Handbook of Social and

Evaluation Anxiety

Handbook of Social and

Evaluation Anxiety

EOITED BY

HAROLD LEITENBERG Universily of Vermonl

Burlinglon, Vermonl

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Llbrary of Congress Cataloglng-ln-Publlcatlon Data

Handbook of social and evaluation anxiety I edited by Harold Leitenberg.

p. cm. Includes blbliographical references.

ISBN 978-1-4899-2506-0 ISBN 978-1-4899-2504-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-2504-6 1. Anxiety--Social aspects. 2. Self-consciousness. 3. Social

role. 4. Bashfulness. I. Leitenberg. Harold. HM251.H2236 1990 152.4'6--dc20 90-6853

© 1990 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1990.

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1990 All rights reserved

CIP

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrievaI system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

T 0 my wife, Barbara, and children, David, Elliot, and Joe

Contributors

DAVID H. BARLow, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12203

JOSEPH 1. BREITENSTEIN, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506-6040

TIMOTHY J. BRucE, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12203

JONATHAN M. CHEEK, Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts 02181

PAUL M. G. EMMELKAMP, Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Gro­ningen, Academic Hospital, 9713 EZ, Groningen, The Netherlands

WILLIAM J. FREMOUW, Department of Psychology, West Virginia University, Mor­gantown, West Virginia 26506-6040

P AUL GILBERT, South Derbyshire Health Authority, South Derbyshire DE3 5DQ, England

CAROL R. GLASS, Department of Psychology, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC 20064

RICHARD G. HEIMBERG, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12203

ROBERT K. HEINSSEN, JR., Chestnut Lodge Research Institute, 500 West Mont­gomery Avenue, Rockville, Maryland 20850

DEBRA A. HOPE, Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12203

WARREN H. JONES, Department of Psychology, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, Oklahoma 74104

NEVILLE J. KING, Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia

ELLEN TOBEY KLASS, Department of Psychology, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, New York 10021

HAROLD LEITENBERG, Department of Psychology, University of Vermont, Bur­lington, Vermont 05405

vii

viii CONTRIBUTORS

SUSAN P. LIMBER, Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0308

JENNIFER ALANSKY MAURO, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403

LISA A. MELCHIOR, The Measurement Group, 6245 Bristol Parkway, Suite 242, Culver City, California 90230

THOMAS H. ÜLLENDICK, Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

RONALD J. PRINz, Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208

JAYNE ROSE, Department of Psychology, Augustana College, Rock Island, IlIinois 61204

MARY K. ROTHBART, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403

ESTHER D. ROTHBLUM, Department of Psychology, University of Vermont, Bur­lington, VermontO~5

DANIEL RUSSELL, Graduate Program in Hospital and Health Administration, College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242

BARBARA R. SARASON, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195

IRWIN G. SARASON, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seat­tle, Washington 98195

AGNES SCHOUNG, Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Groningen, Academic Hospital, 9713 EZ, Groningen, The Netherlands

GEORGINA SHERLING, Northwick Park Hospital, Harrow, Middlesex HAI 3UJ England

RONALD E. SMITH, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seat­tle, Washington 98195

FRANK 1. SMOLL, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195

Ross A. THOMPSON, Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska, Lin­coln, Nebraska 68588-0308

PETER TROWER, Solihull Health Authority, Solihull, West Midlands B93 OPX, England.

Preface

For a long time I have wanted to put together a book about sodal and evaluation anxiety. Sodal-evaluation anxiety seemed to be a stressful part of so many people's everyday experience. It also seemed to be apart of so many of the clinical problems that I worked with. Common terms that fit under this rubric include fears of rejection, humiliation, critidsm, embarrassment, ridicule, failure, and abandonment. Examples of sodal and evaluation anxiety include shyness; sodal inhibition; sodal timidity; public speaking anxiety; feelings of self-consdousness and awkwardness in sodal situations; test anxiety; perfor­mance anxiety in sports, theater, dance, or music; shame; guilt; separation anx­iety; sodal withdrawal; procrastination; and fear of job interviews or job evalua­tions, of asking someone out, of not making a good impression, or of appearing stupid, foolish, or physically unattractive.

In its extreme form, sodal anxiety is a behavior disorder in its own right­sodal phobia. This involves not only feelings of anxiety but also avoidance and withdrawal from sodal situations in which scrutiny and negative evaluation are antidpated. Sodal-evaluation anxiety also plays a role in other clinical disorders. For example, people with agoraphobia are afraid of having a panic attack in public in part because they fear making a spectacle of themselves. Moreover, even their dominant terrors of going crazy or having a heart attack seem to reflect a central concern with sodal abandonment and isolation. People suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorders are often overwhelmed by guilt-provok­ing sexual and aggressive thoughts and dread that these will be acted upon and discovered. Women with bulimia nervosa believe they have flawed characters as weH as flawed bodies and they try to achieve a perfect shape because they fear rejection otherwise. Men with sexual dysfunctions are often said to suffer from performance anxiety. School phobia, sodal isolation in children, severe anxiety in antidpation of loss of employment or loss of a loved one, homophobia, sodal defidts linked to sodal anxiety in schizophrenia, avoidant personality disor­der-the list can go on and on.

Social-evaluation anxiety is obviously an important issue affecting people of both genders, all ages, and aH walks of life. It has been relatively neglected for many years and research has been scattered across different subdisdplines. Of late, however, interest in this topic appears to be on an upswing. Clinical re­searchers, personality theorists, developmental psychologists, and sodal psy­chologists have aH made important contributions to this area. My goal in this book was to combine the clinical perspective on sodal and evaluation anxiety

ix

x PREFACE

with that of basic research in development psychology. Iwanted the book to provide a relatively comprehensive review of the varied topics in this area. Aside from the convenience of gathering this disparate research into one source, I hope that this book will serve a useful integrative function and stimulate further study.

Many people have worked hard to bring this book to completion. Most obviously I am grateful to the authors of the chapters in this book. An edited book is only as good as its contributors make it. Writing review chapters involves time, effort, and sacrifice from people with very busy schedules and competing demands. I would also like to thank our editor at Plenum, Eliot Werner, for his patience, flexibility, and support.

HAROLD LEITENBERG

Burlington, Vermont

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Harold Leitenberg

Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Types of Sodal Anxiety .............................................. 1 Phenomenology .................................................... 3 Consequences of Sodal Anxiety ...................................... 4 Organization of This Book ........................................... 5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

PART I. OVERVIEW

1. Sodal Anxiety, Evolution, and Self-Presentation ............... 11

Peter Trower, Paul Gilbert, and Georgina Sherling

Description and Definition of Sodal Anxiety ....................... 12 A Psychobiological Account of Sodal Anxiety ...................... 13 An Appraisal-Coping Model of Sodal Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22 Evaluation and Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36 Concluding Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42

2. Shyness, Self-Esteem, and Self-Consdousness ................ 47

Jonathan M. Cheek and Lisa A. Melchior

Defining Shyness as a Three-Component Syndrome ................ 48 Shyness as a Dimension of Self-Esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58 Shyness and Self-Concept Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67 Conclusion ..................................................... 71 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 73

xi

xii CONTENTS

PART 11. SOCIAL ANXIETY IN CHILDHOOD: DEVELOPMENTAL AND CLINICAL PERSPECTIVES

3. Socia! Anxiety in Infancy: Stranger and Separation Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85

Ross A. Thompson and Susan P. Limber

Theoretical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86 Stranger Reactions in Infancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 95 Separation Reactions in Infancy ................................... 118 Concluding Comments: Directions for Future Inquiry ............... 127 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130

4. Temperament, Behavioral Inhibition, and Shyness in Childhood ..................................................... 139

Mary K. Rothbart and Jennifer Alansky Mauro

Behavioral Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 142 Issues in the Assessment of Behavioral Inhibition .................. 145 Shyness and Sodal Anxiety ...................................... 147 Biological Models for Behavioral Inhibition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 Behavioral Genetics Approaches .................................. 151 ]effrey Gray's Model for Behavioral Inhibition ...................... 153 Behavioral Inhibition, Shyness, and Psychopathology in Children .... 155 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157

5. Socially Withdrawn and Isolated Children .................... 161

Ronald J. Prinz

Overview ....................................................... 161 Conceptualization of Sodal Withdrawal and Isolation ............... 161 Assessment Methods ............................................ 163 Intervention Strategies ........................................... 170 Significant Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176

6. School Phobia and Separation Anxiety ........................ 179

Thomas H. Ollendick and Neville J. King

Introduction .................................................... 179 Description ..................................................... 180

CONTENTS xiii

Diagnostic Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Etiology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 186 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189 Intervention .................................................... 195 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 208 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209

PART III. SOCIAL ANXIETY IN ADULTHOOD: ESTABLISHING RELATIONSHIPS

7. Dating Anxiety ............................................... 217

Debra A. Hope and Richard G. Heimberg

The Disruptive Effects of Dating Anxiety .......................... 217 Issues in the Research Literature . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 218 The Nature of Dating Anxiety .................................... 220 Assessment of Dating Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 227 Modification of Dating Anxiety ................................... 228 Ca se Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 234 Summary and Conclusions ....................................... 240 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242

8. Loneliness and Sodal Anxiety ................................ 247

Warren H. Jones, Jayne Rose, and Daniel Russell

Review of the Loneliness Literature ............................... 248 Linkages between Loneliness and Sodal Anxiety ................... 259 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 263

PART IV. SOCIAL ANXIETY IN ADULTHOOD: CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE

9. Sodal Phobia: Nature and Treatment .......................... 269

ASlle~ Scholing and Paul M. G. Emmelkamp

Introduction .................................................... 269 Definition of Sodal Phobia ....................................... 270 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 278 Characteristics of Sodal Phobia ................................... 278

xiv CONTENTS

Etiology ........................................................ 284 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287 Treatment of Social Phobia ....................................... 298 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions ........................ 314 References ...................................................... 316

10. Sodal Skills, Sodal Anxiety, and Cognitive Factors in Schizophrenia ................................................. 325

Robert K. Heinssen, Jr. and Carol R. Glass

Introduction .................................................... 325 Social Functioning in Nonschizophrenie Populations ................ 326 Models of Social Disability in Schizophrenia ....................... 327 Social Anxiety and Dysfunctional Cognitions in Schizophrenia ....... 341 Future Directions ................................................ 348 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 350

11. The Nature and Role of Performance Anxiety in Sexual Dysfunction ................................................... 357

Timothy J. Bruce and David H. Barlow

Introduction .................................................... 357 Conceptual Groundwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 359 The Role of Anxiety in Sexual Responsivity ........................ 361 The Role of Cognition in Sexual Responsivity ...................... 366 The Interaction of Autonomie and Attentional Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 375 Working Model and Summary .................................... 377 Related Areas of Performance Anxiety ............................. 379 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 380 References ...................................................... 381

12. Guilt, Shame, and Embarrassment: Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches ................................................... 385

Ellen Tobey Klass

Introduction .................................................... 385 Defining Guilt, Shame, and Embarrassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 386 Assessment Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 388 Guilt ........................................................... 390 Shame ...................................... " .................... 403 Embarrassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 405 Conclusions and Open Issues .................................... 408

" References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

CONTENTS xv

PART V. EVALUATION ANXIETY

13. Sport Performance Anxiety ................................... 417

Ronald E. Smith and Frank L. Smoll

Arousal, Stress, and Anxiety ..................................... 418 The Nature of Sport Performance Anxiety ......................... 421 The Measurement of Anxiety in Sports ............................ 424 Determinants of Sport Performance Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 428 Consequences of Performance Anxiety ............................ 435 Future Directions in Sport Performance Anxiety Research ........... 448 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449

14. Speech Anxiety ............................................... 455

William J. Fremouw and Joseph L. Breitenstein

Introduction .................................................... 455 Assessment of Speech Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 456 Treatments for Speech Anxiety ................................... 460 Defining Effectiveness of Treatments .............................. 463 Prediction of Treatment Outcome ................................. 466 Future Directions ................................................ 470 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 471

15. Test Anxiety .................................................. 475

Irwin G. Sarason and Barbara R. Sarason

Test Anxiety and Performance .................................... 477 Cognitive Interference, Worry, and Self-Preoccupation .............. 482 Components of Test Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 485 Intervention Strategies ........................................... 486 Test Anxiety and Soda! Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 493

16. Fear of Failure: The Psychodynamic, Need Achievement, Fear of Success, and Procrastination Models ................... 497

Esther D. Rothblum

Psychodynamic Views of Fear of Failure ........................... 497 Fear of Failure versus Need Achievement .......................... 501

xvi CONTENTS

Fear of Success .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 512 Fear of Failure as an Antecedent of Procrastination ................. 524 Conclusion and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 References ...................... " .............................. 531

Index ..................................................... 539