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HaveICTinnovationsturnedtheprincipleof“organizationalchoice”intotheprincipleof“infinitefreedom”?
PaperpresentedattheconferenceoftheSociotechnicalRoundtableSeptember7th-9th2016inSanFransisco
Dr.Eric-HansKramerFacultyofMilitarySciences
NetherlandsDefenceAcademyPOBox900024800PABredaTheNetherlandserichans@xs4all.nl
AbstractInnovationsinInformationandCommunicationtechnologyhavecreatedpossibilitiesinorganizationsthatpreviouslywereunthinkable.Intherealmofmilitarystudiestheso-called chaoplexic paradigm suggests that these possibilities are so path-breaking thatthey constitute a paradigm-shift in thinking about organizations. Inspired by criminaland jihadistnetworks, thechaoplexicparadigmclaimsthatmilitaryunits“in the field”can acquire far reaching autonomy as a result of a continuously updated situationalawareness,whichisenabledbysophisticateddata-linkswithotherunits.Subsequently,thenetworkofsuchmilitaryunitsisthoughttobeextremelyflexibleandagilebecauseitdoesnotneed to relyonpredeterminedhierarchicalpathsof coordination. “Order” insuchnetworksisthoughtto“emerge”asaresultofself-organizingunitsthatcoordinatewith other units. This paper discusses whether this philosophy truly constitutes aparadigm shift in thinking about organizations. Themain claim is that this is not thecase.BasedonadiscussionofacasestudyofamilitarytaskforceandananalysisbasedonNormal Accidents Theory, it is argued that the chaoplexic paradigm overlooks theproblem of “hidden” interconnections between units. All in all, it is argued that thechaoplexicparadigmunderestimatestheimportanceofhierarchyinorganizations.Itisfurthermorearguedthattheideasofthechaoplexicparadigmcanonlyworkifmilitaryunitsare“perfectinformationprocessors”withoutboundedrationalityandinextremelysmall networks. Alternatively, a perspective is worked out which emphasizes thevulnerabilityofnetworksoforganizationalunitsindynamicallycomplexenvironments.Accordingtothisperspectiveoperatorsarecontinuouslyconfrontedtowiththeneedtobalance the limitations of given structure with the most recent demands from theoperationalenvironment.
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HaveICTinnovationsturnedtheprincipleof“organizationalchoice”intothe
principleof“infinitefreedom”?ItisindisputablethatinthelastdecadesinnovationsinInformationandCommunicationTechnology (ICT) have had groundbreaking implications for organizations. Moreover,these implications are not restricted to a particular domain. ICT innovations haveinfluenced organizations across the board. One notable development in the last twodecades has been that, due to ICT innovations, organizations are better able to adoptnetwork-forms. ICT innovations enable communications and coordination betweengroups and departments that are geographically widely dispersed. One particularlycompellingsuggestionisthatsuchICTinnovationsmightbeabletomake“bureaucracy”and functional “silos” a thing of the past.More specifically, the suggestion is that theorganizational problems associated with organizations build up on the principle of“functionalconcentration”(lackofcontrolovercentralprocesses,lackofflexibility,lackof innovationpotential, poor quality ofworking life;De Sitter, 2000)might solvedbyestablishingdirectICTlinksbetweendepartments.
Sometimesthisideaismorethanameresuggestionbutisbroughtforwardasapath-breakingphilosophyoforganizing.Intherealmofmilitarystudiesthisphilosophypoints to the potential of “robustly networked systems” and is usually referred to asNetwork Centric Warfare (NCW) or Network Enabled Capabilities (NEC). Thisphilosophypointsoutthatnetworksarepotentiallyextremelyflexibleandagilebecausethey do not rely on predetermined hierarchical paths of coordination. According toBousquet(2008,p.916),theseideasareinspiredbycriminalandjihadistnetworks.Theideaisthatunits“inthefield”canacquireautonomyasaresultacontinuouslyupdatedsituationalawareness,whichisenabledbysophisticateddata-linkswithotherunits.Thewhole systemofmilitary units needs to become a fully “robustly” connectednetwork(everynodeisconnectedtoeveryother)andissometimescalledan“edgeorganization”because of its radically decentralized character. The intended result is a collection of“swarming”unitsthat“self-synchronize”andsubsequentlycoordinationbetweenunitsisexpectedto“emerge”.Bousquet(2008,p.916)observesthattheseideasarecurrentlysoinfluentialthattheyessentiallyconstituteanewparadigminthinkingaboutmilitaryorganizationsandwarfare,whichhecalls theparadigmof “chaoplexicwar”.Bousquet(2008,p.923)onthisideaofchaoplexity:“Chaosisseennolongerassimplyathreattoorderwhichmustbeavertedatallcosts,butastheveryconditionofpossibilityoforder.Thekeynotionshereare thoseofnon-linearity, self-organizationandemergence, andthe pivotal technological figure is that of the network, the distributed model ofinformation exchange perhaps best embodied by the internet.” The very reason suchideas are considered valuable in this research community is that traditionalorganizationsareconsideredtoorigidtobeabletorespondtoveryturbulent,uncertainand dynamic environments, while the “edge organization” essentially solves thisproblem.
Theideasbehindthechaoplexicparadigmaresoradicalthattheymakeaclean
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breakwithexistingideaswithinorganizationsciences.Assuchtheyarerightfullycalleda “paradigm”: if they work as the paradigmatic example indicates, we are left withorganizations thatrelyonprinciples thatare fundamentallydifferentcompared to theones we usually apply for understanding organizations Because the chaoplexicparadigm argues that robust networks are better able to deal with dynamicenvironments because they are far more agile it essentially argues in favor of aparadigm shift regarding some key ideas in organization-studies.. In essence, thechaoplexicparadigmseemstosuggestthatasaresultofICTinnovationshierarchycanbemadesuperfluous.Eversincethe1950’sandtheworkofHerbertSimonhierarchyisconsideredtobeacorefeatureofsystems(Simon,1962).Hierarchyreferstoanestingof subsystems within systems (Simon, 1997). Present ideas about organizationsgenerallyclaimthathierarchy–or“design”–isafunctionalpropertyofsystemsbecauseasystemwithouthierarchywouldbeovercomeby“informationoverload”.However,ifeverynodeisconnectedtoeveryothernode, theentireorganizationbecomesflatandmutual adjustment is the only relevant coordination principle. If “order” emerges insuchsystems, itactually implies thatcoordinationcostsassociatedwithhierarchycanbereducedtozero.
This paper focuses on the paradigm-shifting core of the chaoplexic paradigm. Iwillbequiteskepticaloftheclaimsofthechaoplexicparadigm.Whileitiscertainlytruethatnetwork formsare for certainorganizations in someenvironments very valuableand can be considered an important organizational innovation made possible bydevelopmentsinICT,Iwillarguethatitgoestofartothinkthathierarchyingeneralhasbecomesuperfluous.Thispaperwillofferacounterexampleagainstthisargumentandwilloffera theoreticalcritiqueofNCWandNEC.Boththeexampleandthetheoreticalcritique originate from existing research into the organizational vulnerabilities ofmilitary taskforces. On the basis of this example and the theoretical critique thechaoplexicparadigmwillbeanalyzed.ThechaoplexicparadigmIn the early years of the sociotechnical tradition, Eric Trist identified the principle of“organizationalchoice”(Trist,et.al.1963).Coreofthisprincipleistheideathatwhenitcomestoadoptingtechnologicalinnovations,organizationshaveachoice.Theinventionof the conveyor belt does not enforce a particular organizational form on theorganization. Instead, theprincipleoforganizationalchoicestates that it ispossible toadopt innovative technologyby implementing it inanorganizational formthat fits thepurposes of the organization. The chaoplexic paradigm seems to have turned thisprinciple on its head: instead of enforcing a kind ofmechanistic organizational form,technological innovations in the realm of ICT appear to offer absolute liberation: theinfinite freedom to continuously change organizational forms given the particularchallengesataparticulartime.So justasorganizationalchoice implies liberationfromtechnologicaldeterminism,thechaoplexicparadigmseemstoclaimthatICTinnovationsofferliberationfromtheinevitablyconstrainingeffectsof“choice”.Alsowithintherealmof Science and Technology Studies, this is a somewhat unusual position. According to
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Bijker (2006) there are generally three positions in the debate of how technologyinfluences society (i.c. also organizations). In this debate, technological determinismclaimsthattechnologyhasdeterminingeffectsonsociety;socialvoluntarismarguesthatsociety determines technological developments and social constructionism argues thattechnology and society mutually influence each other. The chaoplexic seems to –somewhat paradoxically – claim that technological development determines absolutefreedominorganizationalforms.
Essenceofthechaoplexicparadigmisthe ideaisthatICTcanbeusedtocreate“robustlynetworkedorganizations”inwhicheachnodeisconnectedtoallothernodes.Subsequently,thisICTinfrastructureenablesrapidinformationsharingbetweennodes,which furthermoreenableverygooddecentralizedSituationalAwareness.This idea isspecificallyworkedoutinconceptssuchasNCWandNEC(Alberts&Hayes,2003).ThebasicsofNCW&NECarestatedasfollowsbyCebrowski(2005,p.7):
• “Arobustlynetworkedforceimprovesinformationsharing
• Information sharing enhances the quality of information and shared situational
awareness.
• Shared situationalawareness enables collaborationand self-synchronization, and
enhancessustainabilityandspeedofcommand.
• These,inturn,dramaticallyincreasemissioneffectiveness”
Self-synchronization” refers to the coordination of activities between units at thedecentralizedpositions,whichimpliesthatcommunicationrunsacrosstheorganization,rather than followinghierarchical lines. In thatcasecontrol isbelieved toemerge asaresult of local interactions (Alberts & Hayes, 2003). Or to put it differently, controlemergesasaresultofmassiveprocessofmutualadjustment.Atkinson&Moffat(2005,p.40-41)explainthisphilosophyasfollows:
ThenatureofNetworkCentricWarfareforsuchfutureInformationAgeforcescan
be outlined as: within a broad intent and constraints available to all forces, the
local force units self-synchronize under mission command in order to achieve
overallintent.Thisprocessisenabledbytheabilityoftheforcesinvolvedtorobustly
network.Wecandescribesuchassystemas loosely coupled tocapturethe localfreedomavailabletotheunitstoprosecutetheirmissionwithinanawarenessofthe
overall intent and constraints imposed by higher level command. (…). In this
process,informationistransformedin“sharedawareness”,whichisavailabletoall.
Thisleadstounitslinkingupwithotherunits,whichareeitherlocalinapsychical
senseorlocalthroughaninformationgridorintranet(self-synchronizaton).Thisin
turnleadstoemergentbehaviorandeffectsinthebattlespace”.
Aswillbecomeclearer later, thekeyword in thisquote is “looselycoupled”.The ideaapparently is that the ideas work if there is “loose coupling” between units: if theoperationsofoneunitisonlyweaklyconnectedtoothers.Proponentsofthechaoplexic
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paradigmarguethattheseideasaresupportedbycomplexityscience(Gray,2002).Theidea is that control “emerges” in robustly networked systems as a result of localinteractions. This is based on the “order for free” idea from complexity science(Waldrop, 1992). The general idea is that in Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) orderdoes not need to be designed. Kramer& Van Bezooijen (2016) discuss this linkwithCAS:
Waldrop (1992) discusses the example of bakeries in large cities. Together these
bakeriesareresponsibleforasignificantpartoffoodsupply.Takentogetherthese
bakerieshandletheissueoffoodsupplyremarkablyadequate.Yet,noonetellsthe
individualbakerieshowmuchbreadtoproduce,norhowtoorganizetheirlogistic
supply. Incontrast,makingthe foodsupply incities theresponsibilityofacentral
officethatissuesdetailedorderstobakerieswouldbearecipefordisaster.Soina
sense,foodsupplyinlargecitiesisacomplicatedprocessthatis“orderedforfree”.
Sotheideaofthechaoplexicparadigmisthat“order”canemergeinamilitarytaskforcein a likewise manner. General McCrystal in his book Team of teams (2015) refers toelementsofthisphilosophyinordertodescribethemostrecentinnovationsintheUSArmy. The image that emerges from this book is that the US Army started atransformation towards thisphilosophy. In the forewordof thebook,Walter Isaacsonclaimsthattherelevanceofthisbookliesexactlyinthisrealm(Isaacson,2015,p.viii):
“Management models based on planning and predicting instead of resilient
adaptation to changing circumstances are no longer suited to today’s challenges.
Organizationsmustbenetworked,notsiloed,inordertosucceed.
AboutthedevelopmentsintheUSArmyIsaacsonstates(2015,p.viii-ix):
“Oneconclusiontheyreachedwasthatagilityandadaptabilityarenormallylimited
tosmallteams.(…).“Theprimarylessonthatemerged,andisdetailedinthisbook,is
the need to scale the adaptability and cohesiveness of small teams up to the
enterprise level. This involves creating a team of teams to foster cross-silo
collaboration.”
Subsequently, in the book McCrystal alludes to (but not specifically mentions) thechaoplexic philosophy at differentmoments and concludes it has been successful. Forexample(2015;p.164):
“We knew that forging the neural network that would facilitate our emergent
analysis of complexproblemswas vital forour long-term success, sowedesigned
prepackaged communication bundles that our teams could take into the field,
wherevertheywereintheworld.LikeNASA,weinvestedinbandwidthtoenableus
toreacheverycomponentofour forceandourpartners, fromausterebasesnear
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the Syrian border to CIA headquarters at Langley, Virginia. Satellite dishes, fromsmalltohuge,connectedtheforce.Securevideoteleconferences,chatrooms,aWebportal,ande-mailbecamekeyarteriesofourcirculatorysystem.Technicallyitwascomplex, financially it was expensive, but we were trying to build a culture ofsharing:anymemberof theTaskForce,andanyof thepartnerswe invited,couldeventually dial in to theO&I securely from their laptops and listen through theirheadphones.”
OneofthemainmessagesofMcCrystalisthattheimplementationofthisphilosophyhasintegral effects. For example, it requires a different kind of leadership compared totraditionalorganizationsandadifferent“culture”.
To qualify the claims of the chaoplexic paradigm somewhat in advance of theactualargumentof thispaper, the followingpassage fromaNATOpublication isquiteinteresting. In apublicationof theNATOdefense college, El Fartasi&DeVivo (2016)startfromthebeliefthatworkingwithsophisticateddata-linksinnetworkedsystemsisalreadyareality,althoughthequotebelowsuggeststhatitisnotquiteusedinthewaythechaoplexicparadigmsuggests:
NATOhasalwaysmaintainedatechnicaladvantageoveritspotentialadversaries.Through its Alliance Ground Surveillance System (AGS), consisting of five GlobalHawk Unmanned Vehicle (UAVs) and Ground Control Stations, the Alliance willhavea21stcenturysystemthatwillsupporttheCommander’scomprehensivereal-time and near real-time situational awareness at strategic distance and withinhours,ifnotminutes,ofacrisisarising.AGSwillgathermassiveamountsofdatatoenablesituationalawarenessoflandandmaritimeenvironments;butwhatuseareaGlobalHawkanditsgroundstations,withouttheITinfrastructurethroughwhichits data is communicated for possible use by decision-makers?NATO’s IT enablessurveillanceandintelligencegathering,servingasNATO’seyesintheskyinlightofincreasedairspacesecuritybreachesonitsborders.Ensuringcontinuoussituationalawarenessinspecificareasofinterest,duringcriticalperiodsofheightenedtension,is therefore of the utmost importance. Without the current IT architecture tosupport operational capability, both the Alliance and nations risk makinguninformed decisions with incomplete and fragmentary data, with results thatcouldleadtopotentiallyseriousunintendedconsequences.
Thisquoteactuallysuggeststhatdatalinksarenecessaryforsituationalawarenessofacentralcommanderwhoisakeydecisionmaker.Thisideaisactuallytheveryoppositeofwhat the chaoplexic philosophy proposes and it is also different from the spirit ofMcCrystal’sargument.Thisis,however,aclassicalcontradictioninorganizationstudies:willsophisticatedtechnologybeusedtofosterself-organization,ortofostercentralizedcontrol?Thechaoplexicparadigmarguesinfavoroftheformer,butthelattertendencydoes not seem to be totally absent in its implementation. Apparently, the newtechnologyalsofeedsintotheolddreamofperfectcentralization.
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Thechaoplexic“imageoforganization”The chaoplexic ideas are particularly interesting from the perspective of the
sociotechnicaltradition.Theyappeartobeabletoovercometheproblemsofoneofthe
main enemies of the sociotechnical tradition: the large scale specialized bureaucratic
organization built upon the ideas of functional concentration (concentrating a single
specialism in a single department). Furthermore, they aim to fight traditional
bureaucracy by advocating radical decentralization and self-organization, the very
topicsthathavebeenembracedbythesociotechnicaltraditionfordecades.Soinasense
the ideas of the chaoplexic paradigmmight appear as a validationof some core ideas
from the sociotechnical tradition. At the same time, they might seem to change the
nature of these sociotechnical ideas quite considerably. After all, the sociotechnical
tradition has developed alternatives for traditional bureaucracies. The chaoplexic
paradigmseemstosuggest thatmerelyconnectingeveryunit toeveryotherunitwith
sophisticateddatalinksistheonlydesigneffortittakesforachievingthesociotechnical
ideals.Inawaytherefore,itmightappearthatthechaoplexicparadigmisessentiallyan
innovationthatmakes(sociotechnical)organizationaldesignatopicofpasttimes.
In essence, the chaoplexic paradigm is based upon a different “image of
organization”comparedtothe“hierarchyparadigm”.Thisistheimageof“organizations
asantcolonies”(Dekker2011,p157).Kramer&Moorkamp(2016)describethisimage
asfollows:
“This image focuses on the complicated organized behaviour that is displayed byant colonies,while no single ant has designed the colony, or understands it in itsentire complexity. The organized behaviour of the colony is a macro-levelphenomenonthatemergesfromthebehaviourofinteractingants.”
Sidney Dekker uses this image of the ant colony to emphasize the idea of organizedcomplexity(2011,p.157):
“Itiscomplexbecausetherearealargenumberofcomponents,and,asaresult,adense throng of mini-programs running and interacting, cross influencing eachother”.
ThiscomplexityisorganizedaccordingtoDekker(2011,p.157):
“Butwhatitproducesisnotdisorganized.Ratheritisorganized(...)asanamazingemergent product of the complex interactions between a multitude of simplerentities”.
Sotheideaofemerging“organizedcomplexity”replacestheideaoforganizationdesign.
Kramer&Moorkamp(2016)emphasizefurthermore:
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“Dekkerconsiderscomplexsystemsbothresilientandvulnerablebyvirtueoftheircomplexity,whichhedeemsaparadox.”
This idea of vulnerability of complex systems is unavailable in the ideas of NCW andNEC, but Dekker offers no analysis of how resilience and vulnerability relate1. Morespecifically,Dekkerstatesthat(2011,p.157):
“Becausetheyconsistofcomplexwebsofrelationships,andbecausealotofcontrolis distributed rather than centralized, complex systems can adapt to a changingworld”.
However,
“Complexity opens up a way for a particular kind of brittleness. Their opennessmeansunpredictablebehaviour”(Dekker2011p153).
So if structure can be understood bymeans of the idea of “organized complexity” anorganizationisprincipallyseenasan“infinitelymalleable”tissuethatcancombineandrecombine elements in infinite ways in order to adapt to the newest environmentalcontingencies, without the burden of a previously designed hierarchical framewhichseverely limits themalleabilityof the tissue. Shedding thisburden is specificallywhatcreates the agility of the tissue. While the chaoplexic paradigm emphasizes theadaptability and resilience of “organizations as ant colonies”, others adhering to thisimageoforganizationalsoemphasizevulnerability.Counter-example:amilitarytaskforceinanexpeditionarymissionThecounter-examplethatisofferedhereisacasestudyofamilitarytaskforce.Thiscasestudy was developed at the Netherlands Defense Academy by Moorkamp, and isdescribedindetailinMoorkamp&Kramer(2014).Thecasedescriptionaimstoexpressthe idea that, although the conditions of the taskforce seem to be very fit for thechaoplexic paradigm, the organizing principles behind the chaoplexic paradigm couldnotpossiblyhaveworked.
In the last twodecades, the focusof theNetherlandsArmedForceshas shiftedfrom preparing for all kinds of Cold War scenarios, to what is called “expeditionarymissions”.ThesearemissionsinwhichtheArmedForcesgoon“expedition”–goabroad– in the context of peacekeeping, peace enforcing missions, post conflict rebuildingmissions, etc. In this time period, The Netherlands Armed forces have contributed tomissionsinforexampleBosnia,Iraq,AfghanistanandMali.Typicalforsuchmissionsisthattaskforcesaredeployed.Taskforcesaretemporaryconstructionsthataredeployed
1Intheabsenceofsuchananalysis,thisparadoxisunconvincing.Itratherseemslikeapredeterminedanswertoeverypossiblequestion.Isthereanaccident?Itiscausedby“organizedcomplexity”.Istherenoaccident?Itiscausedby“organizedcomplexity”.Remarkablyresilientbehavior?Itiscausedby“organizedcomplexity”.
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for the purposes of a singlemission. Basically, a taskforce is designedby establishingwhatkindsof“assets”or“capabilities”areexpectedtobenecessaryinagivenmission.TheseassetsandcapabilitiesaresubsequentlyselectedfromthestandingarmyinTheNetherlands.Itwillbeobviousthatsuchtaskforcesneedtofindadesignthatworksinaparticular environment. As such, expeditionary taskforces are underdevelopedorganizations.
Onthebasisofananalysisofresearchintosuchexpeditionarytaskforces,Kramer&VanBezooijen(2016) identify twomainorganizationalchallenges. Inthe firstplace,typicallyexpeditionarytaskforcesfaceenvironmentswithmanyunknowns.ThisiswhatKramer (2007) refers to as “dynamic complexity”. These environments constantlychangeunder the influenceofdifficult to interpretdynamics. In thesecondplace,asaconsequenceoftheseenvironmentalconditions,taskforcescontinuouslycalibratedtheirinternal design to fit the conditions that they found themselves in. In the case of theDutch Uruzgan mission, Kramer et.al (2012) concluded that: “(…) previous to thedeploymentoftheDutchtroopstheAfghanprovinceUruzganwasbasicallyawhitespotonthemap.Furthermore,duringdeploymentthelocalcircumstancesprovedtobeverychangeable; the force of the Taliban opposition could vary significantly. Operationalunitswereoftenthefirsttoexperiencechangesintheenvironmentandactedthereforein a general sense as explorers.With this inmind, it is quite impossible to design anorganizationina“one-shotdesigneffort”thatcandealwithallcurrentandfuture–asyetunknown–contingencies.”
AspartofhisPhDproject,Moorkampstudiedsafetymanagementstrategiesinaparticularunit thatoperatedanUnmannedAerialVehicle(UAV)aspartofTaskForceUruzgan(TFU)(Moorkamp&Kramer,2014;Moorkampetal2015).TFUwasataskforcethatwasdeployedby theNetherlandsArmedForces, inorder tostartupa rebuildingprocessintheAfghanprovinceofUruzganfrom2006to2010.Thisparticularunit,107AerialSystemsBattery(107ASBt),wasaddedtoTFUfordoingAerialReconnaissanceand as such they contributed to the intelligence organization in TFU. 107ASBtwas aunitthat,atthetime,wasareconnaissanceplaneoftheArtillery.ThatmeantthattheyweretrainedasapartoftheArtillery.Oneparticularconsequencewasthattheyusedtotraininarestrictedairzone,becauseobviouslyanArtillerybattalioncannottrainwithall kinds of air-traffic flying over. A consequence was however, that they were notfamiliarwithoperating in an areawithother air spaceusers such as inUruzgan.Theconsequencewasthatpartoftheself-organizingactivitiesof107ASBtwerefocusedon“discovering, establishing and refining rules and procedures for interaction, such asrules foravoidingcollision in theair, or ‘‘deconfliction”” (Moorkampet. al.2015,p.6).Thisamountedbasicallytolearninganentirenewtradeduringdeployment(“whatdoesacontroltowermeanwhentheysayX,YorZ”).Thislearningprocesspartlywaspartlyatrialanderroraffair,withsomenearmisses,mostnotablyaUAVnearly flying intoanApache helicopter after launch (“not a near miss, but a near hit”, according to oneoperator). Moreover, it is very questionable if the operators of 107 ASBt eventuallydeveloped a full understanding of the whole spectrum (the exact meaning of“deconfliction”, “air traffic control”, Restricted Air Zone’s (ROZ), etc), which was
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evidencedbythemcontactingthecontroltoweronhowtooperateinaROZinsteadofa
ForwardAirController(FAC-er).MorespecificallyMoorkampet.al(2015,p.6)conclude
that:
“Themajorityoftheself-organizingstrategiesof107ASBt’soperatorswereaimed
attryingtosolveproblemswithregardtotheamountandtypeofassignmentsand
air space users within TFU were a major source of problems for 107 ASBt’s
operators.WithinTFU,107ASBtwaslocatedinanextensivenetworkofotherArmy
andAir Forceunits. This organizational configurationdiffered substantially from
theconfigurationinwhichtheyweretraininginTheNetherlands.InUruzgan,107
ASBt was gradually included in TFU’s complicated primary process that varied
quicklyduetothedynamiccomplexmissionareainUruzgan.”
Apartfromalackofknowledgeof107ASBtonhowtooperateintaskforceconditions,
therewasalackofunderstandingonthepartoftherestofTFUonhowtoexactlyusea
UAV.ThatmadeintegrationoftheUAVintoTFUsignificantlymoredifficult.Thecontrol
towerdidnotknowtheycouldn’tordertheUAVtodepartataspecificmomentbecause
their enginewas not suited for that, and they didn’t know the UAV’sweren’t able to
deconflict on the basis of the prevailing “see and avoid” strategy (because as anUAV
doesn’thaveapilotandthisUAV’scamerawaspointedtotheground).Intelligenceunits
did not know that UAV’s couldn’t be deployed to search for a red car because their
camerawasblackandwhite.Furthermore,thedifferentunitsintheTFU-networkwere
surprised to findout that theUAVwasn’t able to contact theparticipantswithwhom
theiroperationsinterconnected,becausetheirradiowasnotsuitedforthat.Afterall,the
UAVwasnevermeantto interconnectwiththekindsofunits inTFU.Theseareonlya
coupleofexamples.GiventhatpersonnelinTFUrotatedquitefrequently,differentunits
continuedtoorganizemeetingstomakeclearwhatthespecificsoftheUAVare,whatit
canandcannotdo,etc.Allinall,Moorkampet.al(2015,p.8)conclude:
“(…) 107ASBt’s operators developed numerous self-organizing strategies in their
attempt to create safe and controlled UAV operationswithin TFU. In effect, they
were constantly designing and redesigning structures of both their own unit and
TFUinordertodevelopsafeoperationswithinTFU.Theresultssectionhasshown
that107ASBtandotherunitswithinTFUweredifferentiatedsubstantiallyand,as
such,107ASBtlackedintegrationintoTFU’sproductionandcontrolstructure.Asa
consequence,107ASBt’soperatorsstartedimprovisingandpioneeringwithinTFU
in order to develop such integration. Along the way, they succeeded in tackling
variousproblemsthattheyencounteredwhileoperatingwithinTFU.”
Theproblemsinself-organizingtheirwayoutoftheinteractionstheywerepartsuggest
that operators in 107 ASBt suffered from “information overload”. The network was
initiallytoocomplextounderstandhowtheiroperationsrelatedtootherparticipantsin
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the TFU network. Only after being some time in themission area, and routineswere
workedout,thesituationstabilizedsomewhatfor107ASBtinTFU.
Istheexpeditionarytaskforcearealcounter-example?The example of the expeditionary taskforce is considered here a counter-example
against the chaoplexic paradigm. It suggestswhy a network confrontedwith dynamic
conditions does notwork like the chaoplexic paradigm specifies. In the first place, is
necessarytoarguewhythisexampleisparticularlysuitable.ItisclearthattheTFU,with
107 ASBt as a part, typically faced the conditions forwhich the chaoplexic paradigm
seems to bemeant. Furthermore, their tendency to keep changing their organization
design seems to refer to a need for an ability to constantly change form. TFU was
essentiallyanunderdevelopednetwork.Operatorsworkedhardtodevelopthenetwork
into an organized system that isworkable. They found out latent inputs that affected
their particular node and tried to explicate these and somehow organize this latent
input. By organizing the interaction with other “nodes” around them, they build
structure,and inawayonecanunderstand thatascontrol thatemerges throughself-
organization. As such the example seems suitable to discuss in the context of the
chaoplexicparadigm.
Against thisbackgroundit isclearthatwhatwasobservable inthecase isa far
cryfromwhatthechaoplexicparadigmformulatesasideal.Whatappearsfromthiscase
isthat“control”didnotemergeasaresultofinteractionsbetweennodes,andthatthis
resultedinasuper-agiletaskforce.Onthecontrary,operatorsstruggledtounderstand
thesystemtheywerepartofandtheinterconnectionsthatinfluencedtheirwork.They
did not have perfect situational awareness, which would have enabled “self
synchronization”.All inall,TFUwasnotawell-organizedsystem(asevidencedbythe
safetyincidents).Whatisobservableinthecaseisindeedself-organization,butnotthe
kindofself-organizationthatisatriumphofimaginativeproblemsolving,basedonswift
coordinationbetweenunits.Instead,thekindofself-organizationthatisclearfromthe
caseresemblesmoreadesperateattemptbyoperatorstokeepaveryimperfectsystem
afloat.Theconclusionsfromthiscasearethereforetheoppositeoftheclaimsmadeby
thechaoplexicparadigm.
However,itwouldbetooeasytostopatthisconclusion.Ifthiscaseisinterpreted
as a falsification of the chaoplexic paradigm, two quite obvious possible counter-
argumentsappeartoberelevant.Inthefirstplace,107ASBtappearsasanexampleofa
quite exotic unit thatwas uniquely unfit to be integrated in TFU.Not onlywere they
forced to operate in conditions that differed fundamentally from the way they were
trained to operate – integrating a UAV in a mission was a first for the Netherlands
ArmedForces–soitmightbeexpectedthatthereweresomeproblems.Inthesecond
place, TFU was apparently not at all built up on the basis of the principles of the
chaoplexicparadigm.Sinceunitssometimes foundona trialanderrorbasis that their
operations interconnected, TFU was apparently not “robustly networked” and
apparently lacked sophisticated data-links between units, which made information
sharingandmutualadjustmentproblematic.Ifanythingthesetwopointsappeartobein
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support of the chaoplexic paradigm. Furthermore, apparently there was a process ofself-organization going on in TFU thatwas aimed atworking out an underdevelopedtaskforce structure, and all in all there weren’t that many incidents (although therecertainlyweresome).SodespitethefactthatthewayTFUoperatedwasafarcryfromthe idealof thechaoplexicparadigm,still itwasself-organizationand the tremendouseffortofoperationalpersonnelthatkeptthingsgoinginTFU.
While both points are valid, they are not considered valid counterargumentsagainsttheparticularpointthatismadehere.Inthefirstplace,Moorkampdidvalidatethe107ASBtcaseandindeedfoundcomparabledynamicsbothwithinTFUasinothermissions (Moorkamp& Kramer, 2014;Moorkamp et al, 2015), so although 107 ASBtmighthavebeenunfit,itwasn’tuniquelyunfit.Moreimportantisthequestionif“robustnetworking”withsophisticatedICTconnectionswouldhavesolvedtheissuesofcontrolinTFU.ThevulnerabilityoftheTFUnetworkwasnotcausedbyalackof“information-flow”,orabotchyinformationflowbetweenunits(althoughpartlytheystruggledwithfor example incompatible radios). It was a lack of understanding of the differentreciprocalinterdependencesbetween“nodes”inthenetwork.Theybasicallyfoundouttheseinterdependencesbytrialanderror.Onlywhentheproblemoccurred,theyfoundoutthattheiractivitiesinterconnectedwithotherunitsinthetaskforce.Eveniftheyhadperfectmeans of communications, and couldhave contacted all other unitswheneverthey liked, they wouldn’t know what to ask them before they understood how theiractivitiesinterconnected.Inotherwords,anissueoforganizing(“howdomyactivitiesinfluenceX andhowareX’s activities influencingme”) is of a different order than anissue of informing (“what is X doing at thismoment”). Situational awareness ismorethan“acquiringinformation”.Beingconsciousofhowtheoperationsofaparticularunitmight affect the operation of another requires an (sometimesdeep) understanding oftheotherunit.This cannotbe reduced to a sort general knowledgeof the specifics ofparticularunits,but itcanbeamatterofdetail.Mereinformationprocessingdoesnotsolve the problem that a particular UAV cannot launch at predetermined specificmoment because it needs to wait unit the engine is sufficiently warmed up. So thecontrol tower learned that it needed tounderstand specific traitsof the engineof theUAV inorder to coordinatewith themeffectively,while theUAV-unitneeded to learnthatsuchdetailswereimportanttothecontroltowerinthefirstplace.TheargumentagainstthechaoplexicparadigmThe expeditionary taskforce as studied above is considered a counterexample here,because it pointsout a specificproblemof large interconnectednetworks.That is theissue of “hidden” and “not-understood” interconnections between elements of thetaskforce.AsTFUwasbasicallyanunderdevelopednetwork,partsoftheexpeditionarynetworkwereinterconnectedinawayoperatorsdidnotrealizeuntilreal interactionsemerged.Subsequentlyoperatorstriedto“structure”ortoorganizetheseinteractions,without being aware if their local solution to the negative effects of a particularinterconnection,affectedotherthetaskforcebeyondtheirperspective.Inthatway“self-organization”might be “emergent”, but not every “emergent pattern” is by definition
13
good(Kuipers,et.al,2010).Essentiallytherefore,theTFUexampleshowstheproblemofcontrolling (hidden) interconnections between “nodes” of the network with possiblenegativeconsequencesfortheoperationofthenetworksasawhole.
Thepossiblenegativecascadingeffectsofinterconnectionsbetween“nodes”inasystemhas been described byNormalAccidents Theory (NAT), developed by Perrow(Perrow,1999).NAT’sessentialpoint is thataparticularkindof“cascading”accidentscanbe “normal” in someorganizations.More specifically, such “normalaccidents” canpotentially occur in organizations that operate in disruptive environments because inthatcaseelementsinteractinawaythatcannotbefully“designed”.Ifthatisthecase,asystem is characterized by complex interaction. If there is, furthermore, a significantinterdependence between elements, a disturbance has the potential to resonatethroughoutasystem(tightcoupling).Organizations thatarecharacterizedbycomplexinteractionandtightcouplingarethereforeparticularlyvulnerabletocascadingfailures.
Van Bezooijen & Kramer (2014) and Kramer & Van Bezooijen (2016) usePerrow’sNATtocriticizethechaoplexicparadigm.Theirargumentisthatthechaoplexicparadigm is specifically focused on creating complex interaction and tight coupling.Giventhatmilitarytaskforcesaremeanttooperate inturbulentconditionsthatcreatecomplexinteractions,VanBezooijen&Kramer(2014,p.14)conclude:
“(…) IT is implemented inmilitaryoperations tomake themmoreagile, enablingmilitary units to react quicker to environmental change by removing time slack.Being quicker is a form of tighter coupling. In other words, designing for agile,emerging collaborations between networked units without direct supervisiondirectlyinfluencesthepotentialfornormalaccidentstohappen.”
SowhilepreviouslyAtkinson&Moffatclaimedthattheideasofthechaoplexicparadigmwork if there is loose coupling,VanBezooijen&Kramer (2014) claim that inmilitarytaskforces,buildupofspecializedunits,aretightlycoupled,particularlyiftheattemptistocreatemoreagileorganizations:morespeedmeans that the interrelationsbetweenunitsbecometighter.Furthermore, the tendency inArmies tocreatespecializedunits,also creates tight coupling. In armies an element is still thought to be the basicspecializedmilitaryunit: an infantryplatoon, anApache squadron, anArtillery-canon,an UAV, etc. These basic elements are called “assets” and the basic thought is thatmilitarytaskforcerequiresacollectionofassets.Basically,an“asset”consistsofacreworganized around some technological system or a basic collection of soldiers. Whiletraditional armies offer battalion and brigade structures which combine theseinterdependentunits into largerorganizationalclusters, thechaoplexicparadigmaimstokeepbasicelementsandclaimsthatthecoordinatedactionbetweeninterdependentelementscanbeestablishedbyconnectingthemthroughICT.
Whatisnotconsideredbythechaoplexicparadigm,isthatbyorganizingaround“assets”whicharespecializedunits, itbasicallychooses for theprincipleof functionalconcentration (De Sitter, 2000). The effect is that if the taskforcewants to conduct acertain task it needs to assemble different units,which leads to structural complexity
14
(moreinterconnections)inthenetworkasawhole,andtightcouplinginsteadofloose
coupling2.
If the chaoplexic paradigm depends on “loose coupling” it should invest in
creatingbasic“nodes”thatarelooselycoupledtothenetworktheyarepartof.However,
this point never enters the discussion. Ina sense, thechaoplexicparadigmattempts toconservesilos,withaclaimed“magical”solutionfortheproblemsofcoordinatingbetweensilos(controlwillemerge).Allinall,Kramer&VanBezooijen(2016)concludethat:
“The chaoplexic paradigm is considered here as a theory that combines anopportunistic reading of complexity science with an improbable idea aboutdesigningmilitary taskforces.This certainly isnoargumentagainst theuseof IT.Instead, theanalysis shows thatbeingable toharvest thepotential benefits of ITrequiresasophisticatedunderstandingofthewayorganizationalsystemsworkindynamicallycomplexenvironments.”
Perrow calls such discussions about network centric operations “bulleted boy scout
homilies”,thatpromiseafutureofsuper-agility,iftheArmedForceswouldjustinvestin
X,YorZ(Perrow,2004).
HierarchyandthechaoplexicparadigmNAT can be seen as a theory from the existing “hierarchy-paradigm” in organization
studies. It is thereforenotvery surprising thaton thebasisof sucha theory it canbe
claimedthatthenewparadigmiswrong.Inessence,theexistingparadigmrestsonthe
ideathat“hierarchy”isanindispensibleaspectoflargerorganizations.JamesThompson
(2008,p.59)claimsregardinghierarchythat:
“Itisunfortunatethatthistermhascometostandalmostexclusivelyfordegreesofhighnessand lowness, for this tendstohidethebasicsignificanceofhierarchy forcomplexorganizations.Eachlevelisnotsimplyhigherthantheonebelow,butitisamoreinclusiveclustering,orcombinationofinterdependentgroups,tohandlethoseaspects of coordination which are beyond the scope of any of its components”(emphasisinoriginal).
Simon (1962) argues that hierarchy simplifies systems by reducing the amount of
information that needs to be processed. This is what Simon (1997) calls a “nearly
decomposablesystem”:itisasysteminwhichtheinternalcomplexitywithinanodeis
greaterthanthecomplexityofthenetworkofnodes.Bystrivingformutualadjustment
withinunitscoordinationcostsareminimized(Thompson,2008,p.57).Thecoreofthis
“hierarchy paradigm” is that an organization confronted with a dynamically complex
2Ifalargeandcomplexnetworkofunitsis“robustly”networked,theresultingnetworkbecomes
extremelycomplex.Moreparticularly,ataskforcelikeTFUwith49unitswouldonthebasisoftheformula
n(n-1)/2have1176relationsbetweenunitsiftheywouldberobustlynetworked.However,ifthe
taskforcewouldconsistofjust4units,therewouldonlybe6interconnections.
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environmentneedtoreducetheuncertaintyofthisenvironmentbymeansofhierarchy,
i.e.creatinganorganizationalstructure.JamesThompsonreferstotheassumptionthat
structureisthevehiclebywhichorganizationsachieveboundedrationalityandclaims
that(2008,p54):
“Bydelimitingpossibilities,controloverresourcesandothermatters,organizationsprovide theirparticipatingmemberswithboundarieswithinwhichefficiencymaybeareasonableexpectation.Butifstructureaffordsnumerousspheresofboundedrationality, itmustalso facilitate thecoordinatedactionof these interdependentsystems”(emphasisinoriginal).
Thisassumptionininlinewithmostrecentformulationsinsystem’stheoryinthesense
that systems need to “reduce complexity” before they can deal with a dynamically
complex environment (Blom, 1997; Christis, 1998; Kramer 2007). Although the
chaoplexicparadigmisbasedoncomplexityscience,whichisalsoavariationofsystems
theory,thisparticularassumptionisnotsharedbythechaoplexicparadigm.Infact,the
chaoplexic paradigm seems to suggest that systems can become as complex as their
environment3. The assumption that systems in complex environments need to “limit
possibilities”inorderto“reducecomplexity”mightforsomebecounter-intuitive.Many
will point to the opposite: hierarchies are actually so restricting that they limit the
abilitytodealwithuncertainty.
Thishasinfactalwaysbeenamainpointofthesociotechnicaltradition.Itisno
coincidence that Phil Herbst called his 1976 book about the sociotechnical tradition
Alternativestohierarchies(Herbst,1976).Thehistoryofthesociotechnicaltraditionhasbeen about how to overcome the restricting characteristics of “classical” bureaucratic
andmechanicalstructures.Ifthereisonemessagecentraltothesociotechnicaltradition
itisthathierarchyisoften“theproblem”ratherthanthe“solution”andcertainlynotthe
solutiontodealingwithdynamiccomplexity.Thismightexplainalotoftheallureofthe
ideas of the “chaoplexic paradigm”: ICT-innovations might finally able to beat the
archenemyofthesociotechnicaltradition.However,ifthe“hierarchy-paradigm”claims
that “limiting possibilities” is the way to deal with uncertainty, the claim is not that
uncertaintycanbetotallytransformedintocertainty.Instead,theideaisthatinorderto
be not overwhelmed by the infinite complexity of the environment, a system needs
assumptions,i.e.somedegreeofselectivityinthewaytheenvironmentisengaged.This
inevitably leads to the position that there is no perfect way to deal with dynamic
complexity. Selectivity is inevitable, but is also inevitably blinding and hierarchy is
indeed inevitably constraining. This is a core problem of organizing according to the
hierarchyparadigmthatcannotbeovercomebyamagicalICTsolution.
The essential difference between the paradigms becomes obvious. A hierarchy
“limits possibilities”, while previously it was argued that the chaoplexic paradigm is
based on an idea that an organization is a tissue that is “infinitely malleable”. One
3ThisisthereasonwhyKramer&VanBezooijen(2016)claimedthatthechaoplexicparadigmisbasedon
anopportunisticreadingofcomplexityscience.
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paradigm states that hierarchy is necessary as a means to be able to deal with
uncertainty.Accordingtothehierarchy-paradigmanorganizationwouldateverypoint
be overloaded with possibilities if there were no hierarchy. The other states that
hierarchycanbeabolishedbecause it in factprohibitsdealingwithuncertainty. Inthe
lattercase,no“organizationalchoice”wouldbenecessary:anorganizationcankeepall
possible structures open and let the “right” one emerge out of interactions between
nodes.Theconclusionhereisthattheideasofthechaoplexicparadigmcouldonlywork
if lowerlevelunitsare“perfectinformationprocessors”without“boundedrationality”.
ThisseemstobeaveryunrealisticassumptionandthatiswhyIconsiderthecoreclaims
ofthechaoplexicparadigmunconvincing.
ThevulnerabletaskforceAttheendofthispaper,someideaswillbediscussedthatseempromisingasawayto
understandnetworkedorganizationssuchasTFU.Coreofthisperspectiveistheideaof
vulnerability.Theprevious leadstotheconclusionthatorganizations incertain–very
turbulent – environments are by definition imperfect. On the one hand they need to
“limitpossibilities”becauseof “boundedrationality”and “informationoverload”while
on the other hand they need openness. The very problem of organizations in
dynamicallycomplexenvironmentsisthatontheonehandtheyhavenochoicebutto
“limitpossibilities”becauseof “boundedrationality”and “informationoverload”while
on the other hand they have no choice but to be open (see also Kramer, 2007).
Accordingtotheperspectivehere,thisdialecticbetweenlimitationandopennessisthe
essential problem of organizations that creates their inherent vulnerability in very
turbulentenvironments.
This very dilemma is clear in JamesThompson’s discussion of the problems of
whathecalledthesyntheticorganization.Thissyntheticorganizationthat isaccordingtoThompsonanadhocorganizationthatemergestodealwithnaturaldisasters(2008,
p.52).Soinfact,itisnotunliketheexpeditionarytaskforcediscussedabove.Thompson
claims of this synthetic organization that it is not efficient: some resources are not
deployed,andsomeareemployedatcross-purposes(2008,p.53).Heclaimsthatthisis
thecasebecause(2008,p.53):
“Perhaps the overriding reason is that the synthetic organization mustsimultaneouslyestablishitsstructureandcarryonoperations.Underconditionsofgreatuncertainty,itmustlearnthenatureandextentoftheoverallproblemtobesolvedandthenatureandlocationofrelevantresources.Atthesametimeismustassembleandinterrelatethecomponents,anditmustdoallthiswithoutthebenefitof established rulesor commonlyknowchannelsof communication.The syntheticorganizationcannottakeinventorybeforeswingingintoaction.(…).Thesyntheticorganization for disaster recovery is inefficient by technological or economicstandards because it must order the actions of its components in a situation ofinterdependence and in the face of uncertainty as to where and how thatinterdependence exists. It can be presumed that efficiencywould be higher if the
17
synthetic-organization headquarters knew in advance either the extent of theproblemtobesolvedorthefullarrayofresourcesavailabletoit.”
Sothe“syntheticorganization”certainlyisstructured,butisfarfromideallystructured,or even “finished”. It is in fact underdeveloped andworks out its structure as it goesalong.Itisquiteinterestingtonotethat–inapublicationthatisgenerallyconsideredtobeoneofthemostfundamentalonesinorganizationscience–specificallydiscussestheveryorganizationalissuesthatwereobservableintheexpeditionarytaskforcediscussedabove. What is discernible in this quote of Thompson is that in such organizationsstructureandprocessbecomedirectlyrelated.Kramer&Moorkamp(2016)claimabouttheclassicaldifferencebetweenstructureandprocess:
“Whilestructurereferstofixed–noun-like–characteristicsoforganizations,suchas their structural design, process refers to the way activities – verbs – withinsystemsareorganized.”
Syntheticorganizationsneedto“swingintoaction”beforetheyhavefullyworkedoutastructurethatwouldworkinaparticularenvironment.Thatmeansthatoperators“act”(process) without fully understanding the interconnections in the organization(structure). In these cases it is local problem solving (“process”) that creates fixedrelations in an organization (“structure”). The idea of “the organizational skeleton”developed by Weick specifies this relation between structure and process (Weick,2005). He uses a definition by Bate and Pyewho claim that: “design is a bare bonesframework on which a more organic, emergent, social structure develops as peopleinteract,argue,fallout,cometogether,andotherwisemanagetheirdaytodaysituation”(Bate and Pye 2000, p.199). In developing local problem solving strategies (process),operators need to understand how their behavior is limited by the behavior of otherunitsthatact(structure).IfyouwanttoflyanUAVinUruzgan,itisimportanttotrytounderstandhowthebehavioroftheUAVisrelatedtootherflyingunitsinthesamearea,even though there might not be an existing structure in place that specifies yourinteractionswitha control tower. Sooperators in such systemsdon’twork “within”astructure,theireverydaywork(i.e.“normalwork”)isspecificallyorientedatbalancingstructureandprocessandchangingeachofthemasyougoalong.Theireverydayworkis partly “designing”. Because of the sheer complexity of this task, such systems willalwaysbevulnerable:actsofoperatorsinresponsetoenvironmentalcontingenciescanthreatenthefunctionalintegrationoftheentirenetwork.Kramer&Moorkamp(2016):
“When this perspective on organizations is used it is obvious that they areinherentlyvulnerable.Theirdesignisprincipallyoutdatedagainstthebackgroundof a dynamically complex environment. In such environments, organizations areseenas principally unsettled. Functional integrationneeds to be established formmoment to moment, and the resulting coherence is not a sort of system-widesymphoniousharmony,butonethatisgoodenoughtosurvivetothenextmoment.
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In normal work, the conflict between on the one hand the environmentaldisruptions,andontheotherhandtheconflictwiththeexistingstructuraldesignofanorganizationbecomesvisible.Thesolutions foundbyoperatorscanpotentiallyleadtovulnerabilitybecausetheywereunawareofcertaindependenciesbetweendifferentprocesses,becausetheyprovokeacertainreactionfromtheenvironmentandassuchsettingthestageforfurtherenvironmentaldisruptions.”
Kramer&Moorkamp(2016)statethatthebestsuchorganizationscandoistocaptureanabilitytoreflectonthepossibilitiesandlimitationsoftheirownorganizations,sinceany “design” is based on pre-existing ideas and in hyperturbulent conditions any“design” can become outdated very quickly. In other words, they need to be able to“organize doubt” directed at their own organizations (Kramer, 2007). Kramer &Moorkamp(2016):
“Thisoutdatedcharacterofdesignisvisibleinprocess:operatorsthataimtokeepasystemafloatareessentially involvedwiththis issue.Forthisreason, it isclaimedhere that systems need to organize their ability to continuously reflect on theirorganization:theyneedto“organizedoubt”directedattheirownorganization.”
“Organizing doubt” would in the case of TFU mean that the taskforce would haveunderstoodwhatkindsoforganizationalproblemstheywouldhaveencounteredwhentheydeployed49unitsinaverydynamicenvironment.Giventheacknowledgementofthe inherent vulnerability of the taskforce, they could have created all kinds ofstructures,perhapsa“parallellearningmechanisms”(Shani&Doherty,2003),inordertodealwithorganizationalissues,insteadofstumblingfromoneissuetothenext.ConclusionanddiscussionThe ironic side to this paper is that sociotechnical ideas are used to claim that themilitaryorganizationshouldtakehierarchymoreseriously.Evenmoreironicperhapsisthatsociotechnicalideas,whichhavetraditionallybeenusedtobreakdownrepressivehierarchicalstructures,areusedheretoclaimthatitisimportantforstructurestolimitpossibilities.Theconclusionofthispaperisthatthechaoplexicparadigmdidnotcreateaparadigm shift: our thinking about organizationsdoesneed to change radically as aresult of ICT innovations. Although the ideas of complexity science are very inspiringrenewing in organization studies (Morgan, 1997), a “one on one” translation into amodelthatdescribeshoworganizationscansuddenlyworkasagileintegratednetworkswithout hierarchy seems a bridge too far. That might work for very loosely coupledsystemssuchasbakeries,butisunlikelytoworkforveryintegratednetworksthathavenotimetoloose.ThetheoryofCASwasneveraboutthat4.4Indeed, ifevolutioncanbeunderstoodintermsoforderthatemergesfromchaos, itshouldbekept inmindthatnoteveryvariationsurvivesinbiologicalevolution.Infact,outofamassofvariationsonlysomesurvive,quiteunliketheimageofthesupernetworkwithouthierarchy,whichisbasicallyatheoryabouttrialswithouterror.
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Thequestioniswhereallofthisleavesus.Althoughthecoreoftheideasofthechaoplexic paradigm is rejected here, that does not mean that the sociotechnicaltradition can happily ignore ICT innovations. A sociotechnical perspective will arguethat there is “organizational choice”.New technologydoesnot forceanorganizationalstructureuponus.Instead,wehavea“choice”:wecandevelopsmartwaysoforganizingtomakethemostof thenewtechnology. Itshouldbeemphasizedthat“organizationalchoice”shouldnotbeunderstoodasimplying“socialvoluntarism”(theideathatsocietyor the organization determines technological development). Instead, the idea thattechnologicaldevelopmentsandorganizationmutuallyinfluenceeachotherseemstobepreferable.Forthesociotechnicaltradition,thismeansthatalthoughICTinnovationsdonot determine the way organizations will be structured, they create possibilities inorganizational forms that previously were unthinkable. It is up to the sociotechnicaltraditiontotheorizeabouthowtotakeupthesetechnologicaldevelopmentsandtoseehowtheycanbeusedtocreateorganizationsthatareboth“humane”and“effective”.
Regardingthesepossibilities,itisindisputablethatICTinnovationshavenotonly“improved” existing ways of coordinating, they also have created new possibilitiesbeyond the scope of the traditional ways of coordinating. They have enabledmutualcoordinationbetweenorganizationalpartsinawaythatwouldhavebeenimpossibleinthe past (offshore software development is just one example). That means that –technologically–theyhaveenabledthecreationofnetworksinawaythatwouldhavebeen impossible before. The chaoplexic paradigm might have argued that such newnetworkscanbemadesoflexibleandmalleablethattheycanbedeployedinextremelyturbulentenvironmentsandfindtheirwayontheirown.Theimplicationofthispaperisthat–althoughtheremightbefewerandfewertechnologicallimitationincreatingsuchnetworks, there is in fact an organizational problem associated with such networks.Kramer&Moorkamp(2016)havecalledthesenetworks“vulnerable”asaresultoftheirnot fully developed character and the hidden interconnections between parts of thenetwork. This vulnerability will surface increasingly as environments becomeincreasingly turbulent.Thisemphasison the threatsof interconnection innetworks isgaining traction in international publications. It will be a main focus in Moorkamp’sforthcoming dissertation and it is a central issue in Roe & Schulman (2016) recentpublication on managing interconnections in critical infrastructures. So a broaderimplicationof this paper is that if technology createsneworganizational possibilities,thesociotechnicaltheorizingshouldfocusonhowtomakethemostofthistechnology,without the associated hazards. In case of ICT-technology and network-forms, thatmeans that sociotechnical theorizing should focus on developing an understanding oftheorganizationaldynamicsof“network-forms”ReferencesAlberts,D.S.&Hayes,R.E.(2003).PowertotheEdge:CommandandControlinthe
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