Hebrew Bible / Old Testament - ciando ebooks · Hebrew Bible / Old Testament The History of Its Interpretation. V. olume. I. From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages (Until 1300) In

Hebrew Bible / Old Testament The History of Its Interpretation

Volume 1/2

V&R

ISBN Print: 9783525535073 — ISBN E-Book: 9783647535074© 2015, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht GmbH & Co. KG, Göttingen

Magne Sæbø, Hebrew Bible / Old Testament


Edited by Magne S3eb0

V olume I

From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages (Until 1300)

Göttingen · Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht · 2000




Volume IFrom the Beginnings to the Middle Ages

(Until 1300)

In Co-operation withChris Brekelmans and Menahem Haran

Edited by Magne S3eb0

Part 2The Middle Ages

Göttingen · Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht · 2000



Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-EinheitsaufnahmeHebrew Bible, Old Testament:

the history of its interpretation / ed. by Magne Ssebo. -

Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und RuprechtVol. 1. From the beginnings to the Middle Ages (until 1300) / in co-operation with Chris Brekelmans and Menahem Haran.

Pt. 2. The Middle Ages. - 2000 ISBN 3-525-53507-4

Financially supported by theFörderungs- und Beihilfefond Wissenschaft der VG WORT, Munich

and by the Norwegian Research Council, Oslo

© 2000 Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen http://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht.de

Printed in Germany - All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording

or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Manufactured by Hubert & Co., Göttingen



http://www.vandenhoeck-ruprecht.de

Contents

P r e f a c e ........................................................................................................ 15

C. Christian and Jewish Interpretation o f the Hebrew Bible /Old Testament in the Middle Ages

23. The Problem of Periodization of ‘the Middle Ages’:Some Introductory RemarksBy M agne S^b0, Oslo ....................................................................... 19

24. Political and Cultural Changes from the Fifth to the Eleventh CenturyBy A ryeh G rabois, H a i f a ................................................................... 281. The Decline of the Roman Empire and Its S u ccessors.............................. 302. The Rise of Muslim Civilization..................................................................... 393. The New Political and Social Order in the Carolingian E r a ...................... 434. The Effect of Political, Social and Cultural Upheavals

for the Jewish Settlements and Centres of L earn in g ................................... 49

25. Jewish Bible Interpretation in Early Post-Talmudic T im e s ............... 56

25.1. The Significance of Hebrew Philology for the Development of a Literal and Historical Jewish Bible InterpretationBy Frederick E. G reenspahn, Denver, C O .......................... 56

25.2. The Interpretative Value of the Massoretic PunctuationBy E. J. Revell, Toronto ........................................................ 64

25.3. The Geonim of Babylonia as Biblical ExegetesBy Robert Brody, J e ru sa le m ................................................ 741. Introduction ...................................................................................... 752. The Scope of Geonic E x e g e s is ........................................................ 773. Exegetical Principles......................................................................... 804. Theological and Polemical Dimensions ....................................... 825. The Relationship between Talmudic and Geonic Exegesis . . . 86

25.4. Medieval Jewish Biblical Exegesis in Northern AfricaBy Frederick E. G reenspahn, Denver, C O .......................... 89



Contents6

25.5. Early Hebraists in Spain: Menahem ben Saruq and Dunash ben Lab ratBy A ngel SÄenz-Badillos, Madrid ........................................... 961. Introduction ...................................................................................... 962. The Philological and Exegetical Work of Menahem and Dunash 983. Hermeneutical Attitude................................................................1004. Philological E xegesis..............................................................................105

25.6. Karaite ExegesisBy D aniel Frank, Columbus, O H .................................................... 1101. Introduction: Karaism and Scripturalism............................................1102. Origins in the East (ca. 7 5 0 -9 5 0 ) ........................................................ I l l

2.1. Anan ben D a v id .............................................................................. I l l2.2. Daniel al-Qumisi..............................................................................1122.3. Polemics between Saadiah Gaon and Karaite Scholars . . . 1142.4. A l-Q irq isä n i.................................................................................. 116

3. The Jerusalem School (ca. 9 5 0 - 1 0 9 9 ) ........................................... 1193.1. The Mourners for Zion (ca. 9 5 0 -1 0 0 0 )................................... 1193.2. The Scholastic Phase (Eleventh C en tu ry)...................................123

4. The Later Byzantine P h a s e ................................................................. 126

25.7. Clearing Peshat and DerashBy Stephan Garfinkel, N ew Y o r k .................................................... 129

26. Gregory the Great: A Figure of Tradition and Transition in Church ExegesisBy Stephan Ch . Kessler, Freiburg/Br..............................................................135

1. General and Biographical R e m a r k s ................................................................. 1362. The Role of the Bible in the Non-Exegetical Scriptures of Gregory . . . 1373. Gregory’s Exegetical Work ..............................................................................1394. C onclusion............................................................................................................ 145

27. The Institutional Framework of Christian Exegesis in the Middle AgesBy U lrich Köpf, T ü b in g e n ..............................................................................148

1. Preliminary N o te s ............................................................................................... 1482. Theological Education before the Universities................................................150

2.1. Monastic Erudition .................................................................................. 1502.1.1. The Variety of Early Medieval M onasticism..........................1502.1.2. Concept and Reality of Monastic Education.......................... 1512.1.3. The Monastery as Framework of Monastic Erudition . . . 153

2.2. Urban Clerical S c h o o ls .............................................................................. 1562.3. Other Sites of Christian Education ........................................................ 160

3. Theological Education and Learning at Universities ...................................1613.1. The First Universities.................................................................................. 1623.2. Masters and Students at the Theological F a c u lty .............................. 163

3.2.1. Secular Clergy and M o n k s.............................................................1633.2.2. The New O rders..............................................................................164



7Contents

3.3. The Institutions of Theological S tudies.............................................1703.3.1. The Educational Work and Its Literary O utcom e......................1703.3.2. The Theologian’s Academic C a r e e r ........................................... 173

4. Retrospective View: The Bible in the Medieval System of Education . . 178

28. Aspects of Old Testament Interpretation in the Church from the Seventh to the Tenth CenturyBy Claudio Leonardi, F lo r e n c e ..................................................................... 180

1. Isidore of Seville .............................................................................................. 1812. The Venerable B e d e ...........................................................................................1853. Exegesis at the Time of C harlem agne.............................................................1884. From Angelomus of Luxeuil to Remigius of A u x e r r e ...................................192

29. Genres, Forms and Various M ethodsin Christian Exegesis o f the Middle AgesBy G ilbert D ahan, P a r i s .................................................................................. 196

1. The Genres ....................................................................................................... 2001.1. Monastic E x eg esis ...................................................................................... 2001.2. The Exegesis of the S c h o o ls .................................................................2061.3. The Exegesis of the U n iv ersity ............................................................ 211

2. The F orm s............................................................................................................2162.1. The Exegetical C h a in s ..............................................................................2162.2. Anthological C om m entaries..................................................................... 2182.3. The Running G lo ss ...................................................................................... 2182.4. D istinctiones ................................................................................................2202.5. The questio .................................................................................................... 2222.6. The Homily ...............................................................................................224

3. M ethods................................................................................................... 2263.1. The Methods of Literal E x e g e s is ............................................................ 227

3.1.1. Textual S tu d y ..................................................................................2273.1.2. Literary Analysis..............................................................................2283.1.3. Jewish Interpretations.....................................................................230

3.2. Methods of Spiritual Analysis ...................................................................2323.2.1. The Words S ig n ify ......................................................................... 2323.2.2. Things Signify..................................................................................2343.2.3. Analysis of the translatio .............................................................2353.2.4. Analysis by C on cord an ce............................................................ 235

30. Masters and Disciples: Aspects of Christian Interpretation of the Old Testament in the Eleventh and Twelfth CenturiesBy G. R. Evans, Cambridge ..............................................................................237

1. The Axis of Paris : Laon ..................................................................................2381.1. The Cathedral School at L a o n .................................................................2391.2. P a r i s ............................................................................................................241

2. Anselm of L a o n ................................................................................................... 2473. Exegesis in the Schools of Chartres and Other C athedrals........................... 251



Contents

4. The Impact of Christian Contact with Jewish E x e g e t e s .........................2544.1. Knowledge of H e b r e w ......................................................................... 2544.2. The Victorines at P a r i s ......................................................................... 257

31. The Flourishing Era of Jewish Exegesis in S p a i n ...................................261

31.1. The Linguistic School :Judah Hayyüj, Jonah ibn Janäh,Moses ibn Chiquitilla and Judah ibn BaEamBy A haron M aman, Jerusalem ........................................................ 261

1. Judah H ayyüj...................................................................................... 2631.1. Triliterality of the Hebrew Root ............................................... 2641.2. Characteristics of the Philological E x e g e s is .............................. 2651.3. Hayyüj’s Successors .....................................................................267

2. Jonah ibn J a n ä h ...................................................................................... 2672.1. His Philological W o r k .................................................................2682.2. The Comparison with Rabbinic H e b r e w ...................................2702.3. Ihn Janäh and the Opinions of the S a g e s ...................................2712.4. The Comparison with Aramaic and A r a b ic .............................. 271

3. Moses C h iqu itilla ..................................................................................2754. Judah ibn B a E a m ..................................................................................277

31.2. The Aesthetic Exegesis of Moses ibn EzraBy M ordechai Cohen, New Y o rk ....................................................282

1. Introduction ...........................................................................................2822. In the Rationalist T r a d itio n .................................................................284

2.1. Ibn Ezra’s S o u rces ......................................................................... 2842.2. Linguistic E xegesis ......................................................................... 2862.3. Philosophical E x e g e s is .................................................................287

3. A Poetic Perspective..............................................................................2893.1. The Arabic M o d e l ......................................................................... 2893.2. Literary T h e o r y ..............................................................................2913.3. Defining Biblical Poetics ............................................................ 293

4. L e g a c y ................................................................................................... 300

31.3. The Philosophical ExegesisBy Sara Klein-Braslavy, Tel A v iv ....................................................302

1. Introduction ...........................................................................................3032. Solomon ibn G abirol..............................................................................3043. Bahya ben Joseph ibn P a q u d a ............................................................ 3064. Judah H a le v i ...........................................................................................3095. Moses ben Maimon / Maimonides (Rambam)...................................311



9Contents

32. The School of Literal Jewish Exegesis in Northern FranceBy Avraham G rossman, J e r u sa le m ............................................................ 321

1. Introduction: The Revolution in Eleventh Century F r a n c e ......................3232. Biblical Exegesis in Germany and Northern France before Rashi . . . 3253. Reasons for the Rise of Literal E x e g e s is ....................................................326

3.1. Influence of Spanish-Jewish C u ltu re .................................................3273.2. The Twelfth-Century Renaissance..................................................... 3283.3. Jewish-Christian P olem ics.................................................................. 329

4. Menahem ben H e lb o ...........................................................................................3315. Solomon Yishaqi / Rashi (1040-1105)........................................................ 332

5.1. Text of Rashi’s C om m entaries.................................................................3335.2. Relation between Plain and Homiletical Meaning

in Rashi’s Commentaries ......................................................................... 3345.3. Language and Grammar...................................................................... 3375.4. Philosophy and M ysticism .................................................................. 3385.5. Jewish-Christian P olem ics.................................................................. 3395.6. Realia, Historical Background and Literary E lem en ts...................3405.7. Scriptural Interpretation in Rashi’s Commentary to Talmud . . . 3415.8. Emendations and A d d it io n s ..................................................................... 3425.9. The Continuing Importance of Rashi’s Commentaries to the Bible 343

6. Joseph Kara (1 0 50-1125).............................................................................. 3466.1. Joseph Kara’s Commentary on the Pentateuch................................3486.2. The Commentary on P sa lm s ..............................................................3486.3. Printed Editions and Manuscripts of Kara’s Bible Commentaries . 3496.4. Kara’s Approach to the Biblical T e x t .................................................3516.5. Kara’s Rational A pproach ..................................................................3526.6. Manifestations of Religious Polemics in Kara’s Commentaries . . . 3536.7. The Relationship between Kara’s Bible Exegesis,

His Commentaries on Liturgical Poetry and the Heritage of Spain 3557. Shemaiah (1 0 6 0 -1 1 3 0 ).................................................................................. 3568. Samuel ben Meir / Rashbam (1 0 8 0 -1 1 6 0 ) ................................................ 358

8.1. Rashbam’s Commentaries......................................................................... 3588.2. Rashbam and Jewish-Christian P o le m ic s ................................................3618.3. Rashbam and the Twelfth-Century R en aissan ce.............................. 363

9. Eliezer of Beaugency...........................................................................................3639.1. Eliezer’s E x e g e s is ...................................................................................... 3649.2. Anti-Christian Polemics and the Influence of Rationalism . . . . 366

10. Joseph Bekhor Shor (1130-1200)................................................................. 36711. The Historical Fate of the School of Literal E x e g e s is .............................. 370

33. Jewish Exegesis in Spain and Provence, and in the East,in the Twelfth and Thirteenth C en tu r ies ....................................................372

33.1. Isaac ben Samuel Al-KanziBy U riel Simon, J e r u s a le m .................................................................372

33.2. Abraham ibn EzraBy U riel Simon, J e r u s a le m .................................................................377



388390390391393395395396398400403407410414

416416417419420422423427430431431432432

433434434442442447447449451454

456456457459

Contents

The Qimhi FamilyBy M ordechai C ohen, New Y o rk .........................................1. Joseph Q im h i......................................................................................

1.1. Rationalism..................................................................................1.2. L in gu istics..................................................................................1.3. Rabbinic Exegesis vs. Rabbinic Traditions..............................1.4. Influence......................................................................................

2. Moses Q im h i......................................................................................3. David Qimhi ( R a d a k ) .....................................................................

3.1. Rationalism..................................................................................3.2. Linguistic and Stylistic Patterns...............................................3.3. Interpreting Linguistic N u a n c e ................................................3.4. Historical Thinking .................................................................3.5. Religious Inspiration .................................................................3.6. Influence......................................................................................

Moses ben Nahman / Nahmanides (Ramban)By Yaakov Elman, New Y o r k .................................................1. Biographical and General R em a rk s...............................................2. Aspects of Nahmanides’ Exegetical M eth od ...................................

2.1. Omnisignificance .....................................................................2.2. Structure and T h e m e .................................................................2.3. P a ttern in g ..................................................................................2.4. Sequence......................................................................................2.5. Proportion and Placem ent........................................................2.6. Historical S e n s e .........................................................................

3. Aspects of Nahmanides’ T h ou gh t....................................................3.1. Theological Principles ............................................................3.2. Psychological Insights ............................................................3.3. Esoteric Interpretations............................................................

The Post-Maimonidean Schools of Exegesis in the East: Abraham Maimonides, the Pietists,Tanhum ha-Y9rusalmi and the Yemenite SchoolBy PaulB. Fenton, P a r i s ........................................................1. Introduction ......................................................................................2. Abraham M aim on id es.....................................................................3. Pietist E x e g e s is ..................................................................................

3.1. Abu Sulayman Abraham ihn Abi r-RabTa he-Hasld (d. 1223)3.2. HananYl ben Samuel (fl. 1180-1250).......................................3.3. Obadyah Maimonides (1 2 2 8 -1 2 6 5 ) .......................................3.4. David II Maimonides (fl. 1335-1415).......................................

4. Late Exegetes in the Oriental School...............................................5. The Yemenite S ch oo l.........................................................................

Kabbalistic ExegesisBy M oshe Idel, Jerusalem ......................................... ... . .1. Kabbalistic Types of E x e g e s is ........................................................2. Pardes: the Fourfold Kabbalistic Exegesis ...................................3. Kabbalistic Symbolic E x e g e s is ........................................................



11Contents

4. Sexual Polarization as a Kabbalistic Hermeneutical Device . . . 4625. Kabbalistic Visions of the T e x t ........................................................ 4646. The Status of the Interpreter............................................................ 466

34. The School of St. Victor in ParisBy Rainer Berndt, Frankfurt/M ............................................................467

1. Hugh of St. V ic to r ...............................................................................................4691.1. Works of Old Testament Exegesis........................................................ 4701.2. Methods and Sources..................................................................................4711.3. Specificity of Hugh: Exegesis and T h eo logy .......................................473

2. Richard of St. V ic to r ...........................................................................................4752.1. Works of Old Testament Exegesis........................................................ 4752.2. Exegetical Methods and S o u r c e s ............................................................ 4762.3. Specificity of Richard: Through Exegesis to Contemplation . . . . 478

3. Andrew of St. V ic to r ...........................................................................................4793.1. His W o r k s ................................................................................................... 4793.2. Methods and Sources.................................................................................. 4803.3. Specificity of Andrew: Exegesis as T heology.......................................482

4. Thomas G a llu s ................................................................................................... 4844.1. His Exegetical W orks..................................................................................4844.2. Methods and Sources..................................................................................4854.3. Theological Specificity: Knowledge of the Suprem e..........................485

5. Contacts between the Victorines and Jewish S ch o la rs...................................4865.1. Knowledge of H e b r e w ..............................................................................4865.2. New Jewish Sources in the Exegesis of the V ic to r in e s ...........................4875.3. Reception of Jewish E xegesis..................................................................... 488

6. Characteristics and Influence of Victorine E xegesis.......................................4906.1. Sources of the Victorines ......................................................................... 4906.2. Understanding of the C a n o n .....................................................................4926.3. Lemmatized Commentaries: Related to the G lo s s a ................................ 4936.4. Influence in the Middle Ages: Relations between

Exegesis and T h e o lo g y ..............................................................................494

35. Christian Interpretation of the Old Testament in the High Middle AgesBy Karlfried Froehlich, Princeton, N. J ................................................... 496

1. The Old Testament in the Monastery:Bernard of Clairvaux on the Song of S o n g s ............................................... 497

2. The Old Testament in the Schools:Gilbert of Poitiers and Peter Lom bard........................................................ 500

3. Glossing and Preaching:Peter Comestor, Peter the Chanter, Stephen L angton.............................. 504

4. Old Testament Interpretation in the Thirteenth Century..........................5104.1. Biblical Interpretation in the Mendicant O r d e r s .............................. 5124.2. The University Curriculum and Its T o o l s ........................................... 5174.3. The Impact of the Reception of A r is to t le ........................................... 519



Contents12

5. Old Testament Interpretation and the New Science: Some Paradigms . . 5225.1. Prophecy........................................................................................................5235.2. C reation ........................................................................................................5255.3. The Old L a w ...............................................................................................5275.4. The Books of S o lo m o n ..............................................................................529

6. The Great Masters: Albert, Thomas, B onaventure.........................................5316.1. Albert the G r e a t ...........................................................................................5326.2. Thomas Aquinas...........................................................................................5386.3. B onaventure............................................................................................... 546

7. Conclusion: Old Testament Scholarshipat the End of the Thirteenth C e n tu r y ........................................................ 554

36. Development of Biblical Interpretation in the Syrian Churches of the Middle AgesBy Lucas Van Rompay, L eiden................................................................559

1. Introduction........................................................................................................5592. West-Syrian Works of the Early Islamic P e r io d ........................................... 560

2.1. Jacob of E d e s s a ...........................................................................................5602.2. Moses bar K e p a ...........................................................................................5622.3. Two Exegetical ״Catenae” ......................................................................... 564

3. East-Syrian Works ...........................................................................................5643.1. East-Syrian Exegesis in the Seventh Century.......................................5643.2. Theodore bar Koni’s “Scholion” ....................................................... 5663.3. Isof bar Nun’s Selected Q u estion s.............................................................5673.4. The Commentary on Gen-Exod 9: 32 of ms. (olim) Diyarbakir

22 and the Anonymous Commentary on the Old Testament . . . . 5683.5. Isofdad of Merv’s Commentary on the Old Testam ent......................5693.6. The Garden of Delights (Gannat B u ssä m e) .......................................5713.7. Other East-Syrian Exegetical W ork s........................................................ 571

4. Dionysius bar Salibi’s Commentary on the Old T estam ent........................... 5735. Barhebraeus’s Storehouse of Mysteries (Ausar R ä z e ) .................................... 5746. Epilogue................................................................................................................ 576

37. Elements of Biblical Interpretationin Medieval Jewish-Christian DisputationBy G ünter Stemberger, V ie n n a ..................................................................... 578

1. A n teced en ts ........................................................................................................5782. Renewal of the Disputations in the Middle A g e s .............................................5793. A Common Biblical T e x t .................................................................................. 5804. General Hermeneutical I s s u e s ......................................................................... 5815. The Question of the Biblical L a w ..................................................................... 5836. Christological versus Historical Interpretation................................................586



13Contents

Supplement to C hapter Five

Ben Sira and the Wisdom o f Solomon: Their Interpretative Significance

5.3. Canon and Scripture in the Book of Ben Sira (Jesus Sirach / Ecclesiasticus)By Pancratius C. Beentjes, U tre c h t......................................... 5911. Introduction ...........................................................................................3932. Ben Sira and the ‘Canon5 ..................................................................... 5943. Ben Sira Citing S cr ip tu re ..................................................................... 596

3.1. Introductory F o rm u la e .................................................................5963.2. Inverted Q u o ta t io n s ..................................................................... 5983.3. Structural Use of Scripture............................................................ 6003.4. Unique Word Combinations in Ben Sira

and Their Parallels in the Hebrew B ible...................................602

5.4. Wisdom of Solomon and ScriptureBy Maurice G ilbert, R om e........................................................6061. Introduction .......................................................................................... 6062. Wisdom under the Influence of Hebrew B ib le ....................................607

2.1. Opposed Theses Concerning the Righteousand the Wicked in Life and D e a th ............................................... 607

2.2. Wisdom and the W ise .....................................................................6092.3. Wisdom and the Heroes of Genesis-Exodus.............................. 6112.4. Divine Mercy and Cultic Errors....................................................6122.5. Punishment for the Wicked - Blessing for the Righteous . . 613

3. Hebrew Bible in W is d o m ..................................................................... 6154. Conclusion...............................................................................................617

Contributors .................................................................................................................... 621

Abbreviations ................................................................................................................ 625

Indexes (Names / Topics / References).................................................................635





Preface

The first volume of the project Hebrew Bible / Old Testament: the History o f Its Interpretation, entitled “From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages”, was planned as just one volume, not only for formal reasons, but even more on ‘inner ob- jective grounds. For volume I was intended to comprise, as indicated by its title, the first main part of the scriptural history of interpretation, which in spite of inner tensions and many differences exhibits a remarkable ideological consistency, and after which the Renaissance, in various ways, heralded something new and different. In order to keep the original unity of the first volume, at least to some extent, its continuous counting of 37 chapters and its tripartite division have been retained — the present part volume on the Middle Ages constituting its main part C.

In fact, the need for a division of volume I into two part volumes became soon obvious, not to say required; for the rich and variegated material of scriptural interpretation from the Middle Ages, on the Christian as well as on the Jewish side, made it imperative to give more attention and space to this epoch, that so often has been neglected and, due to different forms of prejudice, has been depreciated as “the Dark Ages”. It would indeed represent a most positive side effect if the present volume might contribute to a diminish- ing of prejudice regarding the Middle Ages and to a fostering of an adequate recognition of its richness in exegetical reflection, insight and practice; and, also, even the transition to the Renaissance may in this way be less radical and complicated.

Furthermore, as was stated in general terms in the Preface to the first part volume, that there is a “need for a comprehensive research history in the field, written anew in the light of the current status in biblical as well as in historical disciplines”, this, not least, is a burning question as regards the Middle Ages. For in this field, the historians for quite some time have discussed extensively an accurate determination of the term, limitation and content of the so-called ‘Middle Ages’. Some aspects of these tangled problems need to be dealt with also on this occasion; that will be done briefly in the introductory chapter.

It belongs to the international and interconfessional character of the HBOT Project that it is written by scholars representing different scholarly milieux and traditions. This state of affairs has its merits, but at the same time it in- eludes some risk of fragmentation, which was discussed in the Prolegomenon of the first part volume (cf. HBOT 1/1, p.24); and also it may involve some risk of overlapping, when different authors are treating items that are closely related to each other or even comment on the same subject. Although cases of apparent overlapping have been avoided, the point at issue, nevertheless, has been handled with tolerance, for it may be regarded as positive when a matter,



Preface16

in a stereo-like way, is treated by different authors from various angles and viewpoints. Finally, on questions of style and transcription, particularly with regard to Ffebrew names and to technical terms a standardization has been aimed at, but at the same time one will find, to some degree, minor deviations among the individual authors.

A Project of this kind cannot exist and be pursued without many relations of dependence and support, for which I have the pleasure of expressing my deep gratitude. Once again, I should like to pay tribute to the Co-Editors of the First Volume, especially Professor Haran who so generously has helped at some critical points of the road. I also wish to thank Professor Dr. Drs. h. c. Otto Kaiser, of Marburg, for valuable help. Once again, my deepfelt thanks go to Dr. Arndt Ruprecht and Reinhilde Ruprecht, PhD, for their unabated support and to the staff of Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht for taking such good care of the Project. Also this time, I am deeply indebted to Förderungs- und Beihil- fefonds Wissenschaft der VG Wort, of Munich, that has granted a considerable financial support, and so also to the Norwegian Research Council, as well as to the Norwegian Academy o f Science and Letters and to the Fridtjof Nansens Fond, of Oslo, for their financial support of the editorial work, and in this respect, also to my own Faculty, The Norwegian Lutheran School o f Theology, and its Director Finn Olav Myhre, for all practical support of the Project, even after my retirement. Finally, I should like to express my very best thanks to HBOT5s linguistic consultants, first cand. theol. Richard Lee Blucher, of Oslo, and now especially Professor Ronald E. Clements, of Cambridge, for their required and invaluable help; and I also thank stud, theol. Eskil Helgerud Andersen for his helpful work on the Indexes.

Last but not least, the present volume of HBOT would have been nothing without its authors. I feel deeply obliged for their respective essays which not only represent actual surveys but also new research, whereby they have con- tributed positively to the progress of biblical and historical scholarship.

Magne Saeb0Oslo, in March 2000



c.Christian and Jewish Interpretation

of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament in the Middle Ages





C hapter T wenty-three

The Problem of Periodization of ‘the Middle Ages’ Some Introductory Remarks

By M agne SiEB0, Oslo

General works: D. A bulafia et al. (eds.), The New Cambridge Medieval History I-VII (Cambridge: Cambridge UP 1995-); J. B. Bury / H. M. Gwatkin / J. P. W hitney (eds.), The Cambridge Medieval History I-VIII (London: Cambridge UP 1911-36); C .A ndresen, Geschichte des Christentums, I. Von den Anfängen bis zur Hochscholastik (ThW 6; Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer 1975); idem / A. M. R itter, Geschichte des Christentums 1/2: Frühmittelalter — Hochmittelalter (ThW 6,1; Stutt- gart: W.Kohlhammer 1995); C .A ndresen / Α .Μ .Ritter / K.W essel / E .M ühlenberg / Μ.Α. Schm idt , Die Lehrentwicklung im Rahmen der Katholizität (HDTG 1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht 1982); A .A ngenendt, Das Frühmittelalter. Die abendländische Christenheit von 400 bis 900 (Stuttgart / Berlin / Köln 1990); M .B anniard, Genese culturelle de l’Europe — Ve-VIIT siede (Paris 1989); G .von Below, Über historische Periodisierungen (Berlin 1925); H. Boockmann, Die Gegenwart des Mittelalters (Berlin: Siedler 1988); C hr. D awson, The Making o f Europe (London 1932); Dictionary o f the Middle Ages [DMA], 1-13 (New York: Scribner 1982-89); C.F. D elzell (ed.), The Future o f History: Essays in the Vanderbilt University Centennial Symposium (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt Univ. Press 1977); L. D iestel, Geschichte des Alten Testamentes in der christlichen Kirche (Jena 1869; repr. Leipzig 1981); O. E ngels, “Geschichte / Geschichtsschreibung / Ge- Schichtsphilosophie, VI. Von Augustin bis zum Humanismus״, TRE 12 (1984) 608-30; F.W. Farrar, History of Interpretation (1886; repr. Grand Rapids 1961; 1979); R. Fossier (ed.), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages (orig. Le Moyen Age) I-III (Cambridge: Cam- bridge UP; I. 350-950; tr. J. Sondheimer; 1989; II. 950-1250; tr. S.Airlie / R. Marsack; 1997; III. 1250-1520; tr. S. Hanbury Tenison; 1986); H. Fuhrmann, Einladung ins Mittelalter (München: C.H. Beck 41989); F. G raus, Lebendige Vergangenheit. Überlieferung im Mittelalter und in den Vor- Stellungen vom Mittelalter (Köln / Wien 1975); R. S. H oyt, Europe in the Middle Ages (New York / Burlingame: Harcourt, Brace & World 1957); O. Köhler, “Abendland (Occident, Europa)”, TRE 1 (1977) 17-42; W. Lammers (ed.), Geschichtsdenken und Geschichtsbild im Mittelalter (WdF 21; Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft 1965); Lexikon des Mittelalters [LM], 1-10 (München: Artemis, 1980-99); G. W. H. Lampe (ed.), The West from the Fathers to the Reformation (CHB 2; 1969, repr. 1980); P. Lehmann, Vom Mittelalter und von der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters (Quellen und Untersuchungen zur lateinischen Philologie des Mittelalters V /l; München 1914); A .de Libera, La philosophie medievale (Paris: PUF 1995); J. M arenbon, Early Medieval Philosophy: an Introduc- tion (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1983); idem, Late Medieval Philosophy: an Introduction (2nd ed.; London: Routledge 1993); M. N ordberg, Den dynamiska medeltiden (Stockholm: Tidens Förlag 1984); R. P ernoud, Pour en finir avec le Moyen Age (Paris 1977); E. P itz, “Mittelalter”, LM 6 (1993) 684-87; H .G raf Reventlow, Epochen der Bibelauslegung, II. Von der Spätantike bis zum ausgehenden Mittelalter (München: Beck 1994); P. Riche / G. Lobrichon (eds.), Le Moyen Age et la Bible (BTT 4; Paris: Beauchesne 1984); K. Schäferdiek, “Mittelalter”, TRE 23 (1994) 110-21; R. Schönberger / B. K ible (eds.), Repertorium edierter Texte des Mittelalters aus dem Bereich der Philosophie und angrenzender Gebiete (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag 1994); C. Sirat, A History of few- ish Philosophy in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge UP [1985] repr. 1995); Ο. E. Strasser, “Les periodes et les epoques de l’Histoire de l’Eglise”, RHPR30 (1950) 290-304; H. Z immermann, Das Mittelalterl-ll (Stuttgart 1975/1979; esp. “Das Mittelalter als Problem”, 1 ,1-14).

Bibliographies: R. Stadelmann, “Grundformen der Mittelalterauffassung von Herder bis Ranke”, Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Geistesgeschichte 9 (1931) 45-88;



Magne Saebo20

K. F. Stroheker, “Um die Grenze zwischen Antike und abendländischem Mittelalter”, Saec. 1 (1950)433-65.

Special studies: K. A rnold, “Das ‘finstere’ Mittelalter. Zur Genese und Phänomenologie eines Fehlurteils”, Saec. 32 (1981) 287-300; H .A ubin, “Die Frage nach der Scheide zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter”, HZ 172 (1951) 245-63 (also in Hübinger [ed.], Zur Frage der Periodengrenze [1969] 93-113); P. D inzelbacher, “Mittelalterliche Kirchengeschichte”, EKL 3 (1992) 472-84; idem, “Mittelalterliche Kultur”, EKL 3 (1992) 484-96; D .G erhard, “Periodization in European History”, ÄHR 61 (1955/56) 900-13; E. G öller, Die Periodisierung der Kirchengeschichte und die epochale Stellung des Mittelalters zwischen dem christlichen Altertum und der Neuzeit (Freiburg / Br.: Guenther Verlag 1919; repr. in: Libelli 263; Darmstadt: Wiss.Buchgesellschaft 1969, 7-73); O. H alecki, The Limits and Divisions of European History (London / New York: Sheed & Ward 1950); H .H eimpel, “Uber die Epochen der mittelalterlichen Geschichte”, in: idem, Der Mensch in seiner Gegenwart (Göttingen 21957) 42-66, 198-200; K. H eussi, Altertum, Mittelalter und Neuzeit in der Kirchengeschichte. Ein Beitrag zum Problem der historischen Periodisierung (Tübingen: Mohr 1921; repr. in: Libelli 263; Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft 1969, 74-146); P .E .H übinger (ed.), Kulturbruch oder Kulturkontinuität im Übergang von der Antike zum Mittelalter (WdF 201; Darm- stadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft 1968); idem (ed.), Zur Frage der Periodengrenze zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter (WdF 51; Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchgesellschaft 1969); J. H uizinga, “Zur Geschichte des Begriffs Mittelalter”, in: idem, Geschichte und Kultur (Stuttgart 1954); H .-D .K ahl, “Was bedeutet ‘Mittelalter’?”, Saec. 40 (1989) 15-38; A. Klempt, Die Säkularisierung der universalhistorischen Auf- fassung. Zum Wandel des Geschichtsdenkens im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert (Göttinger Bausteine zur Geschichtswissenschaft 31; Göttingen 1960); J. K nape, “Die Problematik unseres Geschichtsbe- griffs fürs Mittelalter”, GRM NS 38 (1988) 15-34; U. K öpf, “Kirchengeschichte und Geographie. Möglichkeiten und Grenzen einer historischen Geographie des Christentums”, ZTK77 (1980) 42- 68; idem, “A European View of the Problems of Dividing Church History into Periods. The Inclu- sion of the ‘Third World’ in the Presentation of the History of the Church”, Towards a History of the Church in the Third World (Papers and Report of a Consultation on The Issue of Periodisation, ed L.Vischer; Bern 1985) 87-109; Th.E. M ommsen, “Petrarch’s Conception of the ‘Dark Ages’”, SpecA7 (1942) 226-42 (also in: idem, Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Ithaca, NY 1959, 106- 29); K. M üller, “Die Grenze zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter in der Kirche”, PrJ 60 (1887) 257-78; U. N eddermeyer, Das Mittelalter in der deutschen Historiographie vom 15. bis zum 18. Jahr- hundert. Geschichtsgliederung und Epochenverständnis in der frühen Neuzeit (Phil. Diss. Univ. Köln; Kölner historische Abhandlungen 34; Köln / Wien: Böhlau Verlag 1988); L. I. N ewmann, Jewish Influence on Christian Reform Movements (New York 1925); J.H.J. van der P ot, De periodisering der geschiedenis. Een overzieht der theorieen (’s-Gravenhaage 1951), esp. 113-23; G. Salomon, Das Mittelalter als Ideal der Romantik (München 1922); E. Sanford, “The Twelfth Century — Renais- sance or Proto-Renaissance”, Spec.26 (1951) 635-42; P .Schaeffer, “The Emergence of the Con- cept ‘Medieval’ in Central European Humanism”, Sixteenth Century Journal 7 (1973) 19-30; C. Schm id , Die Mittelalterrezeption des 18. Jahrhunderts zwischen Aufklärung und Romantik (EHS, R. 1: Deutsche Literatur und Germanistik 278; Frankfurt / M.: Peter Lang 1979); R .Schönber- ger, Was ist Scholastik f (Philosophie und Religion 2; Hildesheim: Bemward 1991); K. Schubert, “Das Judentum in der Umwelt des christlichen Mittelalters”, Kairos 17 (1975) 161-217; S. Skal- weit, Der Beginn der Neuzeit. Epochengrenze und Epochenbegriff (EdF 178; Darmstadt: Wiss. Buch- gesellschaft 1982); L.W. Spitz, “Periodization in History: Renaissance and Reformation”, in Del- zell (ed.), The Future of History (1977) 189-218; R. E. Sullivan, “The Middle Ages in the Western Tradition: Some Considerations”, in: B. K. Lackner / K. R. P hilip (eds.), Essays on Medieval Givi- lisation (Austin / London: University of Texas Press 1978) 3-31; J. Voss, Das Mittelalter im historischen Denken Frankreichs. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalterbegriffs und der Mittelalter- bewertung von der zweiten Hälfte des 16. bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts (Veröffentlichungen des Historischen Instituts der Universität Mannheim 3; München 1972); L. V arga, Das Schlagwort vom “finsteren” Mittelalter (Veröffentlichungen des Seminars für Wirtschafts- und Kulturge- schichte 8; Baden / Wien 1932; repr. Aalen 1978).

When moving from Antiquity, which was the subject of the first part volume (HBOT 1/1) to the subsequent epoch of history, the so-called ‘Middle Ages’, that is the special field of the present part volume, one is confronted with a



21The Problem of Periodization of ‘the Middle Ages’

most delicate historiographical problem: for what really does the term ‘Middle Ages’ mean, and still more difficult: what period of time does it more exactly comprise? In the present context, where the epoch as a whole is under discussion, it will not only be most appropriate but simply necessary to make some introductory reflections on this problem of modem historiography.

The conventional term ‘Middle Ages’ seems prima facie to be quite simple, meaning literally the time ‘in the middle’ of some other periods; indicated is the period between Antiquity and the New or ‘Modern’ Time. However, the meaning and use of the term are not as obvious or ‘simple’ as it at first may seem; for, as far as modem historical research is concerned, the term ‘Middle Ages’ appears to be a highly problematic one, not least from a methodological point of view.

Problematic is this term not only because of the indicated tripartition of history, especially when seen in a wider and universal perspective,1 but also with regard to the way in which this historical division generally has been carried through. When it comes to a more exact determination of the ‘Middle Ages’, an approach of this kind will have a bearing on several complex problems. In the first instance, it raises questions of an adequate chronological delimitation of its beginning and end as a specific historical epoch as well as of complicated socio-political, cultural and ideological descriptions of its ‘content’ or inner structure, in other words, what may constitute this epoch as unique in comparison with the preceding and the following epoch. The ‘simple’ terminology, then, involves many and manifold problems, among which even the problem of periodization, both on a chronological and a structural level, is of a basic character and function. In an introductory discussion of this particular prob- lern it may be appropriate to focus briefly on the (1) terminological, (2) chronological, and (3) ideological and theological aspects of the ‘Middle Ages’.

1. The commonly used term ‘Middle Ages’ — similarly Mittelalter in German and Moyen Age in French — that indicates a specific historical epoch in ‘the middle’ of History, is not very old but it has roots in older traditions. There- fore, it may be meaningful to differentiate between the use of the term as a term of periodization and the idea of some historical ‘middle period’.2

The first use of ‘Middle Ages’ as a term of historical periodization has generally been associated with a three volume handbook in World History by Christoph Cellarius (Keller; 1638-1707), of Weimar and Halle; his three volumes were related to a tripartite scheme of history, i. e. Antiquity (Historia antiqua, 1685) — Middle Ages (Historia medii aevi, 1688) — New Time (Historia nova., 1696).3 But he was not the first one to use this scheme of periodization

1 Cf. Köpf, Kirchengeschichte und Geographie (1980); idem, A European View (1985).2 See esp. Huizinga, Zur Geschichte des Begriffs Mittelalter (1954); Kahl, Was bedeutet ‘Mit-

telalter’? (1989). Diestel, Geschichte (1869/1981) 244, spoke of the Middle Ages as “die mittlere Zeit”.

3 Later his handbook of History was entitled Historia universalis in antiquam et medii aevi ac novam divisa (Jena 1704-08). See esp. van der Pot, De periodisering der geschiedenis (1951); cf. Göller, Periodisierung (1919/1969) 8-11/14-17; Heussi, Altertum, Mittelalter und Neuzeit (1921/1969); Halecki, Limits and Divisions (1950); Schäferdiek, Mittelalter (1994) 113; Hübin- ger, Zur Präge der Periodengrenze (1969) vii.



Magne Saeb022

of history, for some years earlier G eorg H orn (1620-1670), of Leiden, had already made use of it, although within a framework of a different kind.4 It seems likely, though, that it was the handbook of Cellarius that had the greater influence on the historiography to come.

The main thing, however, was the fact that a historical periodization of this kind appeared for the first time in the seventeenth century and, notably, found its specific form in the later part of the century.5 Even though a historical handbook had given the term its most effective start its rise can scarcely be ex- plained on practical or pedagogical grounds alone; its general acceptance may have had deeper reasons and presuppositions. On this occasion, with the focus on the history of scriptural interpretation, it may be appropriate to point to two different, but also related, circumstances.

First, to begin with the latest and possibly most specific one, there was a ‘modern’ condition, fostered by the approaching and developing Enlighten- ment, namely, the enhancing secularization of history and historiography.6 In the course of time, History lost its biblical and theological basis and was no longer regarded as some sort of Heilsgeschichte;7 nor was it, comparably to still other religiously related partitions of History, divided into two main parts any more, i. e., the pagan times before Christ and the times after Christ, the era of the Church.8 The universal History was, moreover, to incorporate Church History, for which the new state of affairs generated new problems, as in particular K. H eussi has pointed out.9

Second, the new historiographical use of the term ‘Middle Ages’ had old roots in Humanism, that is to say in the idea of medium aevum, a ‘middle era’, which leads back to an early time of the Renaissance. In this way Humanism provided an ideological bridge from the Renaissance to the new historical terminology that was worked out in the course of the seventeenth century. How- ever, when early Italian humanists, like Petrarch,10 as well as later humanists spoke of a medium tempus — or in similar forms of this expression — the term was not related to History in a strict sense, not to say historiography, but it was used in a literary and linguistic sense — as also the well-known humanistic device ad fontes was used in a literary, not in a historical sense. It was not least with regard to the use and standard of Latin as practised by the Church in the preceding centuries compared with the classic use of it in Antiquity that the

4 Area Noae sive historia imperiorum et regnorum a condito orbe ad nostra tempora (Leiden 1666). Cf. Voss, Das Mittelalter (1972) 56 f.

5 Schäferdiek, Mittelalter (1994) 112, goes even back to 1601, when the historian H. Canisius edited a collection of documents, Antiquae lectiones, whose content was described as antiqua docu- menta ad historiam mediae aetatis illustrandam, including documents from the third to the sixteenth century.

6 Cf. Klempt, Die Säkularisierung der universalhistorischen Auffassung (1960).7 See esp. Fuhrmann, Einladung ins Mittelalter (1989) 17 f.8 Cf. Hoyt, Europe (1957)9 See Heussi, Altertum, Mittelalter und Neuzeit (1921) 2-8/(1969) 80-86; he is in principle cri-

tical to the tripartition of the Church History, Part II, 34-68/112-46. Cf. also Gerhard, Periodi- zation (1955/56) 901-03; Hoyt, Europe (1957) 1-3; Spitz, Periodization (1977) 190-92.

10 Cf. Mommsen, Petrarch’s Conception of the ‘Dark Ages’ (1942/1959).




‘middle age’ was looked upon as an inferior period, or, as “a period of de- dine5’.11

Although the idea and term of a ‘middle age’ for a long time was not used in a historiographical sense, it nevertheless expressed a historical perspective: over the ‘time in between5, one looked back at the time of Antiquity, like a cultural Golden Age, in comparison with which the medium aevum was regarded not only as an inferior period but was characterized in a still more negative way when the period was called saeculum obscurum, the ‘Dark Ages5.12

The term ‘Middle Ages5, then, was from the beginning not just a neutrally dividing term of time but also, in a clearly negative manner, a characterizing term, coined at a distance by humanists who most consciously regarding their own time evaluated the ‘time in between5 against the background of Antiquity’s classic culture. The negative expression was carried on and even reinforced by many Protestants for whom the ‘Dark Ages5, against the background of the New Testament and the Church Fathers, mirrored the negative sides of the Catholic Church, whereas in the time of Enlightenment — for representatives like V oltaire and D. FIume — the ‘Middle Ages5 first of all embodied ignor- ance.13 Although estimated in the time of Romanticism,14 the negative characteristics of the Middle Ages have been carried on, up to the present time; mira-

bile dictu, also Farrar used the term ‘Dark Ages5.15 But slowly, new and in- creased insights into the creativity and richness of the Middle Ages seem to bring about a more positive — and adequate — portrayal of these central centuries.

2. The question that has been asked by many, especially in recent research, relates to the limits of the period in question: when did the ‘Middle Ages5 really begin and when did it end? To be sure, when the definition of the term ‘Middle Ages5 turns out to be a rather intricate question, as was shown above, the chronological delimitation of the assumed epoch seems to be an even more controversial matter. Scholars have been far from any con- sensus in this respect, while the historical discussion continues; correspond- ingly, the concrete descriptions of the chronological limits of the ‘Middle Ages5 differ considerably — and, in general, may be met with some reserva- tion. Also here, the old saying: quot homines, tot sententiae reminds one of required prudence.16

For Cellarius the ‘Middle Ages5 comprised the long period from the times

11 Schäferdiek, Mittelalter (1994) 110-12; Gerhard, Periodization (1955/56) 901.12 See esp. Varga, Das Schlagwort vom ‘finsteren’ Mittelalter (1932/1978); Arnold, Das “fin-

stere” Mittelalter (1981).13 Cf. Arnold, ibid. 290-91.14 See esp. Salomon, Das Mittelalter als Ideal der Romantik (1922); Schmid, Die Mittelalterre-

zeption des 18.Jahrhunderts (1979); cf. Arnold, Das “finstere” Mittelalter (1981) 289.15 Cf. Farrar, History (1886/1979) 245.16 Cf. Hoyt, Europe (1957) T. the term of ‘Middle Ages’ “is purely conventional, because his-

torians cannot agree when the Middle Ages began and ended, or else they are agreed that the beginning and end of the period cannot be assigned to specific dates”; cf. also Gerhard, Periodiza- tion (1 955/56) 900: “The historian knows that any division of time into definite periods is artifi- cial. Recent experience has taught him that even in the midst of upheavals and utter destruction there is no complete break with the past”.



Magne Saeb024

of Constantine the Great to the capture of Constantinople by the Turks,17 i. e., from about 313 (as far as the Decree o f Milan is included) to 1453, in other words, it covered more than a millenium. However, it may be neither possible nor necessary to discuss the potential reasons for such a broad delimitation of the ‘Middle Ages’; it is remarkable, though, that this very long span of time was not unusual, up to the present time.18 On this occasion, it may suffice to make some brief remarks on the beginning, the question of a possible inner division, and the end of the epoch.

In current historical scholarship, it is the beginning of the ‘Middle Ages’, its limit ‘in front’, that has been the prime subject of many historical studies; and as far as the ‘front limit’ is concerned it is mainly the important — but difficult — transition from late Antiquity to the early ‘Middle Ages’ that has been brought into focus.19 As for this transition two related points — among others — have attracted the attention of scholars. First, there was a shift of scene. Although Imperium Romanum had its distant limes in countries like Britannia and Germany, its ‘home scene’ for centuries was around mare nos- trum, it was the Mediterranean world, which also included peoples of North Africa and the Near East. It may be contended that with the gradual fall of the glorious Roman Empire also Antiquity came to an end as a specific epoch — but not in its long and influential Wirkungsgeschichte. “During the early Middle Ages the unity of the Mediterranean world was permantly broken: the sea which had been the center of a civilization, a channel of communication, now became a frontier to be crossed for commerce or for war.”20 After the sac- co di Roma in 410, through increasing attacks by migrating peoples from the North and with still other elements of a most complex historical process of transition, something quite new entered the stage during the following centuries. For, secondly, in this politically and culturally new and different situation the formation of Europe took place;21 remarkably, Charlemagne has been called “the Father of Europe”. At the same time, as the Eastern parts of the Mediterranean world for various reasons had receded into the background, whereas the Arabs made continued progress, also a specific Western civilization was now developing.22 Though being a rich heir of the Mediterranean world, Europe moved its main points of influence and administration from the

17 The full title of the second volume was: Historia medii aevi a temporibus Constantini magni ad Constantinopolim a Turds captam deducts cf. Schäferdiek, Mittelalter (1994) 113.

18 Cf. Fuhrmann, Einladung ins Mittelalter (1989) 16 f. Fossier, Cambridge History of the Middle Ages I-III (1986-97), covers the period from 350 to 1520.

19 See esp. the collections of studies edited by Hübinger, Kulturbruch oder Kulturkontinuität (1968), and Zur Frage der Periodengrenze zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter (1969); cf. also Mül- ler, Die Grenze zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter (1887); Aubin, Die Frage nach der Scheide zwischen Altertum und Mittelalter (1951/1969).

20 So Hoyt, Europe (1957) 5; cf. also Kahl, Was bedeutet ‘Mittelalter’? (1989) 19.21 Cf. Schäferdiek, Mittelalter (1994) 114 f: “Als Phase der europäischen Geschichte ist das

Mittelalter die Zeit der Heranbildung der geschichtlichen Eigengestalt Europas ... in seiner kul- turellen Einheit und nationalen Vielfalt”.

22 See esp. Köhler, Abendland (1977); cf. Aubin, Die Scheide zwischen Altertum und Mittelal- ter (1969) 110 f; Gerhard, Periodization (1955/56) 905; Kahl, Was bedeutet ‘Mittelalter? (1989) 16-17, 32 ff; also A. G rabois, in the next chapter of this volume.




South to the Northwest, to Ireland and Britain, to France and Germany, be- yond the old limes of the Roman Empire. With this radical shift of scene and the growth of a new Europe there was also a radical “shift of paradigms”,23 that makes it meaningful to speak of a new historical epoch.

Also within the ‘Middle Ages’, it is customary to make a tripartite division of Early, High and Late Middle Ages. The division, however, is not only highly relative but it may be of less importance as well.24 In recent historical research, it seems to be of primary significance to focus upon the longer inner developments, tensions and divers transitions as exhibited by the new nations and kingdoms, like, for example, the establishing of political, social and financial systems, within the framework of mainly agrarian societies, the tension of ecclesiastical and political authorities or the special relationship between Christians, Jews and Muslims in Spain, and the development of cultural and ecclesiastical institutions, like the monasteries and the different orders. In the present context of a history of scriptural interpretation, it lays near at hand to mention the development of education and the school system.25 In all, the ‘Middle Ages’ presents itself as a rich and dynamic epoch.26

As for the question of the end of this epoch, it is — like the question of its beginning —to an essential degree open to discussion; a borderline between the so-called ‘Late Middle Ages’ and the Renaissance is hard, if ever possible, to draw. Sometimes, the ‘Late Middle Ages’ is extended to the sixteenth century; on the other hand, the question has been raised whether it is appropriate to speak of a Renaissance or ‘Proto-Renaissance’ already in the twelfth century;27 recently, there seems to be some tendency to push Renaissance as long as possible back into the Middle Ages.28

When the present volume of the HBOT Project, except for chapters on the Syrian Churches and on the Medieval Jewish-Christian disputations, ends with the Victorines of Paris and the great Masters of the thirteenth century,29 it is mainly for two reasons.

(a) As the first part volume, dealing with Antiquity, was concluded with an essay on Augustine, whose creative and synthetical work seems to ‘crown’ the traditions of theological reflection and exegetical practice of the Old Church, a corresponding ending of the second part volume is intended with essays on the great theologians and exegetes of the ‘High Middle Ages’; and similarly it may be said of the contemporary Jewish exegesis, especially as it was per- formed by Rashi in the school of literal Jewish exegesis in Northern France.30

23 Th.S.Kuhn, The Structure o f Scientific Revolution (Chicago 1962) x, 43-51.24 Cf. Heussi, Altertum, Mittelalter und Neuzeit (1921/1969) 55f/133f: “bei der Gliederung

des Stoffes würde es sich um Klassifikation, nicht um Partition handeln, also nicht um eigentliche historische Perioden”.

25 See on this chap. 27 of the present volume: “The Institutional Framework of Christian Exeg- esis in the Middle Ages”, by U. Köpf.

26 Cf. Nordberg, Den dynamiska medeltiden (1984).27 See esp. Sanford, The Twelfth Century — Renaissance or Proto-Renaissance (1951).28 Cf. Floyt, Europe (1957) 4-5.29 Chap. 34, by R. Berndt, and chap. 35, by K. Froehlich.30 See chap. 32, by A. G rossman; cf. chap. 31 and 33 for the rich and significant Jewish exegesis

in Spain, and also elsewhere.



Documents

Hebrew Bible / Old Testament - ciando ebooks · Hebrew Bible / Old Testament The History of Its Interpretation. V. olume. I. From the Beginnings to the Middle Ages (Until 1300) In