rivera, *+++-. Another definition advanced is that personal interview is a method of obtaininginformation or gathering data from people that is a carefully planned, person:to:person, question:to:answer sessiontype )/ablo, 1II-.

0. #anel#n a panel survey, respondents are selected and interviewed, and then re:interviewed, and then re:interviewed

and the results studied at a later time. he panel technique enables the researchers to study changes in behaviorsand attitudes of a particular group or sample at various times.. Telephone surveyshe telephone survey has little to recommended beyond speed and low cost. hen the interviewers are unknown

to the respondents, they are limited by a possible nonresponse, uncooperativeness and reluctance of therespondents to answer more than simple, superficial questions. ?et, telephoning can sometimes be useful inobtaining information essential to a study, especially when the study is limited by time constraints

2. The ;ail 4uestionnairehe mail questionnaire is another type of survey wherein a questionnaire is mailed to the respondents. he

questionnaire is accompanied by a cover letter that states the reason or purpose why the survey is being undertakenand the acknowledgement. A postage paid self:addressed envelope is given to facilitate the return of the surveyquestionnaire.

3. &urvey by electronic mail De)mailith computers, surveys facilitated through the e:mail are now possible. he questionnaire, with its purpose and

ob&ective, is sent to the e:mail address of sample respondents. he researchers should make sure that the directionsare clear to elicit the needed data.

(o! to conduct survey?he following are steps to be done before conducting a survey!

*. "tart with the ob&ectives of the survey. he general and specific problems that are to be solved are as carefully andas completely stated as possible.

1. 2ist each step to be taken.. (nd with a final report.

What are the steps in conducting a survey research?*. #dentify the need for the research.1.


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7. %ollect data. Administer the questionnaire.+. Analy$e the data through statistical means.*I. rite the results.**. "ubmit the research paper.here are other types of survey techniques or approaches. he purpose of the survey would determine the

survey technique or approach to use. "ome example are poll survey, market survey, community survey, census andschool survey.

Computer)Assisted &urvey%ollege students are very much aware that knowledge is now limitless. "tudents are thus honed to gather,

analy$e and interpret data or they can contribute to existing body of knowledge. (quipping our freshmen studentswith the rudiments of computer operation will help them generate and later share knowledge. How, even surveys canbe accessed through the computer.

ne of the big problems is computer:assisted interviews aside from the cost and maintenance of the technologyis the organi$ation of the computer program hereas the face:to:face interviewer can nimbly ad&ust the paper

instrument to accommodate a variety of responses and problems, a computer screen full or written alternatives)called branching and skipping- can be a little messy. (very complication increases the risk of data loss.

%ntervie!ebster )*+75- defines the intervie! as a meeting in which information is obtained from the interviewee. #t is

a face:to:face meeting of individuals interacting together purposely to get information regarding a research topic. heinterview is an important survey instrument where the interviewer questions a select group of respondents to gatherimportant data needed for the study. #nterviews may be classified according to purpose, according to format andaccording to style.

What are the types of intervie!?According to #urpose

reece, et. al. )*+6- classifies the interview according to purpose as follows!

&tandard %ntervie!his is otherwise known as the formal intervie!.his interview uses substantially uniform and well:

established questions without variation from the interview schedule. his interview is conducted in the same way asthe other types of interview.

A. /onstandardiBed %ntervie!his is also known as the informal intervie!. his interview involves the use of a set of questions organi$ed

by the interviewer according to a specific pattern of questions and the method appropriate to the situation orcondition. he interviewer is given the liberty to organi$e the interview questions and the manner of asking theinterviewees.

B. Semistandardized Interview

his interview is the combination of the standardi$ed and the nonstandardi$ed interviews with the questionsasked by the interviewer regarding the stated specific problems of the study.

/ondirective %ntervie!his type of interview gives liberty to the interviewees to talk freely on the questions asked or the topic given by

the interviewer.


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C. ocused %ntervie!his type is also called indepth intervie! and is similar to the informal interview. #n this type, the interviewer

focuses on asking questions on specific topics that are to be investigated in:depth.

According to ormat#nterview classified according to format are )@anuel, *+65-!

*. "tandardi$ed or "tructural #nterview1. "emistandardi$ed or "emistructural #nterview. Cnstructured or Honstandardi$ed #nterview

According to &tylehere are tow types of interview according to style, namely! formal and informal interviews.

ormal %ntervie!#n this type of interview, the interviewer follows a standard set of questions.

he interview schedule and the interview guide mentioned in this type are the interview tools used inresearch.he interview schedule is an instrument made up of questions similar to that of the questionnaire

accomplished by the researcher9interviewer during the conduct of the interview, while the interview guide is made up

of an idea, concept or general information the will guide the researcher in the conduct of the interview.

%mportant #oints to Consider in the Conduct of an %ntervie!

*. /reparing for the #nterview. his involves working out an interview guide, an interview schedule and

identifying possible strategies to utili$e in the conduct of the interview.1. 8nowing the appropriate place and time for the interview. his includes selecting an ideal, comfortable place

and suitable time to conduct the interview.

. Developing rapport. he interviewer should develop harmonious, friendly and cordial atmosphere with the interviewee at

the start of the interview.

3. "ustaining the interview. he interviewer should learn to carry on the conversation smoothly until the end of the

interview. #f needed, some key words provided by the interviewer could help sustain the interview.

4. Recording the #nterview. During the actual interview, portable tape recorder could be used to accurately document the

interview. his will present misquoting or misinterpreting any statement made by the interviewee.

5. %losing the interview. #f the interviewer feel the conversation should stop, the interview should end with the expression

of deep gratitude and appreciation for the time, effort and generosity of the interviewee in providing information relevant to the

study.


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+ATA A/AL@&%& A/+ %/TER#RETAT%,/ Analysis of data and interpretation of results are difficult tasks for the researcher, especially if he is not expert

in diagnosing the correct statistical tools to answer the research problems9ob&ectives.Analysis should be done first before interpretation. An analysis is useless without interpretation while

interpretation is impossible without analysis. #n analy$ing the data, statistical techniques are used to give meaning tothe data gathered from the sub&ects. A set of raw data per seis meaningless but has meaning once it is interpreted.


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propose policies or strategies. #t must be ensured that the problem of the paper is properly addressed from the beginning to

end.

1. Target Reader)End)


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#resentation of Research Resultshe main key to the successful presentation is to repeat your Sstory four times! in the title, abstract,

introduction )or chapter *- and in the text. hat is, make readable and as complete as possible versions of your workusing the order of *I, *II, *III and *I.III words. =ecause you have four different types of readers. Among thosewho will ever notice your work, # estimate that 7I will see only title, *4 will read the abstract, 3 will read also

introduction, and the surviving * will read the whole paper. his is assuming you did your &ob properly, otherwiseyou will have I in the last group.

Title%hoose a title that enables the expert to figure out the essence of the basic idea)s- and the main contribution)s-.rong title may bring you wrong referees or examiners, and may not attract busy colleagues to your work whenseeing it on your web page or on a search engine that may not even catch your work )which decreases yourvisibility-. #f you are solving problem > using method ?, you have probably searched #nternet for both > and ?. thersdo the same, so let your work be observed easily.

Abstract"tate clearly what problem has been studied and9or what is the goal of the thesis9paper. 'ive a brief

statement on existing solutions and their drawbacks. 2ist ma&or contributions of the thesis. "tate briefly assumptionsand limitations. he abstract should also include ma&or idea)s-, the type )e.g. performance, complexity- and result ofanalysis done.

he abstract is written for researchers that are familiar with the research area, and can grasp yourcontribution easily. @ost of them have worked on the same or related problem. %lear abstract is the key to havingyour work properly credited in other peoples work, since again colleagues may be too busy to figure it themselves,and are more likely to ignore it then to spend time doing the work you were supposed to do. (xaminers will also havea friendly start with your text. @isleading abstracts are unfortunately quite common practice in the research literature.Avoid excessive explanations that should be part of introduction.


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%hapter 1 or section 1 should give a full literature review. #t should collect all known results relevant to theproblem stated, whether or not they are used in proposed contributions. Ho additional literature review shall be addedin later chapters. Discuss advantages and drawbacks of known solutions that are relevant to your problem, and alsodiscuss the relevance of each reviewed item to your topic and your solutions.

Conclusionhe conclusion indicates what had been achieved with this research. he ownership of some other possiblesolutions, not fully explored, or sub&ect of your forthcoming different article, can be protected by outlining them brieflyin the conclusion section, sometimes with reference to upcoming article.

Documents

Handbook in Intro to Research Lecture 2