Health Science 2: Unit 2

Reminders…Anatomy-study of the form and structurePhysiology-why and how they workPathophysiology- study of how disease occurs

and the responses of living organisms to the disease process.

Cells…Cell membraneCytoplasm

(organelles)NucleusChromatin (genes,

genomes)Centrosome

MitochondriaGolgi apparatusEndoplasmic

reticulum VacuolesLysosomesPinocytic vesicles

Cell Reproduction…Mitosis

ProphaseMetaphaseAnaphaseTelophase

Tissue…When cells of the same type join together to

form a common purposeEpitheleal (skin, glands, mucus membranes)Connective (adipose, cartilage, blood, etc.)Nerve (neurons)Muscle (skeletal, cardiac, visceral/smooth)

Tissues60-99% water and various dissolved

substances

Dehydration…not enough

Edema…too much (swelling)

Organs and SystemsIntegumentarySkeletalMuscularNervousSpecial sensesCirculatory

LymphaticRespiratoryDigestiveUrinaryEndocrineReproductive

Two or more tissues joined together to perform a specific function (Organ)

Organs and other body parts joined together to perform a particular function (System)

Atoms/Ions>Molecules>Organelles>Cells> Tissues>Organs>Organ

Systems>Organism

Body PlanesTransverse planeSuperiorInferiorCranialCaudalMidsagittal plane,

medianFrontal/coronal

plane

VentralAnteriorDorsalPosteriorProximaldistal

Planes

CavitiesDorsalCranialSpinalVentralThoracicAbdominalPelvicOrbitalNasalBuccal

RegionsRUQLUQLLQRLQ(abdominal regions)

Abdominal Regions

Integumentary SystemSkin

Functions…protection, sensory, temperature regulation,storage,absorption,excretion,production(vit D)

Pigmentation…basic color (melanin by melanocytes)

ColoringAlbino…absence of pigmentsErythema…reddish (burns or congestion of

blood vessels)Jaundice…(yellowing, bile in blood due to

liver or gallbladder problemsCyanosis…bluish (insufficient oxygen)

Skin EruptionsMacules, flat spotsPapules, pimplesVesicles, chickenpox (fluid-filled)Pustules, acneCrusts, scabsWheals, itchy elevated (hives, insect bites)Ulcer, deep loss of skin tissue

Diseases/Abnormal ConditionsAcne Vulgaris…inflammation of sebaceous glands Cause: unknown, but probably hormonal Sx: papules, pustules, blackheads Tx: Vit A ointments, antibiotics, UV light

Athlete’s Foot•Fungal infection•Contagious•Sx: Skin itches, blisters, cracks•Tx: Anti-fungal, keep clean and dry

Skin Cancer•Basal Cell•Squamous Cell•Melanoma

Melanoma

Malignant Melanoma

DermatitisInflammation of the skinUsually an allergic

reaction to plants or detergents

Sx: dry skin, erythema, itching, edema, macular-papular rashes, scaling

Tx: eliminate the cause, anti-inflammotory oint, anti-histamines, steriods

EczemaNoncontagiousInflammatoryUsually caused by

allergen or irritantSx: dryness,

erythema, itching, vesicles, crusts, scaling.

Tx: remove the cause, corticosteriods

ImpetigoHighly contagiousCaused by

streptococci or staphylococci organisms

Sx: erythema, oozing, vesicles, pustules, yellow crust

Tx: wash with soap and water and kept dry, antibiotics

PsoriasisChronicNoncontagiousExacerbations/

remissionPossibly hereditarySx: thick red areas

covered with silver scales

Tx: coal/tar or cortisone, UV light, scale removal

Ringworm•Tineas•Highly contagious•Fungal•Sx: circular, itchy, red raised•Tx: anti-fungal meds

Verrucae•Warts•Cause by viral infection of the skin•Example: plantar warts•Sx: rough, hard, elevated•Tx: removed by electricity, liquid nitogen, acid, chemicals, or laser

CareersDermatologistAllergistPlastic Surgeon

Skeletal SystemBones206Functions:1.Framework2.Protection3.Levers4.Production of blood cells

(hemopoesis/hematopoesis)5.Storage (Ca, Phosporus, fats)

Careers Athletic TrainerChiropractorOrthopedistOrthoptistOsteophathic

physicianPhysiatrist

Radiologic Technologist

Sports Medicine Physician

PTPodiatristProsthetist

Diseases and Abnormal Conditions

Bursitis-sacs surrounding the joints

Arthritis1.Osteoarthritis2.Rheumatoid- 3 times

more common in women, usually between 35 to 45 y/o age

Rheumatoid Arthritis

FracturesGreenstick – bent, split, incomplete, common in children

FracturesSimple or closed

– Skin is not

broken

FracturesCompound or open- skin is broken, increased

risk of infectionImpacted – broken bone ends jam togetherComminuted – crushing, splintersSpiral – twisting of the bone, common in

skiing and skatingDepressed – pressed in, as in head injuries

(skull)Colles – break at distal end of radius,

catching oneself with forearm

Comminuted Fracture

Spiral Fracture

Colle’s Fracture

TreatmentsClosed Reduction-Positioning the bone in

correct alignment using traction, a cast, a splint

Open Reduction- surgical repair, pins, plates

Other DisordersDislocation – bone is forcibly displaced from a

joint, shoulders, fingers, knees, hipsSprain- tearing of ligaments at a joint, wrists

and ankles common, tx is RICEOsteomyelitisOsteoporosis – softening due to estrogen or

calcium defiency and sedentary lifestyle, tx is Fosamax and Citracal

CareersAthletic trainerChiropractorDoctor of

osteopathic medicineMassage therapistMyologistNeurologistOrthopedistPhysiatrist

PTPodiatristProsthetistRheumatologistSports medicine

physician

Ruptured DiskHerniated or slipped

discTx is laminectomy is

severe cases

Review Study handout given with muscle movements

and muscle locations

10 most important words (foldable)

Vertebra

Muscular SystemOver 600 musclesBundles of muscles fibers held together by

connective tissueAll have certain properties:Excitability (respond to stimulus)1.Contractibility (become short and thick =

movement)2.Extensibility (stretched)3.Elasticity (back to original shape)

Three Main Kinds of MuscleCardiac (heart)Visceral (internal organs)Skeletal

Skeletal is voluntaryCardiac and visceral is involuntary

Skeletal Muscle FunctionAttach to bones for voluntary movement

Heat and energy

Posture

protection

TendonsConnect bone to

muscleThe end that

does not move is called the origin.

The end that moves is called the insertion.

MovementsAdductionAbductionFlexionExtensionRotationCircumduction

TermsMuscle tone- state of readiness to act (partial

contraction)

Atrophy – shrink in size, loss of strength (lack of use)

Contracture – severe tightening of a flexor resulting in bending of a joint (like foot drop)

Foot Drop

Tx for Foot Drop

Foot Drop Splint

Disease/Abnormal ConditionsFibromyalgia (widespread pain in specific

muscle sites)Stiffness, numbness, tingling in arms or legsFatigue, sleep disturbances, headaches,

depressionCause unknown, but stress, weather, and

lack of physical fitnessTx: PT, massage, stress reduction, exercise

Muscular DystrophyGroup of inherited diseases that lead to

chronic, progressive muscle atrophy.Usually appears in early childhoodTotal disability and early deathDuchenne MD is most common (genetic

defect)1. Shows up by age 2 to 5 y/o age2. Wheelchair by age 9 to 123. Life expectancy late teens, early 20’s

Myasthenia GravisChronic condition, nerve impulses are not

transmitted properly.Leads to progressive muscle weakness and

paralysis.Respiratory muscles = fatal.Thought to be autoimmuneNo cure, only supportive

Muscle SpasmCrampsSudden, painful, involuntary contractionsUsually legs or feetMaybe result from overexertion, low

electrolyte levels, poor circulationUsually gentle pressure to relieve

StrainOverstretching or injury to muscle and/or

tendonMyalgiaSwellingLimited movementTx: rest, relaxants, pain meds, elevation,

hot/cold apps

Nervous SystemHighly complex

Enables the body to respond and adapt to changes internally and externally

Basic structural unit is the neuron, or nerve cell

NeuronDendrites, carry

impulses toward the cell body

Axon, carries impulses away from the cell body

Myelin Sheath, lipid covering (fat)

Synapses, spaces between

2 Main Divisions Central Nervous System- brain and spinal

cord (CNS)

Peripheral Nervous System- nerves (PNS)1. Somatic nervous system, carries messages

between the CNS and the body2. Autonomic nervous system- contains the

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, control involuntary functions

Central Nervous System, BrainBrain, mass of nervous

tissue protected by the skull

Parts1. Cerebrum2. Cerebellum3. Diencephalon4. Thalamus5. Hypothalamus6. Midbrain7. Pons8. Medulla

CNS, Spinal CordFrom medulla oblongata

to the first or second lumbar vertebrae

Surrounded by vertebrae

Afferent messages, to the brain

Efferent messages, from the brain to the nerves

Meninges, 3, cover and protect the brain

MeningesDura mater, thick,

tough, outer layerArachnoid membrane,

middle layer, weblike, thin, delicate

Pia mater, closely attached to the brain and spinal cord, contains blood vessels to nourish the nerves

Ventricles (still CNS)Four ventriclesContain cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)Shock absorber for protectionCarries nutrientsRemoves metabolic products and wastesProduced by choroid plexusesAfter circulating throughout the

subarachnoid spaces, it is absorbed through the dura mater and returned to the bloodstream through arachnoid villi.

Peripheral Nervous SystemSomatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems.Somatic:

1. 12 pairs of cranial nerves and their branches2. 31 pairs of spinal nerves and their branches

Autonomic:1. Sympathetic (fight or flight) ^ HR, BP, R,

decreases GI2. Parasympathetic (opposite)

Diseases and Abnormal ConditionsCarpal Tunnel

SyndromeMedian nerve

compressionTx:

antiinflammatories, splinting, surgery

Cerebral PalsyDisturbance in

involuntary muscle action

Caused by brain damage

Sx: exagerated reflexes, tense muscles, contractures

Tx: muscle relaxants, braces

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)Brain attack, stroke,

apoplexyBlood flow to brain

is impairedLack of oxygenDestruction of brain

tissueTx: TPA, directed

toward sx

EncephalitisInflammation of the

__________.Caused by a virus,

bacterium, chemical agent, or as a complication of measles, chicken pox, or mumps.

Mosquito bite

Sx: lethargy, extreme weakness, visual disturb., h/a, vomiting, stiff neck and back.

Tx: fluid, electrolytes, supportive

EpilepsySeizure syndromeAbnormal electrical

impulses in the neurons of the brain

Petit malGrand malSome have an aura

Types of Seizures

Generalized Seizures(Produced by the entire brain)

Symptoms

1. "Grand Mal" or Generalized tonic-clonic

Unconsciousness, convulsions, muscle rigidity

2. Absence Brief loss of consciousness

3. MyoclonicSporadic (isolated), jerking movements

4. Clonic Repetitive, jerking movements5. Tonic Muscle stiffness, rigidity6. Atonic Loss of muscle tone

HydrocephalusExcessive

accumulation of CSF in the ventricles and/or subarachnoid space

Usually congenitalAbnormally large

head with a prominent forehead, bulging eyes, irritability

Tx: shunt

MenengitisInflammation of the

meninges of the brain and/or spinal cord

Cause is bacteria, virus, fungus, or toxin

Sx: high fever, h/a, back and neck stiffness, n/v, delirium, convulsions, coma, death.

Multiple SclerosisChronic, progressive, disablingDegeneration of myelin sheath in CNSAges 20-40 usuallySx: diplopia (double vision), weakness,

fatique, poor coordination, tingling, numbness

Neuralgia_______ ________.

ParalysisUsually due to brain or spinal cord injuryHemiplegia, _____________.Paraplegia, ______________.Quadriplegia, ______________.No cure.PT, OT are sometimes helpful.

Parkinson’s DiseaseChronicDegeneration of brain cellsUsually of 50 y/o ageTremors, stiffness, rigidity, forward leaning

position, shuffling gait, difficulty in stopping, mood swings

No cureLevodopaSurgery, PT

ShinglesHerpes zoster, same

cause of chicken poxAcute inflammation

of nerve cells Usually thoracic

region, unilaterallyFluid filled vesciclesSevere pain, redness,

itching, abnormal skin sensations

Special SensesEyeEars

Tongue and sense of tasteNose and sense of smell

Skin and general senses

EyesSightReceives light rays and

transmits impulses from the rays to the optic nerve, and sent to brain

Lacrimal glands…tearsConjuctiva, lines the

eyelids and covers the front of the eye, protects and lubricates

Layers to the EyeSclera: tough c.t., white part of the eye, helps

with shape of the eye. Also muscles attached to sclera.

Cornea: circular, transparent part of the front of the sclera.

Choroid coat: many blood vesselsRetina: nerve cells (cones, rods), cones

interpret colors in light, and rods are for dim vision, grays and blacks

Other parts of the eye…Iris: colored part of the eyePupil: the opening in the center of the iris.Lens: circular, located behind the pupil and

suspended by ligaments. It refracts light so that it focuses on the retina.

Aqueous humor: clear fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris…helps to maintain forward curvature of the eyeball and refracts light.

Vitreous humor: jelly-like fills area behind the lens

Summary of vision…Light rays enter the eye, and pass through a

series of parts…Cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous

humor.In the retina, the light rays (image) picked up

by the rods and cones, changed into nerve impulses, and transmitted to the brain by optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain.

Diseases/Disorders of the EyeAmblyopia- “lazy eye”Astigmatism- blurred

vision d/t abnormal curvature of cornea

Cataract-cloudy lensConjunctivitis- pink

eye, contagiousGlaucoma-increased

intraocular pressure d/t high amt of aqueous h.

Hyperopia- farsightedness

Macular Degeneration-disease of the macula, center of the retina, blindness

Myopia-nearsightednessPresbyopia-

farsightedness d/t agingStrabismus- crossed

eyes

EarsPinna or auricle- outer part that is visibleAuditory canal- cerumen/earwax by glandsTympanic membrane- eardrum, separates outer

from middle(vibrates when sound waves hit it)Middle ear- in temporal bone, contains 3 small

bones called ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), transmit sound waves to the inner ear

Eustachian tube- connects middle ear to throatWho discovered this tube?

Eustachian Tube…Bartolomeo Eustachi

1500-1574

Italian

Ear Terms (continued)…Oval window – separates the middle ear from

the innerInner ear:1.Vestibule - entrance2.Cochlea – shaped like a snail’s shell3.Organ of Corti – receptor of sound waves,

sends to the auditory nerve to temporal lobe to cerebrum

4.Semicircular canals – have a liquid, balance, equilibrium

Diseases/AbnormalitiesHearing Loss Conductive or sensoryConductive – sound waves not conducted to

inner earSensory – damage to inner ear or auditory n.

Meniere’s DiseaseCollection of fluid in inner earVertigo (dizziness)Tinnitus (ringing in the ears)N/VBalance problemsFall tendenciesUsually meds can help

Otitis ExternaInflammation of the external auditory canalSwimmer’s earantibiotics

Otitis MediaInfection of the middle earSore throatCommon in childrenMyringotomy is sometimes the txEar tubes

OtosclerosisStapes becomes immobile, causing

conductive hearing loss.GradualTinnitusVertigoCan replace with artificial stapes.

Other sensory organsTongue

Nose- olfactory sense. More than 6,000 different smells

Skin - receptors

Skin Receptors

Tastebuds