Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
CONCEIVING INTERNATIONAL BRAIN CIRCULATION OF CARE WORKERS
Reiko Ogawa, Kyushu University
Harmonization of the Standard of Long-term Care Certificate between Japan and Indonesia
Propositions on Care and Migration:
Care work: 1. Unpaid care work has been rewarded while paid care
work has been undervalued. 2. In general, care work has been considered as low-
skilled or at best semi-skilled. Migration: 1. Immigration policies are more open to highly-skilled
than low-skilled migrants. 2. Highly-skilled migrants are granted more rights than
the low-skilled migrants. How do we define care work and transferability of skills?
Assessment of Skills in Caregiving Highly skilled workers are usually defined as having
a university degree or extensive/equivalent experience in a given field (Iredale, 2001).
Are caregivers considered as highly skilled? Does immigration law admit caregivers as highly
skilled? Is caregiving a professional job with a professional
identity? What are the skills in caregiving that can/should be
transferred to Indonesia?
Recognition and Transferability of Skills
EU mutual recognition and harmonized training of medical doctors in 30 disciplines. i.e. neurology, dermatology, pathology etc.
OECD “internationalization of professional services” i.e. accountancy mutual recognition agreements
Nurses-high demand, nation bound IT industry-flexible labor market dominated by
English language Most professions remain national.
Migrant Care Workers under the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)
Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between the Philippines (2006）, Indonesia (2007) and Vietnam (2008)
Indonesian migrants will receive one year Japanese language training including 40h training on caregiving
Involvement of the state agencies in recruitment, deployment, training and allocation of caregivers
Condition to pass the national exam for nursing and caregiving (kaigofukushishi) within a limited period of time. If they cannot pass, they have to return.
Characteristic of Migration under EPA
Indonesian caregivers to Japan are all from the nursing background (D3 or S1) and allowed to work only in institutions
Caregiving is lumped together with nurse due to the pressure from JNA and in line with the immigration policy which only accepts the ‘highly skilled’
Can stay up to four years. If they pass the national exam, they can extend their visa for unlimited period of time.
Equal salary and labor standard law is applied as the Japanese co-workers
Monthly salary is between 120,000 yen ~212,940 yen (Average approx. 160,000 yen)
Between 2008-2013, 608 Indonesian caregivers arrived in Japan.
Motivation to Come to Japan
2nd Batch of Indonesian Caregivers (2009) Quantitative research on the motivation of
coming to Japan. Research team: Shun Ohno, Yuko Hirano, Kiyoshi
Adachi, Sdachika Kawaguchi, Reiko Ogawa Questionnaire distributed and collected during the
Japanese language training in UniversitasPendidikan Indonesia (UPI). N=364
“Want to develop my career” and “Want to support my family economically”
Migrant Care Workers in Japan
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
No. of Entry
No. ofPassers
No. ofStayers
608 arrived and 201 returned as of May1, 2014
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
No. ofEntryNo. ofPassersNo. ofStayers
520 arrived and 181 left as of May1, 2014.
Indonesian Filipinos
Was EPA Based on a Wrong Assumption?:
Most migrants do not have definite plans before they come to Japan.
Three theoretical types: Returnees who intended temporary migration.
Fulfilled their objective to work in Japan. Returnees who intended permanent migration but
were forced to return. Failed to pass the national exam.
Returnees who intended permanent migration but choose to return. Family situation, homesickness and career prospects as a care worker.
Migration Movements
Return migration: Movements of emigrants back to their homelands to resettle.
Re-emigration: Movements of emigrants back to their homelands and immigrate for the second time.
Circular migration: Frequent movement between two or more places.
Feeling of loyalty and affection to their home countries often overweigh the economic gains (Gmelch, 1980).
Pull factors are found to be more significant than push factors in promoting return migration (ibid).
Contradictory mobility
All the Indonesian care workers in Japan are educated as nurses (D3 or S1).
Without having a prior information and image of ‘care work’ in Japan the first and second batch thought that they will be practicing nursing for the elderly.
They thought they can learn high-tech nursing in Japan which resulted in disillusionment.
“The people will return even though we pass because we didn’t know that nursing and caregivingare two different occupations”. (1st batch Indonesian certified caregiver)
Job Opportunities in Indonesia
Returned Nurses-hospitals i.e. Rumah Sakit in Jakarta, Bandung, Makassar,
Yogyakarta, Semarang, Surabaya, Palembang etc. Returned Care Workers-Japanese Companies i.e. Bank Sumitomo Mitsui Indonesia, Unicharm,
Nissho Indonesia, Yakult, Toyota Tsusho, Hanwa etc.
“I don’t have a confidence working in a hospital because I haven’t worked as a nurse for four years. If I want to work as a nurse, I need to go to S1 again.” (1st batch Indonesian caregiver)
Are Return Migrants Agents of Change?
Depends on the willingness of the home society to adapt to new changes.
Depends on the technology and economic development in the home society.
No evidence to show that the return migrants are bringing social change to the home society (Gmelch, 1980).
What is the environment conducive to make them successful?
Identifications of Common Areas
Principles of care based on the independence and dignity of the elderly i.e. maintain the remaining functions, self determination
Basic skills on care: i.e. transfer, prevention and treatment of bed sore
Basic knowledge on medicine: i.e. dementia
→development of common gerontologicalknowledge, standardization of care
Maximizing the Human Resources
Indonesian Nurse
Caregiver in Japan
・Employee at Japanese Company
・Geriatric Nurse・Trainers for Puskesmas & Posyandus
・College teacher
Intermediarybetween Indonesia and Japan on Long Term Care
Some Suggestions
Connect the returnees to active ageing programs in Indonesia
Maximize the human resources of returnees to provide training to Posyandu, Puskesmas and Nursing Colleges
Tap the CSR of Japanese companies to support the training
Conclusion: Brain Circulation
Win-win-win through capacity development
Indonesian nurse/caregiver
Knowledge, skill and experience in caregivingTheories and legal framework in caregiving
Japanese care facilities
Quality workforceCross-cultural learning experience
Indonesian Community Care
Utilization of returneesRaising the standard of care promoting active aging
