HDL Historical Linguistics- The Continuum

8/19/2019 HDL Historical Linguistics- The Continuum

1/43


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Continuum Companionto Historical Linguistics

Edited by

Silvia Luraghiand

Vit Bubenik


3/43

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Contents

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8/43

1

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Historical Linguistics: History,

Sources and Resources1

Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik

1. History of Research

1.1 Relevance

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Chapter Overview

1. History of Research 1

2. Sources 12

3. Writing Systems 19

4. Corpora 26

Notes 35


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9,%&12 18 #*%3-*5 ()',#),(: -*%&,- %&*# *21+% * &'(%1-')*5 +,-(+,)%'=,: *( 81-


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%&, (%320 18 1%&,- &39*# '#(%'%3%'1#(6 A1 &'( 9'#2: 5*#43*4, .*( #1% %&,+-123)% 18 %&, *)%'='%0 18 (+,*;,-(: /3% * +-123)% 18 #*%3-,: *#2 *( (3)& &*2 #1%* &'(%1-0: /3% -*%&,- * 4-1.%&6_

1.3 The Neogrammarians and Their Critics

A&3( 8*-: )19+*-*%'=, &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( 511;( =,-0 93)& 5';, *# *55>J,-9*#(%1-06 W1.,=,-: '# %&, (,)1#2 &*58 18 %&, #'#,%,,#%& ),#%3-0: )1#%-'/3%'1# /0()&15*-( 8-19 1%&,- )13#%-',( 4-,. 91-, *#2 91-, -,5,=*#%6 791#4 %&,91(% '#"3,#%'*5 #1#>J,-9*# 5'#43'(%( 18 %&, %'9, '( 79,-')*# C'55'*9 Y.'4&%C&'%#,0: +-18,((1- 18 B*#(;-'% *#2 5*%,- 18 )19+*-*%'=, +&'515140 *% b*5, c#'>=,-('%0: *#2 *3%&1- 18 *# '9+1-%*#% 4-*99*- 18 B*#(;-'%6 Q,('2,( &'( '#%,-,(% '#5*#43*4, 2,()-'+%'1#: C&'%#,0 *5(1 .-1%, (,=,-*5 .1-;( 1# 5*#43*4, )&*#4,:%&, 91(% -,#1.#,2 18 .&')& '( !"# -+F# &'2 >*9G," 9F -&'./&.#L D' R3-1+,*# (%*-%,2 %1511; '#)-,*('#450 2'%,-,#% 8-19 B*#(;-'%6 7 9*\1- )&*#4, .*( %&, -,)1#(%-3)>%'1# 18 %&, =1.,5 (0(%,9 .&,# 5'#43'(%( -,*5'@,2 %&*% %&, e*e =1.,5 .&')& .*(+-,219'#*#% '# B*#(;-'% -,(35%,2 8-19 9,-4,- 18 e,e: e1e: *#2 e*e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13/43


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3#;#1.# *% &'( %'9,6 A&3(: &'( -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 5*-0#4,*5( '( *# ,V*9+5, 18+3-,50 '#%,-#*5 -,)1#(%-3)%'1#6

A&, 91(% )19+5,%, %&,1-,%')*5 *))13#% 18 &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( +-123),2 /0

%&, #,14-*99*-'*#( '( W,-9*## L*35E( !HHS /11; Q*+'R+3+#' 2#* %3*&)".#()"+)",# OTL-'#)'+5,( 18 5*#43*4, &'(%1-0EP6 "#2,,2: %&'( .1-; )1#(%'%3%,( * 8355,- 2'()3(>('1# 18 5'#43'(%')( %&*# %&, %'%5, (,,9( %1 '9+50: '8 )1#('2,-,2 %12*06 C, &*=,9,#%'1#,2 */1=, %&*% C&'%#,0 -,\,)%,2 B)&5,')&,-E( *#2 `a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

c+ %1 .&*% ., &*=, 2,()-'/,2 %&3( 8*-: &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( ='-%3*550 1#50-,5',2 1# 2*%* 8-19 *#)',#% 5*#43*4,(6 A&'( *913#%( %1 (*0'#4 %&*% 5'#43'(%(.,-, 9*'#50 3('#4 5'%,-*-0: 8*'-50 (%*#2*-2'@,2 =*-',%',(: .&')& )1352 #1% *551.%&,9 %1 3#2,-(%*#2 %&, -,*5'%0 18 (0#)&-1#') 5*#43*4, =*-'*%'1#6 W1.,=,-:=,-0 93)& *% %&, (*9, %'9, 23-'#4 .&')& %&, #,14-*99*-'*#( .,-, .1-;'#4

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

'%0 '# 2'%,-,#% 5*#43*4,(6


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B)&9'2%E( %&,1-0 +-1=,2 3(,835 81- )*+%3-'#4 2*%* 8-19 (+1;,# =*-',%',(*#2 2'*5,)%*5 =*-'*%'1# '# %&, .1-; 18 W341 B)&3)&*-2%: .&1: '# &'( !HH_ +3/5'>)*%'1# 01#* 2+# -&/,.#(#,R#T >#.#' 2+# N/'..*&::&,+;#* OTU# (13#2 5*.(6 74*'#(%

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

A1.*-2 %&, ,#2 18 %&, #'#,%,,#%& ),#%3-0: "#21>R3-1+,*# 5'#43'(%')( /-1*2>,#,2 '%( !,52 %1 (0#%*V6 7 9'5,(%1#, '# %&'( -,(+,)% '( %&, +3/5')*%'1# '# !HfF18 D*)1/ C*);,-#*4,5E( *-%')5, 01#* #+' >#(#,R 2#* +'29.#*:&'+()"#' 49*,(,#88/'. OTU# * 5*. -,4*-2'#4 "#21>R3-1+,*# .1-2 1-2,-EP: '# .&')& C*);,-#*4,5+1'#%,2 %1 %&, ,V'(%,#), 18 (,)1#2 +1('%'1# )5'%')( '# %&, *#)',#% "#21>R3-1+,*#5*#43*4,(6 A&, %3-# 18 %&, %.,#%',%& ),#%3-0 (*. %&, )19+5,%'1# 18 ]*-5Q-349*##E( 91#39,#%*5 >*/'2*+(( 2#* M#*.8#+)"#'2#' >*&::&,+; 2#* +'29.#*J:&'+()"#' %3*&)"#' OTU3%5'#, 18 %&, )19+*-*%'=, 4-*99*- 18 %&, "#21>R3-1+,*#5*#43*4,(EP /0 Q,-%&152% Y,5/-a);: .&1 )1#%-'/3%,2 %&-,, =1539,( 1# (0#%*VOQ-349*##E( !=, =1539,( 1# +&1#15140 *#2 91-+&15140 *++,*-,2 /,%.,,#!HHI *#2 !Hf[P6

d*-'13( 5,=,5( 18 5*#43*4, *-, '#=15=,2 '# 7#%1'#, `,'55,%E( 2,!#'%'1# 18T4-*99*%')*5'@*%'1#:E * %,-9 &, 3(,2 81- %&, !-(% %'9, '# * +*+,- 18 !f!F6 ̀ ,'55,%1/(,-=,2 %&*% 8-,X3,#%50 3(,2 8-,, 81-9(: (3)& *( *3V'5'*-',(: %,#2 %1 511(, 8-,,>219 '# .1-2 1-2,-: 3#2,-41 (,9*#%') /5,*)&'#4 *#2 +&1#1514')*5 -,23)%'1#:%1 (3)& *# ,V%,#% *( %1 /,)19, /13#2 91-+&,9,(6 `,'55,%E( +*+,-: .&')&: .'%&>13% 1=,-% -,8,-,#), -,='=,2 '# +*-% Q1++E( D..8/,+'&,+9'(,"#9*+# : &*2 * 9*\1-81551.>3+ 1#50 91-, %&*# &*58 * ),#%3-0 5*%,-6 "# (+'%, 18 %&, 2,5*0: -,(,*-)& 1#4-*99*%')*5'@*%'1# '( #1. * 9*\1- !,52 .'%&'# &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')(6

A&-134&13% %&, #'#,%,,#%& ),#%3-0: %&, 5'#43'(%(E #*%'1#*5'%0 +5*0,2 * 9*\1--15, '# %&, )&1'), 18 5*#43*4,( %1 /, (%32',26 "#2,,2: B*#(;-'% /,)*9, +1+35*-'# .,(%,-# R3-1+, /,)*3(, %&, Q-'%'(& R9+'-, ,V%,#2,2 %1 "#2'*6 `1-, 4,#,->*550: %&, 8*)% %&*% *55 5'#43'(%( .,-, (+,*;,-( 18 "#21>R3-1+,*# 5*#43*4,( 4,#,->*%,2 %&, "#21>R3-1+,*# /'*( %&*% 219'#*%,( &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( 3+ %1 %&,+-,(,#%6 "# *22'%'1#: '#%,-,(% '# ,V1%') 5*#43*4,( )1352 &*-250 5,*2 %1 &'(%1-')*5(%32',(: 23, %1 5*); 18 .-'!,# -,)1-2(6 "# (+'%, 18 %&'(: '% 93(% /, 9,#%'1#,2 %&*%%&, )19+*-*%'=, 9,%&12 81- 2,91#(%-*%'#4 5*#43*4, -,5*%,2#,(( .*( !-(%,9+510,2: * 8,. 0,*-( /,81-, B'- C'55'*9( D1#,(E 5,)%3-,: '# %&, !,52 18 c-*5')5*#43*4,( /0 W3#4*-'*# D,(3'% Dg#1( B*\#1=')(: .&1 +3/5'(&,2 '# !GGS &'(=#:9'(,*&,+9 52+9:& 6'.&*9*/: #, -&339'/: +2#: #((# OTL-118 %&*% %&, W3#4*-'*#

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15/43


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)19+*-'(1# 18 /13#2 91-+&,9,(: *#2 -,*)&,2 -,5,=*#% -,(35%(: ,=,# %&134&:*( 1#,# &*++,#( %1 +-,)3-(1-(: 91(% )-,2'%( 81- (%*-%'#4 c-*5') 5'#43'(%')( .,#%%1 *#1%&,- W3#4*-'*#: Bg93,5 J0*-9*%&': .&1 .*( *)%'=, * )13+5, 18 2,)*2,(

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4-*99*- 18 %&, Q*#%3 5*#43*4,(EP: *#2 K,1#-*2 Q5119!,52E( +*+,- !"# (9/'2(A(,#: 9F W#',*&8 D8.9'X/+&' : .&')& *++,*-,2 '# K*#43*4, !fFI: *#2 3(,2 %&,)19+*-*%'=, 9,%&12 81- %&, -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 *#1%&,- 5*#43*4, 8*9'506

1.4 Historical Linguistics in the Twentieth Century and Beyond

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c#'%,2 B%*%,( 8-19 #*%'=,J,-9*#0 !=, 0,*-( 5*%,-: *#2 41% '#)-,*('#450 '#%,-,(%,2 '# %&, #*%'=, +1+35*>%'1#( 18 h1-%& 79,-')*6 W'( -,(,*-)& 1# #*%'=, 5*#43*4,( )359'#*%,2 .'%& %&,+3/5')*%'1# 18 &'( K&'2199; 9F D:#*+)&' 5'2+&' -&'./&.#( '# !f!!6


16/43


f

?1- 1/='13( -,*(1#(: !,52 -,(,*-)& 1# #*%'=, 79,-')*# 5*#43*4,( )1352&*-250 +-1!% 18 * &'(%1-')*5 1-',#%*%'1#: *( 2'2 *% 5,*(% '# +*-% -,(,*-)& 1# 5*#>43*4, =*-'*%'1# '# R3-1+, O*5%&134& Q5119!,52E( .1-; 1# %&, -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18

L-1%1>7541#X3'*# )*##1% /, 81-41!,#N (,, M&*+%,- F '# %&'( =1539,P6 79,-')*#(%-3)%3-*5'(%( &*2 *55 /,,# '#=15=,2 '# -,(,*-)& 1# #*%'=, =*-',%',(: /3% 91(% 18%&,9 2'2 #1% 2,=,51+ %&,'- 1.# %&,1-,%')*5 (%*#), 1# 5*#43*4, )&*#4,: .'%& %&,#1%*/5, ,V),+%'1# 18 R2.*-2 B*+'-: 1#, 18 Q1*(E (%32,#%( *% M1539/'* c#'=,->('%06 "# &'( /11; -&'./&.# : +3/5'(&,2 '# !f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fF!< !_SP6 Y-'# )*+%3-,(%&, '2,* 18 2'-,)%'1#*5'%0 '# 5*#43*4, )&*#4,: /3% '% '( #1% 5'9'%,2 %1 '%< '#2,,2:%&, '2,* 18 2-'# *( '#2')*%,2 '# %&, */1=, X31%*%'1# '( 93)& 91-, 8*->-,*)&'#46A&, 8*)% %&*% 2-'# : '# B*+'-E( %&134&%: )1352 9152 5*#43*4, )&*#4, ,=,# '8 %&,-,.,-, #1 (0#)&-1#') =*-'*%'1# '9+5',( * 2'(%'#)%'1#: *5/,'% #1% ,V+5')'%50 (%*%,2:

/,%.,,# (0(%,9 *#2 3(*4,< *( '8 =*-'*%'1# .,-, #1% * )1#(%'%3%'=, 8,*%3-, 185*#43*4,: /3% -*%&,- * (3++5,9,#%*-0 1#,: %&, -,*5 #*%3-, 18 5*#43*4, /,'#4%&*% 18 *# */(%-*)% (0(%,9 O)86 M-1# FSSS< ^ *#2 M&*+%,- FS '# %&'( =1539,P6

B*+'-E( 8*'%& '# 2-'# : *#2 &'( +-,='13( 2'()3(('1# 18 %&, -,5*%'1# /,%.,,##1-9 *#2 =*-'*%'1# +1'#% %1.*-2 %&, /0 %&,# .,55>,(%*/5'(&,2 '((3, 18 (0(%,9=(6 3(*4,6 "9+1(('/'5'%0 %1 *))13#% 81- /1%& .*( '#2')*%,2 81- %&, !-(% %'9, /0?,-2'#*#2 2, B*3((3-,: .&1(, !f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

B0#)&-1#') 1-',#%*%'1# 2'2 '#2,,2 219'#*%, %&,1-,%')*5 5'#43'(%')( '# %&,!-(%+*-% 18 %&, %.,#%',%& ),#%3-0: ,(+,)'*550 '# %&, c#'%,2 B%*%,(: .'%& Q5119!,52*#2 5*%,- .'%& J,#,-*%'=, J-*99*-6 A&'( 21,( #1% 9,*# %&*% &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(>%')( 2'2 #1% +-14-,((6 "# %&, !-(% +5*),: 5'#43'(%') 2*%* -,4*-2'#4 %&, "#21>R3-1+,*# 5*#43*4,( .,-, 2-*9*%')*550 ,#5*-4,2 /0 %&, 2,)'+&,-9,#% 18 W'!'%,

/0 M@,)& Q,2&')& W-1@#j '# !f!I6 W'!'%, '( %&, ,*-5',(% *!,(%,2 "#21>R3-1+,*#5*#43*4,N (19, 18 '%( +,)35'*- 8,*%3-,( .,-, */5, %1 (,-'13(50 )&*55,#4, 81- %&,!-(% %'9, %&, B*#(;-'%>/*(,2 %-*2'%'1#*5 -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 L-1%1>"#21>R3-1+,*#6


17/43


!S

Y'()-,+*#)',( /,%.,,# W'!'%, *#2 %&, 1%&,- "#21>R3-1+,*# 5*#43*4,( 5,279,-')*# 5'#43'(% R24*- B%3-%,=*#% %1 81-935*%, '# !fFI &'( "#21>W'!'%,&0+1%&,('(: .&')& =',.,2 W'!'%, O*#2 7#*%15'*# '# 4,#,-*5P *( &*='#4 (+5'%

*.*0 8-19 L-1%1>"#21>R3-1+,*# *% * 93)& ,*-5',- %'9, %&*# %&, -,9*'#'#45*#43*4,(6R(+,)'*550 '# R3-1+,: &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( +-1!%,2 8-19 %&, '#"3,#), 18

2'*5,)%151406 C1-; /0 5,*2'#4 ()&15*-( (3)& *( C'5&,59 ̀ ,0,->Ka/;, *#2 ,(+,>)'*550 D35,(>K13'( J'55'k-1# 2,=,51+,2 '# %&, 2'-,)%'1# 18 5'#43'(%') 4,14-*+&06C1-;'#4 1# %&, ?-,#)& K'#43'(%') 7%5*(: "%*5'*# 5'#43'(% `*!,1 Q*-%15' '#2')*%,2'# !fF_ =*-'13( %,#2,#)',( 18 5'#43'(%') *-,*(: .&')& &, (399*-'@,2 '# * #39>

/,- 18 +-'#)'+5,(: %&, 91(% '9+1-%*#% 18 .&')& /,'#4 %&*% '(15*%,2 *-,*( %,#2 %1 /, 91-, )1#(,-=*%'=,: *#2 %&*% '8 %&, (*9, 8,*%3-, '( 813#2 '# 5*%,-*5 *-,*( 8*-8-19 ,*)& 1%&,- *#2 #1% '# %&, ),#%-*5 *-,*: %&,# '% '( %&, 5*!,- .&')& +-,(,#%(*# '##1=*%'1#6

R3-1+,*# (%-3)%3-*5'(%( *5(1 /,)*9, '#%,-,(%,2 '# 5*#43*4, )&*#4,6 R(+,)'*550?-,#)& 5'#43'(% 7#2-k `*-%'#,% 93(% /, )-,2'%,2 .'%& * (3)),((835 *!,9+% %1*2*+% B*3((3-,E( #1%'1# 18 5*#43*4, *( * (0(%,9 %1 5*#43*4, )&*#4,6 Y1'#4%&'(: `*-%'#,% %11; 1=,- %&, 5,4*)0 18 %&, L-*43, B)&115: .&1(, 5,*2'#4 9,9>

/,-(: (3)& *( Z19*# D*;1/(1#: 2'2 #1% 2-*. * (&*-+ 2'(%'#)%'1# /,%.,,# (0#>)&-1#0 *#2 2'*)&-1#0 '# %&,'- 83#)%'1#*5 )1#('2,-*%'1# 18 5*#43*4,6 75-,*2023-'#4 %&,'- 8*913( +-,(,#%*%'1# *% %&, !fFH "#%,-#*%'1#*5 M1#8,-,#), 18K'#43'(%( '# %&, W*43,: 9,9/,-( 18 %&, L-*43, K'#43'(%') M'-)5, '#2')*%,2 %&*%

%&, 2')&1%190 /,%.,,# (0#)&-1#0 *#2 2'*)&-1#0 *( (%*%,2 /0 B*3((3-, 93(% /, 5,# /,&'#26 A0+')*5 18 %&, .*0 '# .&')& (%-3)%3-*5'(%( )1#),'=,2 18 5*#43*4,)&*#4, '( %&, #1%'1# 18 %,5,15140: .&')& '( '9+5',2 '# %&, '2,* 18 5*#43*4, *( *(0(%,9 '# .&')&: *( `,'55,% +3% '%: T%13% (, %',#%E OT,=,-0%&'#4 &*#4( %14,%&,-EP6"# &'( !f[! ,((*0 Q*+'R+3+#' 2#* "+(,9*+()"#' Q"9'989.+# OTL-'#)'+5,( 18 &'(%1-')*5+&1#15140EP: D*;1/(1# (%*%,2 %&*% 1#, 93(% 511; 81- %&, !#*5 )*3(,( 18 5*#>43*4, )&*#4,: .&')&: %1 &'( 9'#2: 2,+,#2,2 1# %&, %,#2,#)0 18 * (0(%,9 %1+-,(,-=, '%( (0(%,9*%') #*%3-,6 `*-%'#,% 83-%&,- (+,)35*%,2 1# %&, )*3(,( 18+&1#1514')*5 )&*#4,6 W, '#2')*%,2 *( )1#%-*(%'#4 +-'#)'+5,( %&, #,,2 18 /,'#43#2,-(%*#2*/5, '# )1993#')*%'1#: .&')& '9+5',2 ;,,+'#4 * &'4& #39/,- 182'(%'#)%'1#(: *#2 %&, %,#2,#)0 %1.*-2 5,*(% ,%1-%: .&')& -,(35%,2 '# 2,)-,*(,'# %&, #39/,- 18 2'(%'#)%'1#(6 W, *5(1 ,5*/1-*%,2 %&, '2,* 18 ,)1#190: .&')&&, 83550 '553(%-*%,2 '# &'( !f__ /11; E)9'9:+# 2#( )"&'.#:#',( 3"9'O,+X/#(OTR)1#190 18 (13#2 )&*#4,EP6

A&,1-,%')*5 5'#43'(%')( '# %&, c#'%,2 B%*%,( *4*'# %3-#,2 %1 5*#43*4, )&*#4,23-'#4 %&, !fIS(6 A&, +3/5')*%'1# 18 Z1/,-% ]'#4E( K+(,9*+)&8 -+'./+(,+)( &'2>#'#*&,+M# >*&::&* '# !fIf 81551.,2 +-,='13( -,(,*-)& '# %&, !,52: ,(+,)'*550

/0 L*35 ]'+*-(;06 ]'#4 2,()-'/,2 5*#43*4, )&*#4, '# %,-9( 18 -35, *22'%'1#:-35, '#(,-%'1# *#2 -35, )&*#4, O!fIf< [fiI[P: .&')& &, 9*'#50 2'()3((,2 /*(,2

1# ,V*9+5,( 18 +&1#1514')*5 )&*#4,6 A&, %3-#'#4 +1'#% 81- -,(,*-)& 1# (0#%*)%')


18/43


!!

)&*#4, .'%&'# %&, 8-*9,.1-; 18 J,#,-*%'=, J-*99*- '( )1#(%'%3%,2 /0 Y*='2K'4&811%E( !fGf /11; Q*+')+38#( 9F =+&)"*9'+) %A',&Y : 1+,#'#4 * "13-'(&'#4%-*2'%'1# 18 (%32',( .&')& )1#%'#3,( %12*06

7# '9+1-%*#% '((3, .'%&'# (3)& *++-1*)& %1 &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( -,4*-2(%&, )*3(,( 18 5*#43*4, )&*#4,: .&')& 4,#,-*%'='(%( )1#),'=, 18 *( )-3)'*550 )1#>#,)%,2 .'%& 5*#43*4, *)X3'('%'1# /0 #,. 4,#,-*%'1#( O(,, M&*+%,- FS '# %&'(=1539,P6

"# %&, (*9, 2,)*2,( '# .&')& J,#,-*%'=, J-*99*- .*( %3-#'#4 %1.*-2&'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')(: 5*#43*4, %0+15140 ;#,. * 9*\1- -,='=*5 .'%& %&, .1-;(18 D1(,+& J-,,#/,-46 R(+,)'*550 '9+1-%*#% 81- 81551.'#4 2,=,51+9,#%( '# &'(>%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( '( %&, +3/5')*%'1# 18 J-,,#/,-4E( +*+,- %9:# 6'+M#*(&8( 9F>*&::&* G+," Q&*,+)/8&* Z#F#*#')# ,9 ,"# (%-3)%'1#6 A&'( 2'2 #1% 1#50 )1#),-# .1-2 1-2,-6 ?1551.'#4 * (,9'#*5 +*+,-

/0 Z19*# D*;1/(1#: 5:38+)&,+9'( 9F -&'./&.# 6'+M#*(&8( F9* -+'./+(,+)( O!fI[PJ*9;-,5'2@, *#2 d\*',(5*= "=*#1= '# !fGF: *#2: '#2,+,#2,#% 18 %&,9: L*35W1++,- '# !fG[: +-1+13#2,2 .&*% &*( ('#), /,,# ;#1.# *( %&, T451!*5')%&,1-0:E * #,. -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 %&, "#21>R3-1+,*# 1/(%-3,#%( (0(%,96f Q,-#*-2M19-', (0#%&,('@,2 %&, 9*'# )&*-*)%,-'(%')( 18 %&, %0+1514')*5 *#2 3#'=,-(*5'(%*++-1*)& /*(,2 1# * .'2, -*#4, 18 5*#43*4,( '# &'( 91#14-*+& -&'./&.#6'+M#*(&8( &'2 -+'./+(,+) !A3989.A '# !fH!6 7% %&, (*9, %'9, %&, )1#%-1=,-(0

-,4*-2'#4 %&, (%*%3( 18 3#'=,-(*5( *-1(,6 "# %&, 4,#,-*%'=, *++-1*)& O(3)& *(K'4&%811% !fGfP *55 3#'=,-(*5( .,-, %*;,# %1 /, +*-% 18 %&, &39*# /'1514')*5,#21.9,#%: &*-2.'-,2 '# %&, /-*'# 18 %&, '#8*#%'5, 5*#43*4, 5,*-#,-: .&'5,:1# %&, 1%&,- &*#2: %&, 83#)%'1#*5'(% *++-1*)& ,9+&*('@,2 %&, 9*'# -15, 18 5*#>43*4, 835!55'#4 '%( 2'()13-(, *#2 )1993#')*%'=, 83#)%'1#(6 Z,(,*-)& 1# 5*#>43*4, =*-'*%'1#: .&')& &*2 /,,# 9*'#50 +3-(3,2 /0 2'*5,)%1514'(%(: /,)*9, *9*\1- !,52 18 -,(,*-)& '# 79,-')*# 5'#43'(%')( '# %&, !fGS(6 B1)'15'#43'(%(2'-,)%,2 %&,'- *!,#%'1# %1 (1)'*5: 1- 2'*(%-*%'): -*%&,- %&*# 2'*%1+') =*-'*%'1#6?',52 -,(,*-)& 1# %&'( %1+') (11# 9*2, '% )5,*- %&*% (0#)&-1#') =*-'*%'1# &*2'#%'9*%, )1##,)%'1#( .'%& 2'*)&-1#') )&*#4,: *( *-43,2 /0 C'55'*9 K*/1= '# &'(!fGF %9)+98+'./+(,+) Q&"#*'(6 75(1 '9+1-%*#% 81- %&, 3#2,-(%*#2'#4 18 5*#43*4,)&*#4, *-, -,),#% 2,=,51+9,#%( '# %&, (%320 18 5*#43*4, )-,15,(6 A&'( -,),#%%-*2'%'1#: .&')& &*( '%( -11%( '# %&, +'1#,,-'#4 .1-; 18 W341 B)&3)&*-2%: 2,9>1#(%-*%,( %&, '9+1-%*#), 18 *235% 5*#43*4, *)X3'('%'1# 81- 5*#43*4, )&*#4,6

"# %&, 9,*#%'9,: -,(,*-)& 1# 5*#43*4, )&*#4, '#)532'#4 &'(%1-')*5 (0#%*V83-%&,- 2,=,51+,2 8-19 %&, %-*2'%'1# 18 "#21>R3-1+,*# (%32',(: *#2 %11; *2=*#>%*4, 1=,- %&, 2,)*2,( 18 '#('4&%( )19'#4 8-19 5*#43*4, %0+15140 *#2 (%32',(18 5*#43*4, =*-'*%'1#6 7 ('4#'!)*#% )1#%-'/3%'1# %1 %&, ,(%*/5'(&9,#% 18 * 4,#>,-*5 8-*9,.1-; 81- %&, '#=,(%'4*%'1# 18 (0#%*)%') )&*#4, .*( %&, 91#14-*+&

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19/43


!F

M*9/,55 .&1 91=,2 %&, !,52 )51(,- %1 ,V+5')*%'#4 %&, -*#4, *#2 #*%3-, 18)*3(,( 18 (0#%*)%') )&*#4, O-,*#*50('(: ,V%,#('1#: *#2 5*#43*4, )1#%*)% *#2(0#%*)%') /1--1.'#4P )19/'#'#4 &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( .'%& -,),#% *2=*#),( '#

5'#43'(%') %0+151406 "# !fG[ %&, (,-',( 18 "#%,-#*%'1#*5 M1#8,-,#),( 1# W'(%1-')*5K'#43'(%')( /,4*#: .&')& /-'#4 %14,%&,- /',##'*550 5,*2'#4 ()&15*-( '# %&, !,526`3)& 18 %&,'- ()&15*-(&'+ )*# /, 813#2 '# %&, 81551.'#4 )&*+%,-( 18 %&'( /11;6

2. Sources

W'(%1-')*5 -,(,*-)& -,X3'-,( (19, %'9, 2,+%&N )1#(,X3,#%50: '% 9*'#50 81)3(,(1# 5*#43*4, 8*9'5',( .&')& -,50 1# * 51#4 21)39,#%,2 %'9, (+*#6 791#4 %&,.1-52E( 5*#43*4,(: %&1(, %&*% *-, 21)39,#%,2 81- 51#4,- %&*# %.1 %&13(*#20,*-( *-, "#21>R3-1+,*#: 78-1>7('*%') *#2 B'#1>A'/,%*#6 7 #39/,- 18 1%&,-5*#43*4, 8*9'5',(: (3)& *( c-*5'): 75%*'): M*3)*('*#: Y-*='2'*#: 73(%-1#,('*#*#2 D*+*#,(, *-, 21)39,#%,2 %1 2'%,-,#% ,V%,#%( (%*-%'#4 8-19 %&, !-(% &*58 18%&, !-(% 9'55,##'39 #$N 91(% 5*#43*4, 8*9'5',(: &1.,=,-: *-, ;#1.# 1#50 8-192*%* 8-19 %&, (,)1#2 9'55,##'39 #$6 7#)',#% 21)39,#%*%'1# *5(1 '#)532,( *#39/,- 18 ,V%'#)% 5*#43*4,(: (3)& *( B39,-'*# O%&'-2i(,)1#2 9'55,##'39 %#$P1- R%-3()*# O!-(% 9'55,##'39 %#$P: /1%& '(15*%,: .&')& &*=, /,,# '# )1#%*)% .'%&(19, "#21>R3-1+,*# *#2 78-1>7('*%') 5*#43*4,(6

C&,# #1 2'-,)% (13-),( *-, *=*'5*/5,: (19, '#('4&% '#%1 *# 1%&,-.'(,

3#;#1.# 5*#43*4, 9*0 (%'55 /, 4*'#,2 %&-134& '#2'-,)% (13-),(6 A&,0 '#)532,,='2,#), 8-19 /1--1.'#4: 1#19*(%')(: %1+1#19*(%')(: .1-2( X31%,2 '# %,V%(.-'!,# '# 1%&,- 5*#43*4,(6 ?1- ,V*9+5,: %&, M,5%') 5*#43*4,( (+1;,# '# )1#%'>#,#%*5 R3-1+, *-, +11-50 21)39,#%,2 '# *#%'X3'%0: ='* '#()-'+%'1#( O'# (,=,-*5=*-',%',(< J*35'(&: M,5%'/,-'*#N (19, )19, ,=,# 8-19 %&, Q*5;*#(P: /3% ., )*#81-9 (19, 91-, '2,*( */13% %&,9 1# %&, /*('( 18 *#%&-1+1#09( *#2 %1+1#09(813#2 '# %,V%( /0 Z19*# *3%&1-(6

2.1 Types of Source and Types of Writing Support

?1- 1-'4'#*5 (13-),( %1 &*=, /,,# */5, %1 (3-='=, 81- ),#%3-',( 1- 9'55,##'*: %&,%0+, 18 (3++1-% 93(% 1/='13(50 /, 51#4 5*(%'#46 B3)& *-, ,+'4-*+&') (13-),(:*=*'5*/5, 81- 9*#0 ,*-50 *!,(%,2 5*#43*4,(6 U%&,- -,5*%'=,50 (%*/5, %0+,( 18 (3+>+1-% *-, )5*0 1- 9,%*5 *-%'8*)%(: (,*5(: (&,55( 1- /1#,(6 A&, ,*-5',(% M&'#,(, %,V%( *-,.-'!,# *591(% ,V)53('=,50 1# (3)& (3++1-%(< %&, ,*-5',(% (%*4,( 18 U52 M&'#,(, *-,21)39,#%,2 /0 %&, (1>)*55,2 1-*)5, /1#,( *( .,55 *( /0 '#()-'+%'1#( 1# /-1#@,6

A&, %0+, 18 (3++1-% *5(1 &*( '9+5')*%'1#( 1# %&, %0+, *#2 %&, 5,#4%& 18 %&,-,)1-2,2 %,V%(6 "#2,,2: (19, 18 %&, ,V%*#% ,+'4-*+&') %,V%( *-, 51#4 *#2 )1#%*'#

%-,*%',( 1- +1,%-0: /3% /0 %&, 91(% +*-% '#()-'+%'1#( *-, (&1-%: 1#,# ('9'5*- %1


20/43


![

,*)& 1%&,-: *( ,646 '# %&, )*(, 18 %19/ '#()-'+%'1#(: *#2 81-935*'): *( '# %&,)*(, 18 1-*)5, %,V%(: .&'5, (,*5( 91(% 1#,# )1#%*'# 5'!5, 91-, %&*# +,-(1#*5#*9,(6

7 +1+35*- (3++1-% '# %&, 7#)',#% h,*- R*(% *#2 ,*(%,-# `,2'%,--*#,*# '()1#(%'%3%,2 /0 )5*0 %*/5,%(6 C&,# /*;,2: )5*0 %*/5,%( /,)19, ='-%3*550 *( 51#45*(%'#4 *( (%1#,6 791#4 5*#43*4,( +-,(,-=,2 /0 )5*0 %*/5,%( *-, (19, /,51#4>'#4 %1 %&, B,9'%') 8*9'50: (3)& *( 7;;*2'*#: c4*-'%') *#2 R/5*'%'): %&, 7#*%15'*#5*#43*4,( O"#21>R3-1+,*#P: *( .,55 * #39/,- 18 #1#>"#21>R3-1+,*# 5*#43*4,(18 7#*%15'*: (3)& *( W*!') *#2 W3--'*#: 1%&,- 5*#43*4, '(15*%, (3)& *(B39,-'*#: *55 .-'!,# '# )3#,'81-9 ()-'+%6 "# %&, *-,* 18 `,(1+1%*9'* *#27#*%15'*: %&'( %0+, 18 (3++1-% '( %0+')*5 18 %&, 9'55,##'* %#$6 M5*0 %*/5,%( (,-=,2*( (3++1-% 81- * /'4 =*-',%0 18 %,V%(: (19, 18 %&,9 )19+*-*%'=,50 51#4N 1/='>13(50: #1% *55 )3#,'81-9 5*#43*4,( *-, ,X3*550 .,55 *!,(%,2< +15'%')*5 *( .,55 *(-,5'4'13( 1- )35%3-*5 9*!,-( +5*0 *# '9+1-%*#% -15, '# 2,%,-9'#'#4 * 5*#43*4,E(5';,5'&112 18 /,'#4 -,)1-2,2 *#2 %&, ,V%,#% 18 %&, 21)39,#%*%'1#6

h1% *55 +1+35*%'1#( .&')& 9*2, 3(, 18 )5*0 %*/5,%( *5(1 /*;,2 %&,96 A&,,*-5',(% ,V%*#% J-,,; %,V%(: %&, ̀ 0),#*,*# %*/5,%( .&')& 2*%, /*); %1 %&, %.,5#&),#%3-0 %#$ O'# M-,%, %&, ]#1((1( %*/5,%( 2*%, /*); %1 %&, 813-%,,#%&e%&'-%,,#%&),#%3-0P .,-, /*;,2 *))'2,#%*550 '# %&, !-,( %&*% 2,(%-10,2 %&, *-)&'=,(<#1-9*550: %&,0 .,-, #1% /*;,2 /,)*3(, %&,0 .,-, #1% '#%,#2,2 81- 51#4 %,-9*-)&'='@*%'1#6 B'#), %&,0 91(%50 )1#%*'#,2 '#81-9*%'1# -,4*-2'#4 4112( *#2,V+,#2'%3-,( *( .,55 *( 5'(%( 18 .1-;,-( /,51#4'#4 %1 %&, +*5*),(: (3)& %*/5,%(

.,-, '#%,#2,2 81- +-,(,-=*%'1# 1#50 23-'#4 %&, )3--,#% /324,% +,-'126 A&'(*5(1 '9+5',( %&*%: .'%& 8,. ,V),+%'1#(: %,V%( -,)1-2,2 '# %&'( .*0 *-, /0 %&,91(% +*-% X3'%, ('9'5*- %1 ,*)& 1%&,-6 "#2,,2: 13- ;#1.5,24, 18 `0),#*,*#J-,,; '( '9+*'-,2 /0 5,V')*5 -,+,%'%'1# O*( .,55 *( /0 %&, +,)35'*-'%',( 18 '%((055*/14-*+&') .-'%'#4 (0(%,9P *#2 )19+5,V (0#%*)%') )1#(%-3)%'1#( *-, ='-%3>*550 3#*=*'5*/5,6

A&, ,V),+%'1#*5 ,#='-1#9,#%*5 )1#2'%'1#( 18 %&, h'5, d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

7+*-% 8-19 %,V%( 1# /1#, 1- /-1#@,: U52 M&'#,(, .*( .-'!,# 1# +,-'(&*/5,(3++1-%(: (3)& *( /*9/11: .112 (%-'+( 1- ('5;6 M&'#,(, .,-, *5(1 %&,!-(% %1 3(,+*+,- O'# %&, 912,-# (,#(,P *( * (3++1-% 81- .-'%'#4: '# %&, (,)1#2 ),#%3-0 #$ :.&'5, '# %&, C,(% +*-)&9,#% -,+5*),2 +*+0-3( (%*-%'#4 8-19 %&, (,)1#2 ),#%3-0

%#$ : *#2 -,9*'#,2 %&, 91(% )1991# (3++1-% %&-134&13% %&, `'225, 74,(6


21/43


!^

2.2 Written Tradition

B13-),( .&')& 21 #1% 2*%, /*); %1 %&, *)%3*5 *4, '# .&')& %&,0 .,-, .-'!,#

*#2 *-, +-,(,-=,2 '# 5*%,- )1+',( 9*0 &*=, /,,# )1+',2 .&,# %&, 5*#43*4, .*((%'55 (+1;,#: 1- .&,# '% #1 51#4,- .*(6 7( -,9*-;,2 */1=,: h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

U# %&, )1#%-*-0: %&, R40+%'*# 21)39,#%*%'1#: *5/,'% )1#('(%'#4 18 %,V%( .&')&.,-, *5(1 1#,# )1+',2: 21,( #1% +-,(,#% )5,*- %-*),( 18 5'#43'(%') 3+2*%'#46Y3-'#4 %&, K*%, R40+%'*# +,-'12: `'225, R40+%'*# %,V%( .,-, (%'55 /,'#4 )1+',2'# %&, 5*#43*4, '# .&')& %&,0 &*2 1-'4'#*550 /,,# .-'!,#: .&')& /0 %&,# &*2

/,)19, %&, 5'%,-*-0 5*#43*4,: *#2 *( (3)& .*( .-'!,# 3#%'5 %&, 813-%& ),#%3-0#$ O.&'5, %&, `'225, R40+%'*# +,-'12 ,#2( '# ![SS %#$P6 B19, '#%,-8,-,#), 8-19%&, (+1;,# 5*#43*4, 1))3-( '# %,V%( )19+1(,2 '# `'225, R40+%'*# 23-'#4%&, K*%, R40+%'*# +,-'12: /3% 3+2*%'#4 '# )1+',( 18 %,V%( )19+1(,2 23-'#4 %&,`'225, R40+%'*# +,-'12 .*( #1% * )1991# +-*)%'),6

"# %&, )*(, 18 5*#43*4,( (3)& *( J-,,; *#2 K*%'#: *( .,55 ;#1.#: 91(% 5'%,->*-0 %,V%( .,-, )1+',2 23-'#4 %&, `'225, 74,( /0 )1+0'(%( .&1: 4,#,-*550 (+,*;>'#4: &*2 * -,5*%'=,50 4112 ;#1.5,24, 18 %&, 5*#43*4,(: *5%&134& %&,0 .,-, #151#4,- (+1;,#6 Q,81-, %&, /,4'##'#4 18 %0+, (,!'#4 '# %&, !#,,#%& ),#%3-0 #$ :K*%'# *#2 J-,,; 5'%,-*-0 %,V%( .,-, )1+',2 /0 91#;(N *=*'5*/5, )12'),( 2*%, %12'%,-,#% +,-'12( *#2 *-, =*-'*/50 +-,(,-=,26 B'9'5*- %1 J-,,; *#2 K*%'#: U52M&'#,(, %,V%( *-, *5(1 91(%50 ;#1.# %&-134& .-'!,# %-*2'%'1#6

Y'%,-,#% )1+0'#4 +-*)%'),( '9+50 * 4-,*% 2,*5 18 +&'51514')*5 +-1/5,9(6R(+,)'*550 '# %&, )*(, 18 J-,,; *#2 K*%'#: %&, .,55>,(%*/5'(&,2 %-*2'%'1# 18 )5*(>

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

`,(1*9,-')*# 21)39,#%*%'1# '( *5(1 *=*'5*/5,: ,(+,)'*550 '# 81-9 18 '#()-'+>%'1#(6 A&, `*0*( *#2 (19, 1%&,- +-,>M1539/'*# +,1+5, *5(1 3(,2 8152'#4


22/43


!_

/11;( 9*2, 18 /*-; +*+,- )1*%,2 .'%& 5'9,N 91(% 18 %&,9 &*=, 3#81-%3#*%,50 /,,# 2,(%-10,2 /0 %&, R3-1+,*# '#=*2,-(6

2.3 Oral Tradition

"# #1#>5'%,-*%, (1)',%',(: %,V%( 9*0 &*=, *# 1-*5 %-*2'%'1#: '# .&')& )*(, %&,0%,#2 %1 +-,(,-=, 152,- 5'#43'(%') 8,*%3-,(: '# (19, )*(,( ,=,# * 5*#43*4, %&*% '(#1 51#4,- (+1;,#6 A&, /,(%>(%32',2 )*(, 18 1-*5 %-*2'%'1# '( )1#(%'%3%,2 /0 %&,W19,-') +1,9(6 A&, W19,-') +1,9( .,-, .-'!,# 21.# '# %&, )13-(, 18 %&,,'4&%& ),#%3-0 %#$ : /3% %&,0 +-,(,-=, 8,*%3-,( 18 %&, J-,,; 5*#43*4, .&')&.*( (+1;,# %.1 1- %&-,, ),#%3-',( ,*-5',-6 R*-50 (%*4,( 18 "#21>7-0*# Od,2')P*#2 "-*#'*# O7=,(%*#P .,-, *5(1 +-,(,-=,2 /0 1-*5 %-*2'%'1# *#2 *-, -,",)%,2'# %,V%( .&')& .,-, .-'!,# 21.# 81- %&, !-(% %'9, (,=,-*5 ),#%3-',( 5*%,-6

"# =,-0 93)& %&, (*9, .*0 *( '# .-'!,# %-*2'%'1#: '# 1-*5 %-*2'%'1# %,V%(9*0 3#2,-41 5'#43'(%') 3+2*%'#4: 1- 81-9( %&*% *-, #1 51#4,- 3#2,-(%112 9*0

/, )&*#4,2N )1#(,X3,#%50: *# 1-*5 %,V% 91(% 1#,# +-,(,-=,( * (%-*%'!)*%'1# 185'#43'(%') 8,*%3-,(6 U-*5 )19+1('%'1# &*( '%( 1.# (+,)'*5 8,*%3-,(: 91(% #1%*/50* &'4&50 81-935*') )&*-*)%,-: .&')& 9*;,( '% =*53*/5, 81- &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')(:('#), 81-935*( 1#,# +-,(,-=, 2'%,-,#% 5'#43'(%') (%*4,(6!S L1,%') 5*#43*4, '#1-*5 (1)',%',( 9*0 &*=, * 51#4 %-*2'%'1#: *( (&1.# /0 M*5=,-% C*%;'#(: .&1*++5',2 %&, )19+*-*%'=, 9,%&12 %1 %&, -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 %&, "#21>R3-1+,*#

+1,%') 81-935*( OC*%;'#( !ff_P6"# %&, )*(, 18 %&, W19,-') +1,9( *#2 %&, d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`,(1*9,-')*: %&, `*0*# *#2 R+'>U59,) &',-1450+&').-'%'#4( .,-, 3(,2 81- -,)1-2'#4 )*5,#2-')*5 ,=,#%( *#2 ,=,#%( *% %&, -10*5)13-%6 `1(% 5';,50: `*0* ;'#4( &*2 -,*5 5'/-*-',( 18 /*-; +*+,- /11;(: .&')&.,-, ,'%&,- 2,(%-10,2 *#,- %&, )1#X3,(% 1- 2'2 #1% (3-='=, %&, )5'9*%,6 A&, 8,.,V%*#% 1#,( )1#%*'# *59*#*)( *#2 )*5,#2*-(: .&'5, ,*-5',- (13-),( 1# (%1#,1- 1# (9*55 *-%'8*)%( *5(1 -,)1-2 &'(%1-0: *#2 )1#%*'# 5'(%( 18 ;'#4( .'%& %&,'-2,,2( O(,, B&*-,- *#2 A-*V5,- FSSI 81- 83-%&,- 2,%*'5(P6 7#,- %&, B+*#'*-2( &*2)1#X3,-,2 %&,'- (+,*;,-( '# %&, 5*%, !#,,#%&i,*-50 ('V%,,#%& ),#%3-0: 9*#0`,(1*9,-')*# 5*#43*4,( (%*-%,2 * #,. .-'!,# %-*2'%'1# .&')& *551.,2 -,)1-2>'#4 * .,*5%& 18 1-*5 %-*2'%'1# O*( '# %&, )*(, 18 h*&3*%5 1- l3')&kP6


23/43


!I

2.4 Spoken, Written and Literary Language

B'#), =1'), -,)1-2'#4 1#50 &*( * ),#%3-0E( &'(%1-0: &'(%1-')*5 5'#43'(%')( &,*='50

-,5',( 1# .-'!,# -,)1-2(6 A-*#()-'+%'1# 18 (+1;,# 5*#43*4, /0 2'*5,)%1514'(%(*5(1 (%*-%,2 5*%,: '# %&, 5*(% 8,. 2,)*2,( 18 %&, #'#,%,,#%& ),#%3-06C-'!,# (13-),( 9*0 -,)1-2 =*-'13( 5'#43'(%') -,4'(%,-(: (19,%'9,( )51(, %1

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

B+1;,# 5*#43*4, 9*0 *5(1 /, -,)1-2,2 .'%&'# 5'%,-*-0 %,V%(: *( '# %&, )*(, 182-*9* '# %&, "#2'*# %-*2'%'1#: '# .&')& .19,# *#2 51.>)5*(( )&*-*)%,-( (+,*;(19, 18 %&, L-(;-'%(: -*%&,- %&*# B*#(;-'%6

`1(% 1#,#: &1.,=,-: .-'!,# %,V%( +-,(,-=, (19, (1-% 18 &'4&50 (%*#2*-2'@,25*#43*4,: .&')& 9*;,( '% 2'$ )35% %1 )*+%3-, *#0 (1-% 18 =*-'*%'1#6 R=,# '#(3)& )*(,(: %&, 2'(%*#), /,%.,,# .-'!,# -,)1-2( *#2 %&, 5*#43*4, .&')& .*(*)%3*550 (+1;,# *% %&, %'9, 9*0 =*-0 )1#('2,-*/506 7( *# ,V*9+5,: 1#, )*#

)1#('2,- K*%'#6 K*%'# 5'%,-*%3-, (%*-%,2 '# %&, %&'-2 ),#%3-0 %#$N 3#%'5 %&, *4, 187343(%3(: *5%&134& &'4&50 (%*#2*-2'@,2: %&, 5'%,-*-0 5*#43*4, .*( +-,(39>*/50 #1% %11 8*- 8-19 %&, (+1;,# 5*#43*4,6 K*%,-: 2'(%*#), /,%.,,# %&, %.1-,4'(%,-( '#)-,*(,26 M&*#4,( '# %&, (+1;,# 5*#43*4, )*# /, (,,# '# * #39/,- 18#1#>5'%,-*-0 %,V%(: .&')& )1#(%'%3%, %&, (13-), 18 (1>)*55,2 d354*- K*%'#6 791#4%&,9: %&, %-*#(5*%'1#( 18 %&, h,. A,(%*9,#% *-, 18 +*-%')35*- '9+1-%*#),:

/,)*3(, %&,0 *5(1 *!,(% 18 5*#43*4, )1#%*)% O#1%*/50 .'%& J-,,; *#2 %&, B,9'%')5*#43*4,(P: %0+')*5 18 %&, !-(% ),#%3-',( #$6

Y3-'#4 %&, `'225, 74,(: K*%'# .*( 3(,2 *( %&, 1#50 .-'!,# 5*#43*4, 3#%'5*591(% %&, ,#2 18 %&, !-(% 9'55,##'39 #$6 A&, !-(% %,V% .-'!,# '# * Z19*#),5*#43*4, O* (9*55 #39/,- 18 5'#,( '# %&, B%-*(/13-4 U*%&(P 2*%,( %1 H^F6 A&,5*#43*4, '( )5,*-50 #1 51#4,- Od354*-P K*%'#: /3% -*%&,- O*# *#),(%1- 18P U52?-,#)&< /3% %&, '#%,-9,2'*%, (%*4,( *-, #1% 21)39,#%,26 Q,('2,(: '# (+'%, 18%&, .,*5%& 18 21)39,#%*%'1# 1# K*%'#: *#2 %&, -,5*%'=,50 ('@*/5, O'8 )19+*-,2.'%& 1%&,- 5*#43*4,(P )1-+3( 18 d354*- K*%'# %,V%(: (19, 8,*%3-,( 813#2 '#*55 Z19*#), 5*#43*4,( *-, #1.&,-, *!,(%,2 '# *#0 =*-',%0 18 K*%'#6 A&, /,(%>;#1.# ,V*9+5, '( %&, 83%3-, %,#(,6 Q*(,2 1# %&, Z19*#), ,='2,#),: 1#, '(81-),2 %1 -,)1#(%-3)% * +,-'+&-*(%') 83%3-, .'%& %&, *3V'5'*-0 T&*=,E '# d354*-K*%'#: .&')& '( #1% *!,(%,2 *( (3)&6 U# %&, 1%&,- &*#2: #1 %-*),( -,9*'# '# %&,

Z19*#), 5*#43*4,( ,'%&,- 18 %&, K*%'# 83%3-, '# i1i 1- 18 %&, 83%3-, .'%& (+,)'*5


24/43


!G

%&,9*%') =1.,56 A&3(: %&, ,='2,#), 8-19 %&, Z19*#), 5*#43*4,( .1352 #1%*551. 81- %&, -,)1#(%-3)%'1# 18 %&, K*%'# 83%3-,: '# (+'%, 18 * -,5*%'=,50 (&1-%

/-,*; '# %&, .-'!,# (13-),( -,)1-2'#4 %&, (+1;,# 5*#43*4,6!!

"# %&, `'225, 74,( *#2 /,01#2: K*%'# /,)*9, * T)5*((')*5 5*#43*4,:E '6,6:* 5*#43*4, #1 51#4,- (+1;,# /0 #*%'=, (+,*;,-(: /3% (%'55 .-'!,# *#2 ,=,#(+1;,# '# (+,)'*5 ('%3*%'1#( O,646: '# %&, )&3-)& 1- '# )13-%P6 A&, (*9, &*2&*++,#,2 '# R40+% .'%& ̀ '225, R40+%'*#: .'%& J-,,;: B*#(;-'% *#2 9*#0 1%&,-5'%,-*-0 5*#43*4,(6 U(%5,- OFSS_< ^fP )*55( B39,-'*# %&, !-(% )5*((')*5 5*#43*4,:('#), '%( 21)39,#%*%'1# *++*-,#%50 (%*-%( 91-, %&*# * %&13(*#2 0,*-( *#,- '%(2,*%& *( * (+1;,# 5*#43*4,6

A&, -,5*%'1# /,%.,,# * )5*((')*5 5*#43*4, *#2 (+1;,# =*-',%',( 9*0 /, 182'%,-,#% %0+,(6 `,2',=*5 K*%'#: %&134& &'4&50 (%*#2*-2'@,2 *#2 2'%,-,#% 8-19d354*- K*%'#: 2'(+5*0( '#%,-8,-,#), 8-19 =*-'13( (+1;,# 5*#43*4,(: *#2 *-43>*/50 *5(1 &*2 -,4'1#*5 =*-'*#%(: *( *-43,2 '# h1-/,-4 O!fIHP6 7#,- %&, Z,#*'(>(*#),: '#)-,*('#4 )1#()'13(#,(( 18 %&, (+,)'*5 (%*%3( 18 K*%'#: *( .,55 *( /,!,-;#1.5,24, 18 )5*((')*5 *3%&1-(: )1#%-'/3%,2 %1 ,(%*/5'(& * #,. %-*2'%'1#: /*(,21# .-'%,-( 18 %&, *4, 18 M*,(*- *#2 7343(%3(: *#2 '#%,-8,-,#), 8-19 (+1;,#5*#43*4,( 2'(*++,*-,26 M5,*-50: %&, 3(*4, 18 * )5*((')*5 5*#43*4, *( 1#50 5'%,->*-0 5*#43*4, (,-'13(50 &'#2,-( *#0 ;#1.5,24, 18 (+1;,# =*-',%',(: (3)& *(Z19*#), =*-',%',( 23-'#4 %&, ,*-50 *4,(6

B19,%'9,(: .-'!,# 5*#43*4,( ,9,-4, 8-19 %-*#(5*%'1# '# +-,='13(50 '55'%,->*%, )1993#'%',(6 7 #1%*/5, ,V*9+5, '( )1#(%'%3%,2 /0 %&, %-*#(5*%'1#( 18 %&,

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

2.5 Diatopic Variation

7#1%&,- '9+1-%*#% '((3, -*'(,2 /0 5'%,-*-0 5*#43*4,( '( %&, /*(') 5*); 18 2'*%1+'):1- -,4'1#*5 =*-'*%'1#6 U#, )*# *4*'# %*;, K*%'# *( *# ,V*9+5,< 23-'#4 %&, .&15,%'9, (+*# )1=,-,2 /0 5'%,-*-0 (13-),(: 1#, &*( %&, '9+-,(('1# %&*% %&, 5*#43*4,.*( '2,#%')*5 %&-134&13% %&, .'2, %,--'%1-0 '# .&')& K*%'# .*( (+1;,#6 A&'('( 1/='13(50 '9+1(('/5,: /3% 5'%,-*-0 (13-),( 21 /0 #1 9,*#( *551. %&, -,)1#>

(%-3)%'1# 18 *#0 -,4'1#*5 =*-'*#%6


25/43


!H

7 2'%,-,#% ('%3*%'1# '( 21)39,#%,2 81- 7#)',#% J-,,;6 M1#%-*-0 %1 %&,Z19*#(: .&1 &*2 * +15'%')*5 3#'%*-0 1-4*#'@*%'1# .'%& * (%-1#4 ),#%,-: %&,J-,,;( .,-, +15'%')*550 2'='2,2 '#%1 %&, 3[8#+( : 1- T)'%0 (%*%,(6E L15'%')*5 8-*49,#>

%*%'1# 8*=1-,2 5'#43'(%') 2'=,-('%0< ,=,-0 %1.# 3(,2 %&, 51)*5 =,-#*)35*- 81-'#()-'+%'1#(N '# *22'%'1#: * #39/,- 18 -,4'1#*5 =*-',%',( -,*)&,2 %&, (%*%3( 185'%,-*-0 5*#43*4,(6 B3)& 5'%,-*-0 2'*5,)%( +-,(,-=, =,-#*)35*- 8,*%3-,( 1#50 '#+*-%: *#2 *-, 2'%,-,#% 8-19 =*-',%',( *!,(%,2 %1 '# '#()-'+%'1#(6 A&3(: -,4'1#*58,*%3-,( 9'V 3+ .'%& (1)'*5 *#2 (%05'(%') 8*)%1-(: 0',52'#4 * +')%3-, 18 5'#43'(%')=*-'*%'1# .&')& '( X3'%, 3#'X3, *91#4 *#)',#% 5*#43*4,(6

M1#%-*(% /,%.,,# K*%'# *#2 J-,,; (&1.( %&*% +15'%')*5 8*)%1-( 9*0 &*=, 8*->-,*)&'#4 '9+5')*%'1#( 1# 5*#43*4, -,)1-2'#46 A&'( '( 1/='13(50 ,=,# 91-, %-3,'# )*(,( .&,-, * 5*#43*4, (3/(%'%3%,( *#1%&,-6 A&3(: 5*#43*4,( 18 73(%-*5'* 1-h1-%& 79,-')* &*=, #1% /,,# -,)1-2,2 1- (%32',2 81- ),#%3-',( *#,- %&,'-(+,*;,-( .,-, )1#X3,-,2 /0 R3-1+,*#(: *#2 *-, +-,(,#%50 ,#2*#4,-,2: 5*-4,501# *))13#% 18 %&,'- 51. +-,(%'4,: .&')& '( +*-%50 )1##,)%,2 .'%& %&, 8*)% %&*%%&,0 #,=,- -,*)&,2 %&, (%*%3( 18 .-'!,# 5*#43*4,(6

2.6 Language Contact

7( *5-,*20 #1%,2 '# (,)%'1# F6^: .-'!,# (13-),( 91(%50 -,)1-2 5'%,-*-0 =*-',%',(*#2 5,*=, 5'!5, (+*), 81- %&, 3#2,-(%*#2'#4 18 (1)'*5 =*-'*%'1#6 "% 41,( .'%&13%

(*0'#4 %&*% 91-, )1#),#%-*%,2 X3,(% 81- %&, (1)'*5 )1--,5*%,( 1- )*3(,( 185*#43*4, )&*#4, /*(,2 1# %&, 5'%,-*-0 *#2 '#()-'+%'1#*5 )1-+1-* 18 7#)',#%*#2 `,2',=*5 5*#43*4,( )*##1% 0',52 %&, (*9, -,(35%( *( )1#%,9+1-*-0 (1)'1>5'#43'(%') (%32',( 2,*5'#4 .'%& T(&*551.E %'9, 2,+%& 18 (+1;,# 5*#43*4,( O(,,M&*+%,- !f '# %&'( =1539,P6 d*-'13( 1/(,-=*%'1#( 1# %&, )5*((')*5 (1)'15'#43'(%')'((3,( (3)& *( 5*#43*4,e2'*5,)% )1#%*)%: /'5'#43*5'(9: 935%'5'#43*5'(9: )12,(.'%)&'#4: 2'451(('*: /'2'*5,)%*5'(9: ;1'#,'@*%'1#: ,%)6 *-, 813#2 '# #39,-13(&'(%1-')*5 (%32',(: /3% 1#, )*# (*0 %&*% %&,(, (3/\,)%( *-, 3#2,-,V+51'%,26 C&'5,%&, 2*%* 18 +11-50 21)39,#%,2 5*#43*4,( *-, #1% (3'%*/5, 81- %&'( %0+, 18 (%320:%&, 5*-4, 7#)',#% *#2 `,2',=*5 )1-+1-* 18 9*#0 "#21>R3-1+,*#: 78-1>7('*%'):B'#1>A'/,%*#: 75%*') *#2 c4-1>?'##') 5*#43*4,( 4'=, 3( %&'( 1++1-%3#'%06

A&, ,V+5')*%'1# 18 %&, #*%3-, 18 %&, J-,,;>W,/-,. *#2 J-,,;>7-*9*')5*#43*4, )1#%*)% /,51#4( %1 (19, 18 %&, 91(% 83#2*9,#%*5 '((3,( 18 /'/5')*5,V,4,('(6 A&,-, '( ,#1-913( %&,1514')*5: +&'51514')*5 *#2 5'#43'(%') 5'%,-*%3-,1# W,/-,. '#%,-8,-,#), '# %&, U52 A,(%*9,#%: *#2 W,/-,. *#2 7-*9*') '#%,->8,-,#), '# %&, h,. A,(%*9,#% -*#4'#4 8-19 %&, 1=,-*55 *((,((9,#%( 18 %&,TX3*5'%0E 18 %&, W,55,#'(%') ;1'#, 3(,2 '# %&,(, 21)39,#%( %1 %&, (%320 18=*-'13( (%-3)%3-*5 B,9'%'(9( '# %&, 3(, 18 %,#(,e*(+,)%: +-1#19'#*5 )5'%')( *#2.1-2 1-2,- OQ,0,- !fIH: Q5*); !f_^: ?'%@90,- !ffG: W1-(5,0 !fHf: D*#(, FSS!:

`*51#,0 !fH! *#2 9*#0 1%&,-(P6


26/43


!f

A&, -')& W,55,#'(%') '#()-'+%'1#*5 )1-+3( *551.( 3( %1 9*;, ('4#'!)*#%1/(,-=*%'1#( 1# %&, 2'*%1+') *#2 2'*)&-1#') (+-,*2 18 %&, 7!')>"1#') ;1'#,: %&,#*%3-, 18 2'*5,)% 5,=,5'#4 *#2 %&, -'(, 18 (3+-*2'*5,)%*5 81-9*%'1#( '# =*-'13(

2'*5,)%*5 -,4'1#( 18 7#)',#% J-,,),6 ?1- '#(%*#),: Q3/,#'; O!fHf*P ,V*9'#,2 %&,4-*23*5 T)1#%*9'#*%'1#E 18 M5*((')*5 2'*5,)%( /0 %&, W,55,#'(%') ;1'#, O%&'-2 %#$i%&'-2 #$P 5,*2'#4 35%'9*%,50 %1 %&,'- 2,9'(, O*( 8*- *( 13- .-'!,# -,)1-2( 41P*#2 %&, -*#4, 18 -,4'1#*5 *#2 (1)'*5 =*-'*%'1# '# W,55,#'(%') J-,,), )*+%3-,2

/0 -,4'1#*5 %,-9( B13%&,*(% 7,4,*# Y1-') ;1'#,: h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

A&, `'225, "#21>7-0*# '#()-'+%'1#*5 )1-+3( O)86 B*5191# !ffHP 5*4( /,&'#2%&, W,55,#'(%') *#2 K*%'# )1-+1-* '# '%( 2'*%1+') *#2 2'*)&-1#') )1=,-*4, /3% 1#,&*( *% 1#,E( 2'(+1(*5 5'%,-*-0 L-*;-'%( /*(,2 1# -,4'1#*5 2'*5,)%( 5,=,5,2 %1 (%05'@,25'%,-*-0 ;1'#,(6 A&,(, .,-, 3(,2 /0 %&, Q322&'(% OL(5': TW0/-'2E B*#(;-'%P *#2

D*'# .-'%,-( O`(&(-(!"- ) : 7-2&*> (̀4*2& )P6 W,-, %&, %&'-2 T=,-%')*5E 2'9,#('1#.&')& &*( %1 /, )1#(%*#%50 %*;,# '#%1 *))13#% '# %&,'- (1)'15'#43'(%') ,=*53*%'1#'( %&, '#"3,#), 8-19 B*#(;-'%: %&, T&'4&E =*-',%0: 1/(,-=*/5, ,(+,)'*550 1# %&,

5,=,5 18 (0#%*V '# 91(% 5'%,-*-0 4,#-,(6 d'), =,-(*: 23-'#4 %&, 5*%, ̀ "7 +,-'12 1#,1/(,-=,( *# '#)-,*('#4 '#"3,#), 8-19 7+*/&-*#**: %&, T51.E =*-',%0: '# L-(;-'%*#2 B*#(;-'% .-'%'#4(6 7( 9,#%'1#,2 */1=,: %&'( =*-'*%'1# .*( ,V+51'%,2 /0 %&,*3%&1-( 18 B*#(;-'% 2-*9* O91(% #1%*/50 /0 ](5'2((* 23-'#4 %&, J3+%* +,-'12 18%&, 813-%&i!#& #$P6 "# '% B*#(;-'% '( (+1;,# /0 %&, ;'#4 *#2 &'( 9'#'(%,-(:+*3-*(,# ) /0 .19,# O*#2 %&, )51.#P: *#2 `(4*2& ) /0 +,1+5, 18 * 51. (1)'*5(%*%3(6 `(&(-(!"- ) : /*(,2 1# %&, 5'='#4 %1#43, 18 %&, #1-%&.,(%,-# +*-% 18 %&,Y,))*# '( #1% 3(,2 '# B*#(;-'% +5*0(: *#2 81- +*3-*(,# ) : 2,,9,2 %1 /, %&, L-(;-'%18 `*2&0*2,**: ., &*=, #1 '#()-'+%'1#*5 ,='2,#), 13%('2, B*#(;-'% 2-*9*6

A&, 5*); 18 (+*), +-,=,#%( 3( %1 9*;, *#0 )199,#%( 1# %&, (1)'15'#43'(%')501-',#%,2 (%32',( /*(,2 1# 5'%,-*-0 `,2',=*5 *#2 R*-50 `12,-# )1-+1-* .&1(,('@, (3-+*((,( 9*#0 %'9,( %&*% 18 %&, 7#)',#% )1-+1-* 9,#%'1#,2 */1=,6

3. Writing Systems

3.1 Origins and Development of Writing

A&, */'5'%0 %1 &*#25, +-'9*-0 21)39,#%( '# 9*#0 5*#43*4,( .-'!,# '# =*-'13(

.-'%'#4 (0(%,9( '( 1#, 18 %&, 83#2*9,#%*5 T+&'51514')*5E (;'55( '# &'(%1-')*5 *#2


27/43


FS

)19+*-*%'=, 5'#43'(%')(6 A&, 2,=,51+9,#% 18 .-'%'#4 (0(%,9( &*( /,,# 13%5'#,2'# =*-'13( '#%-123)%1-0 %,V%/11;( *#2 %&1-134&50 2,()-'/,2 '# ,#)0)51+,2')91#14-*+&( OJ,5/ !fI[: Y*#',5( Q-'4&% !ffIP6 "# .&*% 81551.( ., 1#50 .*#%

%1 +-,(,#% * (3))'#)% 2,()-'+%'1# 18 %&,'- 1-'4'# *#2 * (&1-% &'(%1-0 18 %&,'-2,=,51+9,#% 5,*2'#4 %1.*-2 %&, )3--,#%50 3(,2 5141(055*/') OM&'#,(,P: (055*/')OD*+*#,(,P: *5+&*(055*/') O"#2')P: */\*2 OW,/-,.: 7-*/')P *#2 83550 *5+&*/,%')(0(%,9( OJ-,,;: M0-'55') *#2 Z19*#P6 `1(% ()&15*-( )3--,#%50 (3/()-'/, %1 %&,+1504,#0 18 .-'%'#4: .'%& *% 5,*(% %&-,, 2'%,-,#% 4,14-*+&') *-,*(< `,(1+1%*9'*O'#)532'#4 R40+% *#2 R5*9P: M&'#* *#2 `,(1>79,-')*6 "% )1352 /, %&*% "#2'*(&1352 /, *22,2 %1 %&'( 5'(%: +,#2'#4 83-%&,- +-14-,(( 1# %&, "#23( d*55,0-,)1-2( O2*%,2 */13% F^SS %#$P6

3.2 Ancient Near Eastern Writing Systems

A&, *++,*-*#), 18 %&, ,*-5',(% 21)39,#%( 18 5'%,-*)0 )1'#)'2,( .'%& %&, 2,=,5>1+9,#% 18 %&, ,*-5',(% )'%0 (%*%,( '# `,(1+1%*9'* .&,# %&, #,,2 %1 ;,,+ %&,%-*); 18 =*-'13( ,)1#19') %-*#(*)%'1#( /,)*9, #,),((*-06 A&3( %&, ,*-5',(%21)39,#%( 18 5'%,-*)0 *-, *5(1 21)39,#%( 18 #39,-*)0 8,*%3-'#4 * #39/,- 18=*-'13( %1;,#( 81- #39,-')*5 3#'%( )19/'#,2 .'%& +')%14-*9( 81- )13#%,21/\,)%( O91(% 1#,# *#'9*5(P6 A&'( +-'9'%'=, )12, .*( ,V+*#2,2 /0 %&, +-'#)'+5,18 (,9*#%') %-*#(8,-,#), .&,-,/0 %&, +')%14-*9( 18 )1#)-,%, 1/\,)%( (%*-%,2

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

#*9, 18 %&, (,*>91#(%,- A'*9*% .*( (+,55,2 /0 %.1 51414-*9( A" *#2 7`7A OA".*( #1. %*;,# *( * (055*/14-*9 *#2 7`7A .*( (%'55 -,)14#'@*/50 %&, +')%14-*918 %&, .1-2 &:,/ T8,9*5, (5*=,E '# %&, )1#(%-3)% (%*%,P6 O7# R#45'(& +*-*55,5 .1352

/, %1 (+,55 %&, .1-2 T/,5',8E /0 %.1 +')%14-*9( 18 %&, '#(,)% T/,,E *#2 T5,*8E6PQ*/051#'*#( *#2 7((0-'*#( *21+%,2 %&, B39,-'*# )3#,'81-9 (0(%,9 18 .-'%'#4;,,+'#4 %&, 152 B39,-'*# 51414-*9( /3% *5(1 3(,2 %&,9 *( (055*/14-*9( OdM:Md *#2 MdMP .'%& %&, +&1#,%') =*53,( 18 %&,'- 1.# B,9'%') 5*#43*4,<

O!P B39,-'*# 51414-*9 7;;*2'*# (055*/14-*9 c`OcP T91%&,-E 39 7h T412E *#


28/43


F!

7J7 T9*;,E *;: *4: *X ]7 T913%&E ;* h7J T2-'#;E #*;: #*4: #*X

7% %&'( +1'#% ., )*# 9,#%'1# %&, (055*/O14-*+&P') .-'%'#4 (0(%,9 3(,2 81-`0),#*,*# J-,,;: (1>)*55,2 K'#,*- Q ()-'+%: 3(,2 1# )5*0 %*/5,%( '# M-,%,O]#1((1(: M&*#'*P *#2 9*'#5*#2 J-,,), OL051(: `0),#*,: A'-0#(: A&,/,(P

/,%.,,# %&, 813-%,,#%& *#2 %.,5#& ),#%3-06 A&'( ()-'+% )1#('(%,2 18 */13%fS (055*/') (09/15( (15,50 18 %&, Md (%-3)%3-, O*#2 */13% * !SS )19912'%0 ('4#(3(,2 .'%& #39,-*5(P6 ?'=, =1.,5( .,-, 2'(%'#43'(&,2 O2&C 2#C 2+C 29C 2/\ ;&C ;#C ;+C;9C ;/\ ,%)6PN )1#(1#*#% )53(%,-( .,-, (+,55,2 /0 3('#4 %.1 ('4#(: ,*)& .'%& %&,=1.,5 18 %&, 81551.'#4 (055*/5,N !#*5 )1#(1#*#%( .,-, 3(3*550 19'!,2N *#25'X3'2(: #*(*5( *#2 ( .,-, 3(3*550 19'!,2 *% %&, ,#2 18 %&, (055*/5,<

OFP KQ (055*/O14-*+&P') ()-'+% %'>-'>+1>2, e%-'+12,e m ,-./012 T%.1 %-'+12(E %3>;*>%, e%&34*%3-e m 4567,8- T2*34&%,-E +*>%, e+*#%,(e m /79,2: T*55E +*>;*>#* e+&*(4*#*e m ;7%'*# *5+&*/,% )1#('(%'#4 18 F_ )1#(1#*#%*5 +&1#14-*9(6 C&'5, %&, R40+%'*#(#,=,- */*#21#,2 %&,'- 51414-*+&') &',-1450+&') (0(%,9 *#2 3(,2 %&, +&1#,%')O(055*/14-*+&')P *5+&*/,% */1=, *55 81- .-'%'#4 +-1+,- #*9,(: %&, C,(% B,9'%,((%*-%,2 3('#4 %&, +&1#14-*+&') )1#(1#*#%*5 (0(%,9 )1#('(%,#%506 A&, 5,((>;#1.# c4*-'%') *5+&*/,% O813-%,,#%& ),#%3-0P '( /*(,2 1# )3#,'81-9 (09/15(N%&, L&1,#')'*# *5+&*/,% O,5,=,#%& ),#%3-0P '( /*(,2 1# +')%14-*9(6 A&3( %&,+')%14-*9 18 T/355E( &,*2E /,)*9, %&, +&1#14-*9 18 %&, 451!*5 (%1+ n§o /,)*3(,%&, !-(% (13#2 '# %&, .1-2 81- T/355E '# L&1,#')'*# .*( n§oN ('9'5*-50: %&, +')%1>

4-*9 18 T&13(,E /,)*9, %&, +&1#14-*9 18 n/o /,)*3(, %&,!

-(% (13#2 '# %&,.1-2 81- T&13(,E '# L&1,#')'*# .*( n/oN ,%)6 A1 .-'%, %&, %&,1#09 Q* *5 TQ**5E '%(3$ ),2 %1 .-'%, Q¨K O%&, +&1#14-*9 ¨ .*( /*(,2 1# %&, +')%14-*9 18 *# T,0,:E¨ &A' '# L&1,#')'*#: *#2 K .*( /*(,2 1# %&, +')%14-*9 18 T%&, -12 18 %&, %,*)&,-EO+-1/6PP6 A&, 7-*/') %,-9 &1@&2 &*( #1.*2*0( /,,# *21+%,2 '# %&, 9,*#'#4 18 *(055*/O14-*+&P') (0(%,9 .&')& 21,( #1% '#2')*%, =1.,5(6

3.3 East and South Asian Writing Systems

"# M&'#* %&, ,*-50 .-'%'#4 *-1(, '# %&, (,)1#2 &*58 18 %&, (,)1#2 9'55,##'39%#$

O23-'#4 %&, B&*#4 1- b'# 20#*(%0 '# h1-%&>M,#%-*5 M&'#*P6 "% )19,( '# %&, 81-9


29/43


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18 '#()-'/,2 1V ()*+35*( *#2 %3-%5, +5*(%-1#( -,)1-2'#4 -10*5 2'='#*%'1# +,->81-9,2 *% %&, B&*#4 )13-% O&,#), %&, 5*/,5 T1-*)5, /1#, '#()-'+%'1#(EP6 A&, )1#>%,9+1-*-0 M&'#,(, 51414-*9( *-, 2'-,)%50 2,(),#2,2 8-19 %&, B&*#4 )&*-*)%,-(6

B19, 18 %&,9 *-, -,)14#'@*/5, *( +')%14-*9(: ,646 %&, 51414-*9 81- T911#:91#%&E '( * +')%3-, 18 * )-,(),#% 911#N %&, 51414-*9 81- T.19*#E '( * (%05'@,2+')%3-, 18 * ;#,,5'#4 .19*#N ,%)6 7( '# `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

M&'#,(, 51414-*9( .,-, )12'!,2 *% %&, ,#2 18 %&, !-(% ),#%3-0 #$ '# p> B&q#E( %"/( GO' @+) R_ TRV+5*#*%'1# 18 ('9+5, *#2 )19+13#2 4-*+&(E O)1#%*'#'#4f:[_[ )&*-*)%,-(P6 A&,'- #39/,- .,#% 3+ 23-'#4 %&, 81551.'#4 ),#%3-',( %1)&6 IS SSS '# %&, -,),#% 2')%'1#*-0 18 ('#45, 4-*+&( +3/5'(&,2 /,%.,,# !fHI *#2!ffS6 J'=,# %&, 1+,#>,#2,2#,(( 18 %&, 5,V')1# %&, #39/,- 18 ('#14-*9( &*( %14-1.6 h,=,-%&,5,((: %&, 2,-'=*%'1#*5 +-1),(( 18 )19+13#2'#4 5'9'%( %&, #39>

/,- 18 /*(') )&*-*)%,-(N %&3( %&, #39/,- 18 /*(') ('#14-*9( '# 2*'50 3(, '( 93)&

(9*55,- %&*# %&,'- %1%*5 #39/,- 813#2 '# )5*((')*5 5'%,-*%3-,6 `*'- O!ffI< FSSP+-1='2,( '#%,-,(%'#4 (%*%'(%')( /*(,2 1# * =*-',%0 18 -,*2'#4 9*%,-'*5(< !:SSS('#14-*9( *))13#% 81- */13% fS +,-),#% 18 *55 1))3--,#),( *#2 F:^SS )1=,-ff +,-),#% OI:ISS )1=,- ff6fff +,-),#%P6 A&, -*#4, 81- 91(% '#2'='23*5( '(*++-1V'9*%,50 /,%.,,# F:SSSiF:_SS )&*-*)%,-(6 J'=,# %&, %0+1514')*5 ,X3*%'1#.1-2m91-+&,9,m(055*/5, '% '( +1(('/5, %1 2,()-'/, %&, `12,-# M&'#,(, .-'%'#4(0(%,9 *( * 5*-4, O/3% +&1#,%')*550 '9+-,)'(,P (055*/*-0 .'%& T+')%14-*+&')EO*#2 T'2,14-*+&')EP )19+1#,#% '#&,-'%,2 8-19 R*-50 M&'#,(, .-'%'#4 (%'55 =,-093)& +-,(,#% '# ),-%*'# 219*'#(6

D*+*#,(, '( .-'!,# '# * 9'V%3-, 18 %&-,, ()-'+%(< * 5141e91-+&14-*+&')()-'+% O;&'@+P *#2 %.1 (055*/*-',( O"+*&.&'& *#2 ;&,&;&'&P6 ]*#\' )&*-*)%,-( .,-,'#%-123),2 8-19 M&'#* /0 .*0 18 ]1-,* O*-13#2 %&, %&'-2 ),#%3-0 #$P6 7( '( %&,)*(, 18 ('#14-*9( %&, (*9, )&*-*)%,- 9*0 /, +150+&1#') .'%& 9'>-,*2'#4(O/*(,2 1# %&, +-1#3#)'*%'1# '# M&'#,(,P *#2 ;/'>-,*2'#4( -,+-,(,#%'#4 *

D*+*#,(, 91-+&,9,6 ?1- '#(%*#),: %&, 51414-*9 81- T+,-(1#E O*O' '# `*#2*-'#P)*# /, -,*2 @+' 1- '+' O9'>-,*2'#4(P 1- "+,9 O;/'>-,*2'#4P6 A&, (*9, %0+, 18+150+&1#0 1/%*'#,2 '# 7;;*2'*# .&,-, %&, (39,-14-*9 81- T9*#E )1352 /,-,*2 8/ OB39,-'*#P 1- &G`8/: T9*#E OQ*/051#'*#P6 "# D*+*#,(, ;*#\' )&*-*)%,-(*-, 3(,2 %1 -,+-,(,#% +-'9*-0 5,V')*5 )*%,41-',( O#13#(: =,-/(: *2\,)%'=,( *#2

(19, *2=,-/(P6 A&, %.1 (055*/*-',( O2,-'=,2 23-'#4 %&, #'#%& ),#%3-0 8-19


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;&'@+P *-, +&1#14-*+&') -,+-,(,#%'#4 OMPd *#2 M0d )19/'#*%'1#( O;& : ;+ : ;/ : ;# :;9N ;A& : ;A/ : ;A9N .& : .+ : 6 6 6P6 M1#%,9+1-*-0 &'-*4*#* OT;&'& .'%&13% *#45,(EP '(3(,2 %1 .-'%, 4-*99*%')*5 ,5,9,#%( O'#",)%'1#*5 *$ V,( 1# #13#(: *2\,)%'=,(:

=,-/( *#2 +*-%')5,(P6 ]*%*;*#* '( 3(,2 %1 .-'%, 81-,'4# #*9,( *#2 51*#.1-2(:*#2 *5(1 (19, 1#19*%1+1,') .1-2(6 A&, 1-2,- 18 5,!,-( '# 912,-# 2')%'1#*-',('( /*(,2 1# "#2') ()-'+%(< !-(% =1.,5( O& : + : / : # : 9P %&,# +51('=,( 81551.,2 /0(1#1-*#%( O A>: *J : G>P6

K&';/8 : %&, #*%'=, ]1-,*# ()-'+%: '( * +&1#,9')*550 /*(,2 *5+&*/,% +1((,((>'#4 %&, 2'(%'#)%'1# 18 /,'#4 1#, 18 %&, T91(% ()',#%'!)*550 2,('4#,2 *#2 ,$ )',#%()-'+%( '# %&, .1-52E O]'#4 !ffI< F!fP6 "% .*( '#=,#%,2 /0 %&, ]'#4 B,0)1#4 '#%&, !#,,#%& ),#%3-0 *( * -,(35% 18 5'#43'(%')*550 '#81-9,2 +5*##'#46 791#4%&, #39,-13( %&,1-',( 18 %&, 1-'4'# 18 '%( 5,!,- (&*+,(: %&*% /*(,2 1# * 4-*+&')-,+-,(,#%*%'1# 18 %&, (+,,)& 1-4*#( '#=15=,2 '# %&, *-%')35*%'1# O18 =,5*- ; :*5=,15*- ' : 2,#%*5 ( : /'5*/'*5 : *#2 451!*5 i'.P '( 91(% )1#='#)'#46

"#2') ()-'+%( )*# /, 2,()-'/,2 *( *5+&*(055*/*-0 '# .&')& ,*)&>)1#(1#*#%=1.,5 (,X3,#), '( .-'!,# *( * 3#'% O)*55,2 &;( * &*& T(055*/5,E '# B*#(;-'%P *#2 %&,=1.,5 (09/15 83#)%'1#( *( * 2'*)-'%') %1 %&, )1#(1#*#%6 Y*#',5( *#2 Q-'4&%O!ffI< ^P 5*/,5,2 %&'( %0+, 18 *# '#%,-9,2'*%, (0(%,9 /,%.,,# %&, (055*/*-0 *#2* 8355 *5+&*/,% /0 *# R%&'1+'*# .1-2 &1/.+2& O/*(,2 1# %&, !-(% 813- )1#(1#*#%(*#2 %&, !-(% 813- =1.,5( 18 %&, J,,@ (0(%,9P6 =#M&'+ .&*$ OT* 2'='#, h*4*-'EP '(%&, /,(%>;#1.# "#2') ()-'+% 3(,2 81- B*#(;-'% O/11;( +-'#%,2 '# 912,-# %'9,(P:W'#2': h,+*5' *#2 `*-*%&'6 "% 2,-'=,( 8-19 %&, Q-*&9' ()-'+% 18 %&, 7(&1;*#

'#()-'+%'1#( O%&, 9'225, 18 %&, %&'-2 ),#%3-0 %#$P6 Q-*&9' ()-'+% .*( ,V+1-%,2 %11%&,- +*-%( 18 7('* *#2 /,)*9, %&, (13-), 18 *55 %&, 219,(%') ()-'+%( 18 "#2'*:B13%&,*(% 7('*# ()-'+%( OQ3-9,(,: A&*': K*1: ]&9,-P *#2 A'/,%*#6 A&,-, *-, %.1%&,1-',( 18 '%( 1-'4'#< %&, B,9'%') %&,1-0 (,,( * B,9'%') +-1%1%0+, OL&1,#')'*# 1-7-*9*')P '# */13% &*58 18 '%( )&*-*)%,-(: .&'5, %&, '#2'4,#13( %&,1-0 +'#+1'#%(%&, ('9'5*-'%',( .'%& %&, "#23( d*55,0 ()-'+%6 W1.,=,-: '% (&1352 /, 9,#%'1#,2%&*% %&, 7-*9*') 1-'4'# 18 * (19,.&*% 152,- ]&*-1!"& ) ()-'+% O2,=,51+,2 '# %&,#1-%&.,(% '# %&, 813-%& ),#%3-0 %#$P '( #1% '# 213/%6 A&, %-*2'%'1#*5 1-2,- 185,!,-( '# "#2') ()-'+%( '( /*(,2 1# *-%')35*%1-0 +&1#,%')( 2,=,51+,2 51#4 %'9,*41 /0 %&, *#)',#% +3#2'%(6 7#,- %&, /*(') =1.,5( O& : + : + : $ : / : ?P: (055*/') 5'X3'2(O$ ! % #$% & P *#2 2'+&%&1#4( O&+ r , : &/ r( : ++ r &+ : +/ r &/P )19, +51('=,( 1-4*#'@,2 /0 %&,'- +5*), O=,5*-: +*5*%*5: -,%-1",V: 2,#%*5 *#2 5*/'*5P *#2 9*##,- 18 *-%')3>5*%'1# O+5*'#: *(+'-*%,2P: *#2 =1'),N (1#1-*#%( O A : * : 8P: *#2 8-')*%'=,( OM : - : ! : ( : "P*-, +5*),2 *% %&, ,#26

3.4 Middle Eastern Writing Systems—Abjads

A&, 152,(% W,/-,. ()-'+% .*( /1--1.,2 8-19 %&, L&1,#')'*#( O(,, (,)%'1# [6!P

*#2 '% (3-='=,2 '# '%( 1-'4'#*5 (&*+, *91#4 %&, B*9*-'%*#( 3#%'5 -,),#% %'9,(6


31/43


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#$% '%() *+,-.%+ * )/0*1% 2*13*4. ,5 .$% 67-%13*8 91*7*3: ):13-. ;< .$% 73+

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:,4),4*4.)A (*) ).13:.8< :,4),4*4.*8E @%;1%( *4+ 91*7*3: ):13;%) +%2%8,-%+* (*< ,5 1%-1%)%4.34> 8,4> $3>$ =*4+ 8*.%1 73+A 2,(%8) ;< 7%*4) ,5 2%8*1 *4+

-*8*.*8 >83+%)E :*88%+ !"#$%& '%(#)*+)& F7,.$%1) ,5 1%*+34>GH C 5,1 I?J *4+ I@JE *4+K 5,1 I )J *4+ I3JB L,1 34).*4:%E ,(' F2,3:%EG ,.! F., ).*4+EG #, !++ F),0.$G *4+ $$ - F.,/0*11%8G *1% )-%88%+ *) 5,88,()H !"#!$"#!%&'(!)'*B M,4> I(J *. .$% %4+ ,5 .$% (,1+(*) 34+3:*.%+ ;< @ =>8,!*8 513:*.32%A 34 .$% :*)% ,5 5%73434% 4,04) %4+34> 34 .+/ ,1 ;< § =>8,!*8 ).,-J (3.$ 4,04) *4+ 2%1;) 34 .+§ B L,1 34).*4:%E !"'0.+/ F/0%%4EG#+§ F:$*7;%1G *4+ -+§ F$% %4.%1%+G *1% )-%88%+ *) 5,88,()H +,!&!- (!-)#

#$% #3;%13*+ ) )$,1. 2,(%8) =342%4.%+ ("B OPP "# 34

#3;%13*)A 3) 0)%+ 34 -134.%+ ;3;83:*8 .%Q.)B 6. 1%-1%)%4.) R! 2,(%8) ;< 7%*4) ,5

)0;834%*1 *4+ 3451*834%*1 -,34.) *4+ ).1,N%) 34 :,7;34*.3,4 (3.$ .$% %*183%1

) 8,4> 2,(%8) ;< >83+%) *4+ .$%1% 3) * )-%:3*8 )

=1,04+%+A I*S$JB

T01)32% +%2%8,-7%4.) ,5 .$% 91*7*3: *;U*+ 1%)08.%+ 34 .$% ?*4+*3: *4+

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32/43


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#$ &'()#* +('#,-. /#(*'#0#*. 1(/ 0, )2 #$0',/-*2/3 42'.#($ (//2/ 5,-' 62!2'. 0,012 &'()#* .7.0283 9, .:266 :(6(0(6. 1 ! # ($/ 012 +,#*262.. )#6()#(6 .0,: $ 01'22/,0. ;2'2 -.2/ &'()#* %! ! & ($/ '3 912 +,#*2/ +26(' .0,: ;(.

.:2662/ ;#01 ( ;#01 ( .0',?2 (//2/ 10 (),-0 ( 0'($.#0#,$ 5',8($ ()O(/ .7.028 *,$.#.0#$> ,5 *,$.,$($0. ,$67 0, ( 5-667 (6:1()20#* .7.028

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4. Corpora

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4.3 Hebrew and Aramaic Literary and Inscriptional Corpora

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HDL Historical Linguistics- The Continuum