Heat and Thermo

7/29/2019 Heat and Thermo

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Thermodynamics & Fluid Mechanics (Thermofluids

)

1-Thermodynamics Systems:Thermodynamics

Properties, pressure, temperature, thermodynamic equilibrium, work,

kinetic energy, potential energy, heat, internal energy.

2-First Law of Thermodynamics, Joules experiment, energy equationfor a non-flow process, energy equation for steady state flow process,application.

3-Ideal Gas:Characteristic equation of state, specific heats, relationship betweenspecific heats, reversible processes of ideal gas, constant volume,

constant pressure, isothermal adiabatic, polytropic for flow and non-

flow process.

4-Second Low of Thermodynamic &Energy:Heat engine coefficient of performance of heat pump, Kelvin-

planck and clausius statements of 2nd

law of thermodynamic, Camotscycle, Entropy.

5-Modes of heat transfer ( conduction, convention and radiation),Fouriers law of conduction, conduction through single & compositecylinders.

Heat Transfer

6-Steady-state unidirectional heat conductors with heat generation.7-Heat transfer through rectangle fin.8-Unsteady-state heat conduction in one and more dimensions.9-Convection:

Natural convention & forced convention.

10-Radiation:Law of black body radiation, radiation exchange between tow black

surfaces and tow grey surfaces, combined modes of heat transfer.

11-Hydro and Aerostatics:

Fluids Mechanics

Density and compressibility, viscosity, the concept of fluid presser,

hydrostatic pressure, aerostatics.

12-Fundamental of Hydrodynamics:

Steady and unsteady flows, streamlines, path lines, and equation of

continuity, Eulers equation, Bernoullis equation, theorem ofmomentum.


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ThermodynamicsDefinitions

Adiabatic process is a process during which there is no heat transfer. The word

adiabatic comes from the Greek wordadiabatos, which means not to be passed.

Air conditioners are refrigerators whose refrigerated space is a room or a building

instead of the food compartment.

Bar is the unit of pressure equal to 105

pascal.

Barometer is a device that measures the atmospheric pressure; thus, the atmospheric

pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.

Bernoulli equation is the result of the energy analysis for the reversible, steady-flow ofan incompressible liquid through a device that involves no work interactions (such as a

nozzle or a pipe section). For frictionless flow, it states that the sum of the pressure,

velocity, and potential energy heads is constant. It is also a form of the conservation ofmomentum principle for steady-flow control volumes.

Boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from combustiongases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant

pressure.

Boiling is the phase change process that occurs at the solidliquid interface when a liquidis brought into contact with a surface maintained at a temperature sufficiently above the

saturation temperature of the liquid.

Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its

surroundings. The boundary of a system can befixedormovable.

Boundary work(PdV work) is the work associated with the expansion or compression

of a gas in a piston-cylinder device. Boundary work is the area under the process curveon a P-V diagram equal, in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibriumexpansion or compression process of a closed system.

Bourdon tube, named after the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is a type of commonly

used mechanical pressure measurement device which consists of a hollow metal tube bentlike a hook whose end is closed and connected to a dial indicator needle.

British thermal unit BTU is the energy unit in the English system, representing theenergy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68F by 1F.


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Carnot cycle was first proposed in 1824 by French engineer Sadi Carnot. It is composed

of four reversible processestwo isothermal and two adiabatic, and can be executedeither in a closed or a steady-flow system.

Carnot efficiency is the highest efficiency a heat engine can have when operatingbetween the two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH;

th, rev = 1 - TL / TH

.

Carnot heat engine is the theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle.

Carnot principles are two conclusions that pertain to the thermal efficiency of reversible

and irreversible (i.e., actual) heat engines and are expressed as follows:

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of areversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.

2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two

reservoirs are the same.

Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale; in 1948 it was renamed after the

Swedish astronomer A. Celsius, 17011744, who devised it) is the temperature scale usedin the SI system. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points are assigned the values of

0 and 100 C, respectively.

Chemical energy is the internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule.

Classical thermodynamics is the macroscopic approach to the study of thermodynamicsthat does not require knowledge of the behavior of individual particles.

Clausius statement of the second law is expressed as follows: It is impossible to

construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transferof heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.

Closed system consists of a fixed amount of mass (control mass), and no mass can cross

its boundary. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary.

Coefficient of performance COP is the measure of performance of refrigerators and

heat pumps. It is expressed in terms of the desired result for each device (heat absorbedfrom the refrigerated space for the refrigerator or heat added to the hot space by the heat

pump) divided by the input, the energy expended to accomplish the energy transfer

(usually work input).

Compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in thecylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume. Notice that the compression ratio is avolume ratio and should not be confused with the pressure ratio


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Compressor is a device that increases the pressure of a gas to very high pressures

(typical pressure ratios are greater than 3).

Condenser is a heat exchanger in which the working fluid condenses as it rejects heat to

the surroundings. For example, in the condenser of a steam power plant steam leaving

the turbine as a vapor condenses to the saturated liquid state as the result of heat transferto a cooling medium such as the atmosphere or water from a lake or river.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to

the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction between particles.

Conservation of energy principle states that during an interaction, energy can change

from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energycannot be created or destroyed (see first law of thermodynamics).

Control surface is the boundary of a control volume, and it can be real or imaginary.

Control volume (also see open system) is any arbitrary region in space through which

mass and energy can pass across the boundary. Most control volumes have fixedboundaries and thus do not involve any moving boundaries. A control volume may alsoinvolve heat and work interactions just as a closed system, in addition to mass interaction.

Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluidthat is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.

Cycle is a process, or series of processes, that allows a system to undergo state changesand returns the system to the initial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the

initial and final states are identical.

Density is defined as mass per unit volume.

Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compress-ignition reciprocating engines, and was first

proposed by Rudolf Diesel in the 1890s. Using the air-standard assumptions, the cycle

consists of four internally reversible processes:1-2 Isentropic compression,

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition,3-4 Isentropic expansion,

4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.

Diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by decreasing the fluid velocity.

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of desired result for an event to the input required toaccomplish the event. Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms inthermodynamics and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is


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Electrical power is the rate of electrical work done as electrons in a wire move under the

effect of electromotive forces, doing work. It is the product of the potential difference

measured in volts and the current flow measured in amperes.

Electrical workis work done on a system as electrons in a wire move under the effect of

electromotive forces while crossing the system boundary.

Energy Balance is the net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system

during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and the totalenergy leaving the system during that process.

English system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS),

has the respective units the pound-mass (lbm), foot (ft), and second (s). The poundsymbol lb is actually the abbreviation of libra, which was the ancient Roman unit of

weight.

EnthalpyH(from the Greek wordenthalpien, which means to heat) is a property and is

defined as the sum of the internal energy Uand the PVproduct.

Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular randomness. is

a property designatedSand is defined as dS =(Q/T)int rev

.

Environment refers to the region beyond the immediate surroundings whose propertiesare not affected by the process at any point.

Equation of state is any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and specificvolume of a substance. Property relations that involve other properties of a substance at

equilibrium states are also referred to as equations of state.

Equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalancedpotentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no

changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.

First law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energyprinciple; it may be expressed as follows: Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; it

can only change forms. The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of thesystem during a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and

the total energy leaving the system during that process. The energy balance can be

written explicitly as

Ein -Eout =(Q in -Qout ) + (Win -Wout ) + (Emass, in-Emass, out ) = E

system

First law of thermodynamics for a closed system using the classical thermodynamicssign convention is


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where Q = Qnet, in = Qin - Qout is the net heat inputandW = Wnet, out = Wout - Win

is the net

work output. Obtaining a negative quantity for Q orWsimply means that the assumed

direction for that quantity is wrong and should be reversed.

Gage pressure is the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric

pressure.

Gas constant R is different for each gas and is determined fromR =Ru

/M.

Heat engines are devices designed for the purpose of converting other forms of energy

(usually in the form of heat) to work. Heat engines differ considerably from one another,but all can be characterized by the following:

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace,nuclear reactor, etc.).

2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).

3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere,rivers, etc.).

4. They operate on a cycle.

Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams exchange heat withoutmixing. Heat exchangers are widely used in various industries, and they come in various

designs. The simplest form of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (also called tube-and-

shell) heat exchanger composed of two concentric pipes of different diameters. One fluidflows in the inner pipe, and the other in the annular space between the two pipes. Heat is

transferred from the hot fluid to the cold one through the wall separating them.

Sometimes the inner tube makes a couple of turns inside the shell to increase the heattransfer area, and thus the rate of heat transfer.

Heat pump is a cyclic device which operates on the refrigeration cycle and dischargesenergy to a heated space to maintain the heated space at a high temperature. It is a cyclic

device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature region to a high-

temperature region.

Heat pump coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a heat pump, denoted byCOPHP, and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COP HP = QH/Wnet,in

.

Heat transfer (heat) is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two

systems (or a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Ideal gas is a gas that obeys the ideal-gas equation of state.

Ideal-gas equation of state (or ideal-gas relation) predicts the P-v-Tbehavior of a gasquite accurately within some properly selected region where Pv = RT


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Internal energy Uof a system is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

Internal energy change of an ideal gas is given as v v, av 2 1( ) ( )u C T dT C T T = .

Irreversible processes are processes which, once having taken place in a system, cannot

spontaneously reverse themselves and restore the system to its initial state.

Irreversibilities are the factors that cause a process to be irreversible. They include

friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two gases, heat transfer across a finitetemperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical

reactions.

Isentropic process is an internally reversible and adiabatic process. In such a process

the entropy remains constant.

Iso- prefix is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains

constant.

Isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant.

Isochoric process (isometric process) is a process during which the specific volume v

remains constant.

Isolated system is a closed system in whichenergy is not allowed to cross the boundary.

Isometric process (see isochoric process).

Isothermal process is a process in which the temperature is maintained constant.

Joule (J) is a unit of energy and has the unit newton-meter (Nm).

kelvin is the temperature unit of the Kelvin scale in the SI.

Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed as

follows: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a

single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. This statement can also be expressedas no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a power plant to

operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as the

furnace.

Kinetic energy KE is energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion relative tosome reference frame. When all parts of a system move with the same velocity, the

ki i i d KE V2/2


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Mach number, named after the Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (18381916), is the ratio

of the actual velocity of the fluid (or an object in still air) to the speed of sound in the

same fluid at the same state.

Manometer is a device based on the principle that an elevation change ofz of a fluid

corresponds to a pressure change ofP/ g, which suggests that a fluid column can be

used to measure pressure differences. The manometer is commonly used to measuresmall and moderate pressure differences.

Mass flow rate is the amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time.

Mechanical efficiency of a device or process is the ratio of the mechanical energy output

to the mechanical energy input.

Mechanical energy is the form of energy that can be converted to mechanical workcompletely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.

Newton (N), in SI, is the force unit defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1

kg at a rate of 1 m/s2

.

Open system is any arbitrary region in space through which mass and energy can passacross the boundary.

Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines. It is named afterNikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany using the

cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862. The ideal Otto cycle, which

closely resembles the actual operating conditions, utilizes the air-standard assumptions.

It consists of four internally reversible processes:1-2 Isentropic compression,

2-3 Constant volume heat addition,

3-4 Isentropic expansion,4-1 Constant volume heat rejection.

Pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure defined as newtons per square meter (N/m

2

).

Polytropic process is a process in which pressure and volume are often related by

PVn

= C, where n andCare constants, during expansion and compression processes ofreal gases.

Potential energy PE is the energy that a system possesses as a result of its elevation in a

gravitational field and is expressed as PE = mgz.

Power is the work done per unit timeis called and has the unit kJ/s, or kW.


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Pressure ratio is the ratio of final to initial pressures during a compression process.

Process is any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another. Todescribe a process completely, one should specify the initial and final states of the

process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the surroundings.

Pump is a steady flow device used to increase the pressure of a liquid while compressors

increase the pressure of gases.

Pure substance is a substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout.

Radiation is the transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic waves (or

photons).

Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does

not involve any internal irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes:1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump,

2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler,

3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine,4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser.

Refrigerant is the working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle.

Refrigerator is a cyclic device which causes the transfer of heat from a low-temperature

region to a high-temperature region. The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the

refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat from it.

Refrigerator coefficient of performance is the efficiency of a refrigerator, denoted by

COPR, and expressed as desired output divided by required input or COPR = QL/Wnet, in

.

Regeneration is the process of transferring energy with in a cycle from a working fluid

in a high temperature in part of the cycle to a lower temperature part of the cycle to

reduce the amount of external heat transfer required to drive the cycle.

Reversed Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle in which all four processes that comprise the

Carnot cycle are reversed during operation. Reversing the cycle will also reverse thedirections of any heat and work interactions. The result is a cycle that operates in the

counterclockwise direction. The reversed Carnot cycle is the Carnot refrigeration cycle.

Reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace

on the surroundings. Reversible processes are idealized processes, and they can be

approached but never reached in reality.

Second law of thermodynamics (increase of entropy principle) is expressed as the


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never decreases. It also asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity, and actual

processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of energy.

Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a

substance by one degree. In general, this energy will depend on how the process is

executed.

Specific heat at constant pressure Cp is the energy required to raise the temperature of

the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant. Cp is a

measure of the variation of enthalpy of a substance with temperature. Cp

can be defined

as the change in the enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constantpressure.

Specific heat at constant volume Cv is the energy required to raise the temperature of

the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. Cv is

related to the changes in internal energy. It would be more proper to define Cv

as thechange in the internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant

volume.

Specific heat ratio k is defined as the ratio Cp/Cv

.

Specific heats for solids and liquids, or incompressible substances, are equal.

Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Some examples of specific

properties are specific volume (v=V/m) and specific total energy (e= E/m).

State is the conditionof a system not undergoing any change gives a set of properties that

completely describes the condition of that system. At this point, all the properties can be

measured or calculated throughout the entire system.

Steady implies no change with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady, or transient.

Surroundings are everything outside the system boundaries.

Thermal efficiency th is the ratio of the net work produced by a heat engine to the totalheat input, th = Wnet/Qin

.

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science ofenergy. Energy can be viewed as the

ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme

(heat) anddynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heatinto power. Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy

and energy transformations, including power production, refrigeration, and relationshipsamong the properties of matter.


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Unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, processes are processes that involve changes within a

control volume with time.

Workis the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

Working fluid is the fluid to and from which heat and work is transferred whileundergoing a cycle in heat engines and other cyclic devices.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with

a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.


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