HANDBOOK OFMEASUREMENT INSCIENCE ANDENGINEERING

Volume 1

Edited by

MYER KUTZ

Handbook of Measurement in Science and Engineering is available online in full color athttp://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9781118436707.

©WILEYA JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

CONTENTS

VOLUME 1

PREFACE xxiii

CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

PARTI CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1

1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Giisic, andJohan Siifwerbrand

1.1 Introduction, 51.2 Background, 61.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 81.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 161.5 Acoustic Emission, 241.6 Radar Technology, 271.7 Global Positioning System, 311.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 331.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 351.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 371.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 411.12 System Procurement and Installation, 441.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47

viii CONTENTS

1.14 Discussion, 671.15 Conclusion, 69Acknowledgments, 70References, 71

2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79Gary S. Spring

2.1 Introduction, 792.2 Background, 802.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 812.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 962.5 Implementation Issues, 972.6 Conclusion, 100References, 102

3 Traffic Congestion Management 105NaguiM. Rouphail

3.1 Introduction and Background, 1053.2 Scope of the Chapter, 1063.3 Organization of the Chapter, 1073.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 1073.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 1123.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 1193.7 Summary, 128Acknowledgments, 129References, 129

4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan

4.1 Introduction, 1334.2 Similitude Requirements, 1344.3 Specimen Fabrication, 1414.4 Input Motion, 1484.5 Instrumentation, 1504.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 1554.7 Results, 157References, 158

5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159Daniel A. Vallero

5.1 Introduction, 1595.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 1665.3 Laboratory Analysis, 1695.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183

CONTENTS ix

5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 1865.6 Environmental Indicators, 1915.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 1995.8 Summary, 200Nomenclature, 200References, 202

6 Hydrology Measurements 205Todd C. Rasmussen

6.1 Introduction, 2066.2 Precipitation, 2096.3 Evapotranspiration, 2126.4 Surface Flow, 2166.5 Groundwater, 2196.6 Soil Water, 2236.7 Water Quality, 226Suggested Readings, 231

7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233Mohan Venigalla

7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234References, 240

PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241

8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243MikellP. Groover

8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 2448.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 2458.3 Surfaces, 254References, 256

9 Mass Properties Measurement 259David Tellet

9.1 Introduction, 2609.2 Mass and Weight, 2629.3 Measurement Methodology, 2649.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 2749.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 2759.6 MOI Measurement, 2809.7 POI Measurement, 2849.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 2879.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292References, 300

x CONTENTS

10 Force Measurement 301Patrick Collins

10.1 Introduction, 30210.2 Force Transducers, 30310.3 Universal Testing Machines, 30610.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 30710.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 31110.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 31410.7 Dynamometers, 31710.8 Optical Force Transducers, 31710.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 32010.10 Force Balance Transducers, 32110.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 32110.12 Calibration, 32310.13 Conclusion, 329Glossary of Terms, 329References, 340

11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343Mark Tuttle

11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 34311.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 34911.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 36311.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365References, 366

12 Vibration Measurement 367Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar

12.1 Introduction, 36712.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 36912.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response

Function, 37312.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 38812.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 40512.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423Nomenclature, 428References, 431

13 Acoustical Measurements 433Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt

13.1 Introduction, 43413.2 Fundamental Measures, 43613.3 Microphones, 44513.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 45113.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 45413.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457

CONTENTS xi

13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 46313.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 46513.9 Sound Power Measurements, 47213.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476References, 479

14 Temperature Measurement 483Peter R. N. Childs

Summary, 48414.1 Introduction, 48414.2 Selection, 48714.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 48914.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 51114.5 Noninvasive Methods, 51414.6 Conclusions, 519Nomenclature, 519 'References, 521

15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley

15.1 Pressure Concepts, 52815.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 53015.3 Pressure Transducers, 53615.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 54315.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 54415.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 54815.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 54815.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552Nomenclature, 563References, 564

16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri

16.1 Introduction, 56716.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 56916.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 57116.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 57216.5 Measurement Methods, 57416.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588Acknowledgments, 611References, 612

17 Flow Measurement 615Jesse Yoder

17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 61617.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627Further Readings, 628

xii CONTENTS

18 Heat Flux Measurement 629Thomas E. Diller

18.1 Introduction, 63018.2 Important Issues, 63118.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 63418.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 64318.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 64818.6 Calibration and Errors, 653References, 655

19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang

19.1 Introduction, 66119.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 66219.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 66619.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 66719.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 67019.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 67319.7 Concluding Remarks, 682Nomenclature, 683References, 684

20 Solar Energy Measurements 687Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham

20.1 Introduction, 68820.2 Measurement Equipment, 69420.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 70320.4 Operational Errors, 70420.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 70420.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 71120.7 Modern Developments, 71120.8 Data Quality Assessment, 71420.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 71620.10 Outlier Analysis, 722Acknowledgments, 722References, 723

21 Wind Energy Measurements 727Peter Gregg

21.1 Introduction, 72821.2 Concepts, 72821.3 Measurements, 73121.4 Evaluation, 739References, 747

CONTENTS xiii

22 Human Movement Measurements 749Rahman Davoodi

22.1 Introduction, 74922.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 75022.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 75122.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 75422.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 75622.6 Discussion, 761Acknowledgment, 762References, 762

23 Flow Measurement 765Arnold A. Fontaine, KeefeB. Manning, and Steven Deutsch

23.1 Introduction, 76523.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768References, 799

PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803

24 Statistical Quality Control 805MagdE.Zohdi

24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 80524.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 80524.3 Quality Control, 80624.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 81224.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 81224.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 81224.7 Acceptance Sampling, 81524.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817Further Readings, 817

25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819Hans J. Thamhain

25.1 Management Perspective, 81925.2 Quantitative Approaches, 82125.3 Qualitative Approaches, 82625.4 Recommendations, 828Variables and Abbreviations, 831References, 831

26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833Walter W. Olson

26.1 Introduction, 83326.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 83426.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835

xiv CONTENTS

26.4 System Effects on ECM, 83826.5 Assessment, 84026.6 Summary, 844References, 845

27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847Alan Cross

27.1 Introduction, 84727.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control

Instrumentation, 84827.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851References, 858

28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, andS. Chaudhari

28.1 Introduction, 86028.2 Literature Review, 86328.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 86428.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming

Equipment, 87228.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 87928.6 Conclusion, 881Acknowledgments, 881References, 881

29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885C. Visvanathan

29A Overview, 88529.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 88629.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 88829.4 Waste Auditing, 89029.5 Conclusion, 909Further Readings, 910

30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911Jennifer A, Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens

30.1 Introduction, 91130.2 Summary, 940References, 940

INDEX 1-1

CONTENTS XV

VOLUME 2

PREFACE xxiii

CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

PART IV MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING 945

31 Viscosity Measurement 947AnnM. Anderson, Bradford A. Bruno, andLilla Safford Smith

31.1 Viscosity Background, 94731.2 Common Units of Viscosity, 94931.3 Major Viscosity Measurement Methods, 95931.4 ASTM Standards for Measuring Viscosity, 97431.5 Questions to Ask When Selecting a Viscosity Measurement

Technique, 976References, 979

32 Tribology Measurements 981Prasanta Sahoo

32.1 Introduction, 98232.2 Measurement of Surface Roughness, 98332.3 Measurement of Friction, 98832.4 Measurement of Wear, 99232.5 Measurement of Test Environment, 99432.6 Measurement of Material Characteristics, 99832.7 Measurement of Lubricant Characteristics, 100132.8 Wear Particle Analysis, 100432.9 Industrial Measurements, 100532.10 Summary, 1006

33 Corrosion Monitoring 1007Pierre R. Roberge

33.1 What is Corrosion Monitoring?, 100733.2 The Role of Corrosion Monitoring, 100833.3 Corrosion Monitoring System Considerations, 1010References, 1116

34 Surface Properties Measurement 1121Mrinalini Mulukutla and Sandip P. Harimkar

34.1 Introduction, 112134.2 Surface Properties, 112234.3 Microstructural Analysis, 1125

xvi CONTENTS

34.4 Compositional Analysis, 112834.5 Phase Analysis, 113034.6 Mechanical Testing, 113134.7 Corrosion Properties, 114134.8 Standards for Surface Engineering Measurement, 1145References, 1147

35 Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials 1151Juergen Blumm

35.1 Introduction, 115135.2 Stationary Methods for Measurement of the Thermal

Conductivity, 115735.3 Transient Methods for the Measurement of the Thermal

Conductivity, 116335.4 Test Results on Various Engineering Materials, 1173References, 1188

36 Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity 1189Prabhakar R. Bandaru and Max S. Aubain

36.1 Thermal Boundary Resistance May Limit Accuracy inContact-Based Thermal Conductivity (*:) Measurements, 1189

36.2 Optical Measurements of K May Avoid Contact-Related Issues, 119236.3 Thermoreflectance (TR), 119636.4 Characteristics of Thermoreflectance from Si Thin

Films—Modeling and Calibration, 119936.5 Experimental Procedures, 120236.6 Results and Discussion, 120436.7 Summary and Outlook, 1208Acknowledgments, 1209References, 1209

37 Selection of Metals for Structural Design 1213Matthew J. Donachie

37.1 Introduction, 121437.2 Common Alloy Systems, 121537.3 What are Alloys and What Affects their Use?, 121537.4 What are the Properties of Alloys and How are

Alloys Strengthened?, 121837.5 Manufacture of Alloy Articles, 122137.6 Alloy Information, 122137.7 Metals at Lower Temperatures, 123137.8 Metals at High Temperatures, 123337.9 Melting and Casting Practices, 123637.10 Forging, Forming, Powder Metallurgy, and Joining of Alloys, 124237.11 Surface Protection of Materials, 124537.12 Postservice Refurbishment and Repair, 1248

CONTENTS XVii

37.13 Alloy Selection: A Look at Possibilities, 124937.14 Level of Property Data, 125237.15 Thoughts on Alloy Systems, 125237.16 Selected Alloy Information Sources, 1259Further Readings, 1261

38 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 1263Daniel Liu, Jackie Rehkopf, and Maureen Reitman

38.1 Microstructure and Morphology of Polymers—Amorphous VersusCrystalline, 1264

38.2 General Stress-Strain Behavior, 126538.3 Viscoelasticity, 127138.4 Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 127238.5 Time-Temperature Dependence, 127438.6 Deformation Mechanisms, 127438.7 Crazing, 127738.8 Fracture, 127938.9 Modifying Mechanical Properties, 128438.10 Load-Bearing Applications: Creep, Fatigue Resistance, and High

Strain Rate Behavior, 1285References, 1290

39 Electrical Properties of Polymers 1291Evaristo Riande and Ricardo Diaz-Calleja

39.1 Introductory Remarks, 129139.2 Polarity and Permittivity, 129239.3 Measurements of Dielectric Permittivity, 129339.4 Polarization and Dipole Moments in Isotropic Systems, 129739.5 Thermostimulated Depolarization Currents, 131639.6 Conductivity in Polyelectrolytes and Polymer-Electrolytes

as Separators for Low Temperature Fuel Cells and ElectricalBatteries, 1318

39.7 Semiconductors and Electronic Conducting Polymers, 132439.8 Ferroelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Piezoelectricity

in Polymers, 132839.9 Nonlinear Polarization in Polymers, 133139.10 Elastomers for Actuators and Sensors, 133339.11 Electrical Breakdown in Polymers, 1336References, 1338

40 Nondestructive Inspection 1343Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp

40.1 Introduction, 134440.2 Liquid Penetrants, 134740.3 Radiography, 135140.4 Ultrasonic Methods, 1361

xviii CONTENTS

40.5 Magnetic Particle Method, 137040.6 Thermal Methods, 137340.7 Eddy Current Methods, 1375References, 1410

41 Testing of Metallic Materials 1413Peter C. McKeighan

41.1 Mechanical Test Laboratory, 141441.2 Tensile and Compressive Property Testing, 141841.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation Testing, 142041.4 Hardness and Impact Testing, 142241.5 Fracture Toughness Testing, 142541.6 Fatigue Testing, 142941.7 Other Mechanical Testing, 143341.8 Environmental Considerations, 1434Acknowledgments, 1436References, 1436

42 Ceramics Testing 1437Shawn K. McGuire and Michael G. Jenkins

42.1 Introduction, 143742.2 Mechanical Testing, 143842.3 Thermal Testing, 145142.4 Nondestructive Evaluation Testing, 145842.5 Electrical Testing, 146042.6 Summary, 1461References, 1461

43 Plastics Testing 1463Vishu Shah

43.1 Introduction, 146443.2 Mechanical Properties, 146443.3 Thermal Properties, 148143.4 Electrical Properties, 148443.5 Weathering Properties, 148843.6 Optical Properties, 1492Further Readings, 1496

44 Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing: KeyCharacterization Techniques 1499Maria del Pilar Noriega

44.1 FTIR Spectroscopy, 149944.2 Chromatography (GC, GC-MSD, GC-FTD, and HPLC), 150044.3 DSC and Thermogravimetry (TGA), 151044.4 Rheometry, 1518References, 1527

CONTENTS xix

45 Analytical Tools for Estimation of Particulate Composite MaterialProperties 1529Tarek I. Zohdi and Magd E. Zohdi

45.1 Introduction, 152945.2 Concepts in Statistical Quality Control, 153045.3 Effective Property Estimates, 153145.4 Summary, 1535References, 1537

PARTV INSTRUMENTATION 1539

46 Instrument Statics 1541Jerry Lee Hall, Sriram Sundararajan, and Mahmood Naim

46.1 Terminology, 154146.2 Static Calibration, 154446.3 Statistics in the Measurement Process, 1547References, 1570

47 Input and Output Characteristics 1573Adam C. Bell

47.1 Introduction, 157447.2 Familiar Examples of Input-Output Interactions, 157547.3 Energy, Power, Impedance, 157847.4 Operating Point of Static Systems, 158647.5 Transforming the Operating Point, 159847.6 Measurement Systems, 160247.7 Distributed Systems in Brief, 160747.8 Concluding Remarks, 1609References, 1610

48 Bridge Transducers 1611Patrick L Walter

48.1 Terminology, 161248.2 Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems, 161248.3 The Resistance Strain Gage, 161548.4 The Wheatstone Bridge, 162548.5 Resistance Bridge Balance Methods, 163448.6 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System

Calibration, 163648.7 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System

Considerations, 164648.8 AC Impedance Bridge Transducers, 1655References, 1660Further Readings, 1661

xx CONTENTS

49 Signal Processing 1663John Turnbull

49.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Systems, 166349.2 Basic Analog Filters, 166649.3 Basic Digital Filter, 167249.4 Stability and Phase Analysis, 168049.5 Extracting Signal from Noise, 1682References, 1683

50 Data Acquisition and Display Systems 1685Philip C. Milliman

50.1 Introduction, 168650.2 Data Acquisition, 168750.3 Process Data Acquisition, 168850.4 Data Conditioning, 169150.5 Datastorage, 169950.6 Data Display and Reporting, 170450.7 Data Analysis, 170750.8 Data Communications, 170850.9 Other Data Acquisition and Display Topics, 171250.10 Summary, 1715References, 1715

PART VI MEASUREMENT STANDARDS 1717

51 Mathematical and Physical Units, Standards, and Tables 1719Jack H. Westbrook

51.1 Symbols and Abbreviations, 1720Bibliography for Letter Symbols, 1731Bibliography for Graphic Symbols, 173751.2 Mathematical Tables, 174251.3 Statistical Tables, 176551.4 Units and Standards, 1775Bibliography for Units and Measurements, 180251.5 Tables of Conversion Factors, 180251.6 Standard Sizes, 183351.7 Standard Screws, 1886

52 Measurement Uncertainty 1911David Clippinger

52.1 Introduction, 191152.2 Literature, 191452.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty, 191552.4 Discussion, 1924Disclaimer, 1924References, 1925

53 MeasurementsE. L. Hixson and E. A. Ripperger

53.1 Standards and Accuracy, 192753.2 Impedance Concepts, 193053.3 Error Analysis, 1935References, 1942

CONTENTS XXI

1927

INDEX 1-1