High SchoolHonors Biology

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Exploring HumanStructure and Function

Unit 9

Structure Fits Function in theHuman Body

• Look at a structure...it gives you clues as toits function.

Anatomy & Physiology

• The study of the structure of anorganism and its parts is called anatomy.

• Physiology is the study of a structure’ sfunction.

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Levels of Body Structure

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Organization of an Organism

Cell- The most specialized

level.- Each cell has one

specific job.

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Organization of an Organism

Tissue- Also o specialized level.- Tissues are mode of many similar cells doing

one specific job.

There are 4 types of tissues.- Epithelial- Connective- Nervous- Muscle

Epithelial Tissue

• Sheets of closely pocked cells.• Cover entire surface of body.• Form the lining of your internal organs.

• Function to protect the tissues andorgans they cover.

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Free surface

Epithelial cells with littleextracellular materialsbetween the cells

Free surface

Basementmembrane -

— Capillary_—

Cross-sectional view

Connective Tissue

• Main function is to hold together aridsupport other tissues.

• Cushions, insulates, and connects organs.• Cells are scattered in a “matrix” of

fibers that acts like glue.

LPleura

Base of tongue

EIasn

ebularVocal folds fold (false Nucleus of(true vocal vocal cord) fibroblastcords)

(c) Dense regular elastic connective tissue(b) Dense regular collagenous connective tissue

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] Epidermis 1-i Skin

“ jDermis ]]Loose connective tissue

,) JMuscieFat

• Epidermis;.i ‘N!. 4’ t4j

1 Dense irregularI collagenousIconnectivetissue of dermis

(d) Dense irregular collagenous connective tissue

Dense irregular elasticconnective tissue

(e) Dense irregular elastic connective tissue

Adiposetissue

\

fiber

Collagen fiber-

(a) Loose, or areolar, connective tissue

Nucleus

1,:

Adipocytesor fat cells

Mammarygland

(f) Adipose tissue

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- Bone

Hyaline cartilage Chondrocyte‘

inalacunat

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* .:Nucleus Matrix(h) Hyaline cartilage

Choncirocytein lacuna Nucleus

pt -it

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Intervertebraldisk Collagen fibers

in matrix

(I) Fibrocartilage

.

IIrregular bone (sphenoid)from the skull

Osteoblast nuclei

Bone --‘--‘--

Bone marrowOsteocyte nucleus

Matrix -

___________________

,.‘ -;(k) Cancellous bone

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DendriteCell bodyNucleus

Nuclei of neuroglia cells

Neuroglia cells

Nuclei ofneuroglia cells

(a) Multipolar neuron

____

Centralcanal Lacuna

7/ft Bone

V

Matrix organizedinto lamellae

Red blood White blood cellcell

Whitebloodcells

(I) Compact bone (m) Blood

-— Redbloodcells

Nervous Tissue

• Forms the communication system thatconnects brain to the rest of the body.

• Allows you to respond to changes in theenvironment - both internal andexternal.

• The neuron is the basic cell type foundin this tissue.

• Neurons transmit signals rapidly overlong distances.

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Muscle Tissue

• Muscles are organs that enable us tomove, move our blood, and push foodthrough the digestive system.

• 3 types:- Skeletal- Cardiac- Smooth

Skeletal Muscle

• A voluntary muscle.• Attaches to bones.

Nucleus (near periphery of cell)

Skeletal musclefiber

flucleu (near - -

penyheryul cell)

-_

Skeletal musclefiber

Strrat ens

(a) Skeletal muucle

Cardiac Muscle

• An involuntarymuscle.

Nucleus) entr I)

• Heart muscle. anu_,_ Cardiac muscle cell

i’’Intercalated disks(nPeaIlurnctuns

AN cleus (central)

SIn, runs s_iCardiac muscle -

cell -

—

/lrrtcrcalal_d disks -

(special un_liens __ -

bel.veencc5)

(b( Cardruc muscle -: -. -

Smooth Muscle

• An involuntarymuscle.

Nucleus

• Found in mostorgans.

__ 1— Smooth muscle cell

Nucleus—_——————___ ._

Smooth musclecell

- (c( Smooth muscle

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Organization of an Organism

• Organ- Organs are made up of several tissues

working together to perform a specific job.

• Organ System— Consists of multiple organs working

together to perform a vital body function.

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Organ Systems of the Body

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Organ Systems of the Body Organ Systems of the Body

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Orgcin Systems of the Body

5ySIO, Systern

The Integumeritary System

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Anatomy of Integument

• Aka skin (2 mm thick)• Physically separates the body from the

environment.• The epidermis is the top layer made up

of mostly dead epitheliol cells.- Impermeable

• The dermis is the cell layer under theepidermis made up of connective tissue.- Strong & elastic

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Physiology of Integument

• Provides physical barrier against dirtand microorganisms.

• Insulation• Cushion• Sweat to coo! body down.• Hair protects scalp.• Eyebrows and eyelashes protect eyes

from dirt getting into eyes.

The Skeletal System

Anatomy of the Skeleton

• Made up of bones and cartilage.• Approx. 206 bones in adult skeleton.

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Bone Structure

• Bone cells are surrounded by a materialcalled bone matrix.

• Flexible fibers are made of protein.- Allows bone to flex a little.

• Hard minerals are phosphate andcalcium.- Allows bone to withstand force.

• Contains marrow, a special tissue thatstores fat or makes new blood cells.

Art I cu kt ions

• Better known as the joints where yourskeleton bends.

• A jpjt is a place where one boneconnects and moves against anotherbone.

• There are many types of joints in yourbody.

• Bones involved in a joint are heldtogether by a ig.ament.

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Skeletal bisorders

• Arthritis• Osteoporosis

The Muscular System

Muscle Anatomy

• Muscles are made up of several musclecells, called muscle fibers, running in thesame direction.

• Muscles are attached to the skeleton bytendons.

Muscle Physiology

• Muscles can only pull - not push.• Have to work in opposing pairs.• When one muscle contracts, the other

must relax.

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‘7/

The Nervous System

Nervous System Anatomy• Neurons make up the nerves which make up

your nervous system.- Cell body- bendrite- Axon

Electrical signals travel through these carrying theimpulse.

• Neurons are connected to each other by aspace called the synapse.- The signal is carried across the synapse by the

release of chemicals that travel across the gap.

-‘4 U,p&,, NC,.,,,

; —G -

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Impu’se Path

• Stimulus—Sensory receptor—*sensoryneuron—interneurons---motorneuron—effector---reflexA stimulus is something that causes areaction.

• Sensory receptors are special cells thatreceive info from the environment.

• Sensory neurons receive the message fromthe receptor and send it to the brain andspinal cord.

Nerve Pathway Continued

• Tnterneurons found in the spinal cordand brain connect sensory neurons tomotor neurons.

• Motor neurons transmit the signal fromthe brain and spinal cord to muscle cellsor glands in the body.

• The muscle cell or gland stimulated isthe effector.

• What the stimulation message isdetermines the reflex.

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-—. o.,

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—_ _

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Divisions of the NS

Central NervousSystem

— Contains brain andspinal cord.

- Control center of thebody.

Peripheral NervousSystem

— Consists of a networkof nerves thatbranch out from theCN5 and connect itto the organs of thebody.

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The CNS

Overview- Interprets info that comes in from all over

body.- Issues commands to those same parts of

the body.- The brain is the main control center,

transmitting and receiving messages thruthe spinal cord.

- The spinal cord provides the link betweenbody and brain.

The Brain

• Billions of neurons.

• 1.4 kg

• bivided into 3 main parts:- The cerebrum- The cerebellum- The medulla

The Cerebrum

• Largest part.• Learning, intelligence, judgment occur here.• Controls voluntary movement.• Shapes attitudes, emotions, personality.• bivided into left and right halves.

- Left• Mathemoticol ability• Sensations on right side of body.

— Right• Artistic ability• Sensations on left side of body.

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• luns entire length ofneck and bock.

• Connects brain to allthe nerves in thebody.

• 31 pairs of nervesenter/exit the spinalcord.

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The Cerebellum

• 2nd largest part.• Coordinates actions of muscles.• Controls balance.• Allows body to move smoothly and

skillfully.

The Medulla

• Ako the brainstem.• Connects brain to spinal cord.• Controls involuntary actions

- Heartbeat- Breathing— Blood pressure

The Spinal Cord SPINAL CORD

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rccleror roa it

spinal ner,n

)rI,2’ Or root Cf ror.e

spin:IICCIJ

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The PNS

Overview- Link between CNS and rest of body.

43 pairs of nerves.Some can be consciously controlled.

- Some are under involuntary control.This is known as the autonomic nervous System.

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• Hearing çind

• The edr is the organ of hearing aflkt4c4*.balance. . . .

• besigned to tàpture• and transmit soundwaves.

Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear

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Smell and Taste

• Organs of;stnell and taste respond tocbeinithl stimuli instead of physicalstimàlL •...:

irs

• The same chemicals stimulate taste andnell. r . ..t. •

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-4ftày.he reeson food is not flavorful whenveastuffed up nose

Parts of the E6r .r

• Eardrum tightly stretëhd membranethat separates the ear canal from themiddle ear.

• coch ea: Contdis nerves that aretimulated by the wàes of vibratiøns.

k’:semr’ cancils:.responsible forbdlance tiny hairs move as fluid adjusts:t&body position sending impulses tobrain. • •

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S ifieskin are I

ich, pressr. ded in 0,danger.

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bigestion Overview

• Entire tube is approximately 9 meterslong.

• Entire tube is Ifried with epithelial cellsthat secrëtea mucous. -

— Provide lubrication. ‘.-

- Pre?ents seIfdigestion- . bigestive juices are so acidic they can dissolve

an iron nail!stomach cells are replaced every 3 days. -

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Organs of the bigestive System• Mouth

Pharynx• Esophagus• Stomach• Small intestine• Large intestine• Also includes;

Salivary 9lands- Pancreas- Liver- Gallbladder

Mouth

• Mechanical digestion- Teeth and tongue

• Chemical digestion- Saliva contains

enzymes that breakfood down, killbacteria, neutralizeacids, protect teethfrom decay.

Pr.,,—,,

Esophagus

• The bolus enters theesophagus next.

• A long, muscled tube.• Connects pharynx to

stomach.Food is pushed thru byperistalsis, the wavelike muscle contractionsthat start at the topand work their way

foot,,’ ,,o.o.,o.down.

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Stomach

The stomach is astretchy muscularsac that holds food.

• Mechanical andchemical digestionoccur here.

• When mixed withthe digestive juicesthe bolus becomeschyme.

•.:

Liver

• Largest internal organ. r

• Produces the .cigstive enzyme.bile.- 4sed g the brea!< down of fctsbelivers the bile to thZdl intestine

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J1L

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t

Gallbladder

• Bile from the liver is temporarily storedin the gallb’adder until needed.

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• Pancreas

• Produces and secretes insulin into theblood stream to control blood sugarlevel.

• Produces and secretes digestiveenzymes into the small intestine.

Neutralizes the stomacW s acids.

Large Intestine

• Aka colon.• 1.5 meters long.

Major function is reabsorb water fromthe unusable materials left over fromdigestion.

The Lymphatic System

Organs are:

Function is:- Lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.

Removes foreign substances from the bloodand lymph, combats disease, maintainstissue fluid balance, absorbs fats fromdigestive tract

Respiratory System

• Organs are:— Lungs and respiratory passages

• Function is:- Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide

between blood and air and regulates bloodpH.

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Endocrine System

• Organs are:Glands, like the pituitary gland and thyroidgland, that secrete hormones.

• Function is:— A major regulatory system that influences

metabolism, growth, reproduction, and manyother functions.

Urinary System

• Organs are:- Kidneys, urinary bladder, and vessels that

carry urine.

Function is:- Removes waste products from the blood

and regulates blood pH, ion balance, andwater balance.

Reproductive System

• Organs are:- Ovaries, uterus, mammary glands, testes

• Function is:— Involved in the production of offspring.

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Thtegumentary System

• Organs are: skin, hair, nails, and sweatglands

• Function: protects us from injury andinfection; regulates temperature,prevents water loss, and involved inproducing vitamin D

Skeletal System

• Organs are: bones, cartilage, joints

• Function is: protects, supports andallows body movement produces bloodcells and stores minerals

Muscular System

• Organs are: muscles attached toskeleton, like the biceps brachii.

Function is: produces body movement,maintains posture, and produces bodyheat

Nervous System

• Organs are: brain, spinal cord, nervesand sensory receptors

• Function is: major regulatory system;detects sensation, controls movement,controls physiological and intellectualfunctions

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figestive System

Organs are: Mouth, esophagus,stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder

Function is: performs the mechanicaland chemical processes of digestion,absorption of nutrients, and eliminationof wastes

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Name Class

_______________

Date —

REVIEW and REINFORCEMENTThe Human Body

KEY CONCEPTSA There are four basic types of tissue in the human body:

muscle, connective, nerve, and epithelial.

Building Vocabulary Skills: Applying Definitions

The pyramid below represents the levels of organization in humans from leastspecialized to most specialized. Label the diagram by writing the correct term

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17

at each level.

© Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Relating Facts: Understanding the Main Ideas

List the four basic types of human tissues. Then tell which type of tissue isdescribed by each of the items that follow.

1. It forms a protective surface on the outside of your body.

2. Bone is an example of this kind of tissue.

________________

3. It is the only kind of tissue in the human body that has the ability to contract.

4. It lines the various body cavities such as the stomach, ears, and mouth.

_________________

5. This type of tissue provides support for your body.

6. This tissue carries messages back and forth between your brain and spinal cord and

every other part of your body.

7. Blood is an example of this kind of tissue.

________________

8. This type of tissue does jobs such as moving food from your mouth to your stomach.

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Name

____________ ____________

r

REvIEw arid REINFORCEMENT0 The Skeletal System

A The skeletal system has five important functions: It providesshape and support, allows movement, protects tissues andorgans, stores certain materials, and produces blood cells.

-

______

1. Cartilage

_____

2. Spongy bone

3. Shaft

_______

4. Marrow cavity

______

5. Compact bone

6. Membrane

Class

______________

Date

____

Building Vocabulary Skills: Matching Definitions

In the space provided, write the term that best matches each description.

1. Your body has about 206 of these structures.

____________

2. A baby’s skeleton is made of mostly this material.

_____________

3. These tissues attach bones to muscles.

_____________

4. This is the soft material that produces the body’s blood cells.

_____________

5. These structures are found where bones come close together.

6. These tissues connect bones to bones.

___________

Boning Up: Reviewing the Main Ideas

In the space provided, match the letter on the diagram with thecorresponding term below.

C B F

A

© Prentice-Hall, Inc. 23

Types of Joints

Examine each diagram. On the line provided, identify the type ofjoint thatmakes each movement possible. Next to the name of the joint describe themovement that each joint is capable of.

[[

1

3

A

1.

B C

2.

3.

O

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Name

______________________________________________

Class

______________

Date

____

REVIEW and REINFORCEMENTThe Muscular System

KEY C ONCE PTSA In the human body, there are three types of muscle tissue:

skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.

Building Vocabulary Skills: Understanding Definitions

In the space provided, write the type of muscle that best matches eachdescription.

1. These muscles control breathing and digestion.

2. These muscles never tire.

3. These muscles move bones.

4. These muscles are found only in the heart.

5. These muscles control voluntary movements.

6. These muscles react slowly and tire slowly.

7. These muscles react quickly and tire quickly.

8. These muscles are striated.

© Prentice-Hall, Inc. 33

• What’s Wrong With This Picture: Understanding the Main Ideas

The diagram below contains some incorrect information. Draw a circlearound any information you think is incorrect. Then, in the space provided,write the correct information.

A B

Bending Arm Straightening Arm

...

Tricepscontracted

Bicepscontracted

Bicepscontracted

Tricepsrelaxed

)

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Name

______________________________________________

Class Date

________

REVIEW and REINFORCEMENT

The Importance of Food

KEY CONCEPTS

A A balanced diet provides you with the six basic categories of

nutrients your body needs: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and

oils, vitamins, minerals, and water.

Building Vocabulary Skills: Fill in the Blanks

In the space provided, write the term that best completes each statement.

1. The usable portions of food are called

_____________________

2. A

________________

is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

water 1°C.

3. Nutrients that are used to build and repair body parts are called

______________________

4. Starches and sugars are two types of

_____________________

5. support and cushion vital organs, insulate the body from heat

loss, and supply energy.

6. Chains of

________________

make up proteins.

7. Micronutrients that may be fat-soluble or water soluble are called

8. Calcium and iron are examples of micronutrients called

________

i‘4

4

© Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Food for Thought: Applying the Main Ideas

Look at the following illustrations. In the space provided, write the name ofthe nutrient from the list below that each food is rich in. You may use morethan one nutrient to describe each food.

Vitamin A

Carbohydrates

Iron Iodine

2.

3.

4.

5.

Calcium Vitamin K

7.

8.

9.

10.

Vitamin D

C

20

Proteins

- +-

Fats

6.

0

Name

______________________________________________

Class Date

_____

• REvIEw and REINFORCEMENTDigestion of Food

A Food must be broken down into nutrients by a process calleddigestion. The breaking down of food into simpler substances foruse by the body is the work of the digestive system.

Building Vocabulary Skills: Applying Definitions

In the space provided, write the term that best replaces the underlinedphrase.

____________________

1. Saliva contains a chemical substance that breaks down some of thestarches in food into sugars in the mouth.

___________________

2. A group of chemicals in the body helps to control a wide variety ofchemical reactions including the breakdown of food into simplersubstances.

_____________________

3. After you swallow, smooth muscles force food into the tube that• transports food from the mouth to the stomach.

___________________

4. Waves of rhythmic muscular contractions push food through thedigestive system.

_________________

5. Food undergoes mechanical and chemical digestion in theJshaped organ that releases a fluid called gastric juice.

___________________

6. Chemical digestion is aided by the enzyme contained in gastricjuice.

____________________

7. Most digestion takes place in the organ that is more than 6 meterslong and only 2.5 cm in diameter.

____________________

8. The body’s largest and heaviest organ that produces bile aids indigestion.

__________________

9. The soft, triangular organ that produces insulin is important incontrolling the body’s use of sugar.

•

© Prentice-Hall, Inc. 35

The Digestive System: Reviewing the Main ideas

PartAIn the space provided, write the name of the organ of the digestive systemthat corresponds to the number on the illustration.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

PartBUsing the numbers 1 to 7, place the events of the digestive process in thecorrect order.

6

7

8

______

1. Peristalsis moves food down the esophagus and into the stomach.

______

2. Teeth begin mechanical digestion by chewing and grinding food.

______

3. Food is churned and mixed with gastric juices.

_______

4. Starch is broken down by saliva.

______

5. Food moves into the small intestine.

_______

6. Swallowing causes the epiglottis to close over the windpipe as food is forced intothe esophagus.

______

7. Chemical digestion of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates are aided by bile fromthe liver and pancreatic fluid from the pancreas.

1

3

4

5

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Name

________________________________________________

Class Date

______

REVIEW and REINFORCEMENT0 Absorption of Food

KEY CONCEPTSA Digested food is absorbed through the villi of the small

intestine into a network of blood vessels that carries thenutrients to all parts of the body.

Building Vocabulary Skills: Understanding the Main Ideas

Fill in the blanks with the correct information.

1. Digested food is absorbed through , which are located

______________________________________________

These structures are important

because they help to increase

____________________________________________

2. By the time the food is ready to leave the small intestine, it is basically free of

Undigested substances include

_____________

and

_____________

3. After leaving the small intestine, the undigested food passes into the

___________________

where most of the

_____________

in the food is absorbed. Here also,

_____________

make

vitamins such as K and two B vitamins.

4. Solid waste is stored in a short tube called the

_____________

. These solid wastes are then

eliminated from the body through an opening called the

____________

© Prentice-Han, Inc. 39

Name— Class

______________

Date

________

REVIEW and REINFORCEMENTMaintaining Good Health

KEY CONCEPTSA By controlling your weight and getting the proper amount of

exercise you can also keep your body healthy and runningsmoothly for many years.

On the Air: Extending the Main Ideas

Imagine that you are a health expert on a radio talk-show where listeners callin to discuss problems. Explain how you would respond to each of thefollowing questions.

1. “I’m afraid that if I exercise, I’ll eat more and gain weight. Is this true?”

2. “I’m 20 pounds overweight, but my doctor says I suffer from poor nutrition. Is thispossible?”

© Prentice-Hall, Inc. 41

3. “Can I lose weight and still eat a balanced diet?”

/

4. “My friend says I should cut out fats and carbohydrates if I want to lose weight. Is this a

good idea?”

5. “I don’t think I should exercise because I’m already underweight. What do you think?”

I

ii

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