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Old, new and recurrent challenges in Ergonomics
H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene Juli 2014
Helmut Krueger, Zürich
HFE Quo vadis?
UngarnJuly 2014version 4
Hungary 2014
H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
2
Juli 2014
HFE: general remarksHFE: view of the world of workHFE: current SituationHFE: advantages and disadvantagesConclusion
Contents
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• HFE: general remarksHFE: view of the world of workHFE: current SituationHFE: advantages and disadvantagesConclusion
Contents
H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
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Juli 2014
HFE
Factors affecting promotion
Partially after Zink K., Ergonomics, 2000
Following factors have in part challenge for promoting HFE:
� globalization of competition
� de-regulation
� decentralization of processes
� rapidly changing technologies
� productivity (over-capacity)
� financial crisis
� emergence of more demanding customers
� …
� defensive academic environment
Following factors have in part challenge for promoting HFE:
� globalization of competition
� de-regulation
� decentralization of processes
� rapidly changing technologies
� productivity (over-capacity)
� financial crisis
� emergence of more demanding customers
� …
� defensive academic environment
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Ergonomics:
topics (IEA)
11-2011
4614
HFE:
• Physical function
Anatomical, anthropometrical, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics.
• Cognitive function
Mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor responses.
• Work organizationOptimization of socio-technical, work-related, or other systems.
• Economic – Social contextHow business procedures and relationships between employers and workers affect the work.
HFE:
• Physical function
Anatomical, anthropometrical, physiological, and biomechanical characteristics.
• Cognitive function
Mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor responses.
• Work organizationOptimization of socio-technical, work-related, or other systems.
• Economic – Social contextHow business procedures and relationships between employers and workers affect the work.
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Evolution of HFE
timeSafety and health, W. Jastrzebowski
Productivity, F. Taylor
Cognitive aspects, World War II
Multifactorial approaches
Managerial responsibilities
Integration of community oriented goals
ICT-based cultural changes
timeSafety and health, W. Jastrzebowski
Productivity, F. Taylor
Cognitive aspects, World War II
Multifactorial approaches
Managerial responsibilities
Integration of community oriented goals
ICT-based cultural changes
Menozzi M (2014)24-06-14
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HFE
some topics
� TerminologyTerminology aspects should not be overestimated. However, they are important
from the perspective of marketing; HFE is difficult to market, in the CH ergonomics mostly is limited to anthropometry and strain of the muscular system; Therefore plea for human factors / Human Factors is introduced in the Anglo-
Saxon Language
� Human Factors (Dul J et al.)Objective work ability and employability on the one hand and health and well-
being on the other hand; short work + Health
� Inside view and outside viewThere are many statements on the self-understanding. But the fact is that HFE is
still only partially perceived as a separate subject. Therefore, HFE repairs mostly only.
� HFEHFE is an auxiliary science for occupational medicine, occupational hygiene,
occupational safety, product development, and rehabilitation medicine.
� TerminologyTerminology aspects should not be overestimated. However, they are important
from the perspective of marketing; HFE is difficult to market, in the CH ergonomics mostly is limited to anthropometry and strain of the muscular system; Therefore plea for human factors / Human Factors is introduced in the Anglo-
Saxon Language
� Human Factors (Dul J et al.)Objective work ability and employability on the one hand and health and well-
being on the other hand; short work + Health
� Inside view and outside viewThere are many statements on the self-understanding. But the fact is that HFE is
still only partially perceived as a separate subject. Therefore, HFE repairs mostly only.
� HFEHFE is an auxiliary science for occupational medicine, occupational hygiene,
occupational safety, product development, and rehabilitation medicine.
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HFE
General remarks
Conferences and meetings� Congresses of work science fall apart - One reason certainly is the
diversity of topics.
� The congresses in the German area are carried in the main by people engaged in research, education or training at universities.
� Many specialists in special topics of HFE prefer to attend special events where their specific problems are treated. There they reach for their "ego" the necessary attention and acceptance.
� On the other hand you will seldom meet HFE specialists at national and international meetings of occupational safety or the designer community.
� At general HFE meetings rarely take part people who need the knowledge in HFE for their business.
� There are few important special companies for HFE problems and these are hard to find on the relevant meetings. Thus, there are small job perspectives for students. With these stands or falls the appeal of a special field.
Conferences and meetings� Congresses of work science fall apart - One reason certainly is the
diversity of topics.
� The congresses in the German area are carried in the main by people engaged in research, education or training at universities.
� Many specialists in special topics of HFE prefer to attend special events where their specific problems are treated. There they reach for their "ego" the necessary attention and acceptance.
� On the other hand you will seldom meet HFE specialists at national and international meetings of occupational safety or the designer community.
� At general HFE meetings rarely take part people who need the knowledge in HFE for their business.
� There are few important special companies for HFE problems and these are hard to find on the relevant meetings. Thus, there are small job perspectives for students. With these stands or falls the appeal of a special field.
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HFE: general remarks• HFE: view of the world of work
HFE: current SituationHFE: advantages and disadvantagesConclusion
Contents
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HFE
topics
Ergonomics: Ergonomic view of the world of work
� HFE model
� old - new problems (examples)Muscular stresses and strains
Augmented Reality
Human-computer interaction
ICT (Software ergonomics)
Hospital ergonomics
Green technologies
Risk Management
Work organization: shift work, blurring boundaries of work
Socio-psychological problems: mobbing, bullying, stress, ...
Workability in different age phases
e-Inclusion
etc.
Ergonomics: Ergonomic view of the world of work
� HFE model
� old - new problems (examples)Muscular stresses and strains
Augmented Reality
Human-computer interaction
ICT (Software ergonomics)
Hospital ergonomics
Green technologies
Risk Management
Work organization: shift work, blurring boundaries of work
Socio-psychological problems: mobbing, bullying, stress, ...
Workability in different age phases
e-Inclusion
etc.
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Human Factors / Ergonomics (HFE)
objectives
02-2013
4676
The effect of HFE design on performance and well-being.after Jan Dul, Ralph Bruder, Peter Buckle, Pascale Carayon, Pierre Falzon, William S. Marras, John R. Wilson and Bas van der Doele (2012)
A strategy for human factors/ergonomics: developing the discipline and profession.Ergonomics 2012, 1–27
Performance
Performance
Performance
Performance
HFE designFitting the
environment to thehuman
HFE designFitting the
environment to thehuman
HealthWell-being
HealthWell-being
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Human Factors / Ergonomics (HFE)
objectives
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Redesign of the formal principle of HFE.
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HFE
ongoing and new problems
� ongoing problems: equipment, products, systemswork seats, input / output devices, augmented reality, medical devices,
software systems, robots, vehicles, public traffic, ICT, .....
� ongoing problems: environmentillumination, noise, climate, biological toxicants, PSA, ...
� ongoing problems: work organisationshift work, unlimited work, ...
� ongoing problems: work systemsdistribution of activities, system interfaces, reliability, safety, risk, trust
� ongoing problems: specific groups of peoplekids, adolescents, pregnant women, older employees, senior citizens, persons
beyond 80 years
� new problems: new technologiesgreen technologiesnanotechnologies
� . . .
� ongoing problems: equipment, products, systemswork seats, input / output devices, augmented reality, medical devices,
software systems, robots, vehicles, public traffic, ICT, .....
� ongoing problems: environmentillumination, noise, climate, biological toxicants, PSA, ...
� ongoing problems: work organisationshift work, unlimited work, ...
� ongoing problems: work systemsdistribution of activities, system interfaces, reliability, safety, risk, trust
� ongoing problems: specific groups of peoplekids, adolescents, pregnant women, older employees, senior citizens, persons
beyond 80 years
� new problems: new technologiesgreen technologiesnanotechnologies
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HFE
some exemplary construction sites of interest
� Physical workmuskuloskeletal disorders (health, performance, risk)
� TrafficEmployability and ability to work (risk, safety)
� Medical devicesergonomic examination of the functions (security, performance)
� Medical systemsorganisation of hospitals (performance, security, risk, acceptance)
� ICT (information and communication technologies) accessibility,
easy to use, usability (performance, safety, acceptance)
� Working timeunlimited working time (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Psychosocial factorsbullying, stress, rehabilitation,
health management (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Physical workmuskuloskeletal disorders (health, performance, risk)
� TrafficEmployability and ability to work (risk, safety)
� Medical devicesergonomic examination of the functions (security, performance)
� Medical systemsorganisation of hospitals (performance, security, risk, acceptance)
� ICT (information and communication technologies) accessibility,
easy to use, usability (performance, safety, acceptance)
� Working timeunlimited working time (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Psychosocial factorsbullying, stress, rehabilitation,
health management (health, well-being, acceptance)
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Video-demonstration
repetitive work - constrained posture
04-2011
4504
Repetitive work in an unreasonable posturef4504# Zwangshaltung Schweissen Demonstration Muskelarbeit Simfer Kayseri MOV01707 Schweissen
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Low back pain
"diagnostic camera"
Tanaka Y et al., DHM Symposium, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2013adapted from Menozzi M (2014)24-06-14
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Anthropometry
digital human models: „Ramsis“
source: Human Solution, Tecmar, 2008
21-11-08
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Sitting
in motion
The human body needs movement!Therefore, there is not one ergonomic seating position, but only a change between different positions guarantees ergonomic seating!
An ergonomic seat must support different seating po sitions .24-02-00
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Sitting
"limbic chair"
Patrik Künzler http://www.inno-motion.com/de/ June 201423-06-14
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Sitting
Crane driver seat: working situation
Menozzi M, Bergande E, Sury P, 200824-06-14
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Sitting
Crane driver seat
Menozzi M, Bergande E, Sury P, 200824-06-14
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© Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) - IHA Ergonomics / Work + Health H. Krueger
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31-10-2000
Ergonomic products?
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"Ergonomic Products„are not ergonomic "per se"
but only with regard to:
�Processes�Procedures
3843
"Ergonomic Products„are not ergonomic "per se"
but only with regard to:
�Processes�Procedures
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Risk
Incidents in anaesthesia
Weiniger MB,Journal of Clinical Monitoring, 1999; 15:319–323adapted from Menozzi M (2014)24-06-14
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Interface
cognitive overload
24.11.09
4267
Range of information in anesthesia - Variety of devi ces in the University Hospital of ZurichHeld J. (2008)
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Medical care
NASA-TLX in Laparoscopy
Hubert N et al., Int J Med Rob & Comp Ass Surg, 2013: 9; 142-147
NA
SA
TLX
rat
ings
Standard Laparoscopy
Robot AssistedLaparoscopy
Robot Assisted Laparoscopymy.clevelandclinic.org
Standard Laparoscopywww.cs.unc.edu
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Input devices
multidimensional
30.11.09
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Menozzi
Dataglove
Cyberpuck
Dataglove
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Visual load
visual complexity in phone display
Menozzi M (2014)24-06-14
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visual and cognitive load
Control room
District heating network control, Vienna24-06-14
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Complexity of web pages
assessment
adapted from Menozzi M (2014) / Tuch AN et al., Int. J. Human-Computer Studies 67 (2009) 703–715 24-06-14
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Complexity of web pages
psychophysiological reactions
adapted from Menozzi M (2014) Tuch AN et al., Int. J. Human-Computer Studies 67 (2009) 703–715
Facial EMG response
Heart beat interval response
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Complexity of interfaces
estimation of complexity from XHTML data in three steps
Harper Jay C, Michailidou E, Quan H. (2013) Analysing the visual complexity of web pages using document structure.Behaviour & Information Technology, 32(5); 491-502
First step: find block-level elements (information junks) in XHT
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Complexity of interfaces
estimation of complexity from XHTML data in three steps
Second step: overlay grid (eventually optimize size ) over web page
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Harper Jay C, Michailidou E, Quan H. (2013) Analysing the visual complexity of web pages using document structure.Behaviour & Information Technology, 32(5); 491-502
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Complexity of interfaces
estimation of complexity from XHTML data in three steps
Third step: count elements in each grid cell
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Harper Jay C, Michailidou E, Quan H. (2013) Analysing the visual complexity of web pages using document structure.Behaviour & Information Technology, 32(5); 491-502
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Attention
different complexity of the visual field
08-2011
4585
Presentation of a stimulus of good contrast on different backgrounds (grey, still picture, video).
The probability that a front passenger discovers a target, from the complexity of the image decreases (a neutral gray background, unmoving road image, video of a real ride)
M. Menozzi, F. Hofer, U. Näpflin, H. Krueger (2003) Visual performance in augmented reality systems for mobile use.International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction
possible target positions
possible target positions
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Functional field of vision
“Tunnel vision”
OECD 2006, Speed Managementadapted from Menozzi M (2014)
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Reflector control
reality
Held
18.06.10
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Reflector control
visual control strategy depends on the object and on the subject
18.06.10
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A good reflector surface quality needs about 2-3 seconds inspection time. When inspecting a critical part of the surface it needs about 1 second and more inspection time for the human inspector. Held J
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Ageing
work ability
Age-related effects •decrease: motor sensory skills, muscular force, multitasking•improvement: experience, knowledge of human nature,
quality awareness, customer orientation, risk assessment
•large inter-individual differences
Age-related issues •productivity •sickness absence•technical risks •risk behaviour•adaptation to technological change
Age-related measures• design of tools, workplace & work organization• adaptation working environment • promotion of work ability (continuous training)• social conditions (integration, flexible retirement)
Age-related effects •decrease: motor sensory skills, muscular force, multitasking•improvement: experience, knowledge of human nature,
quality awareness, customer orientation, risk assessment
•large inter-individual differences
Age-related issues •productivity •sickness absence•technical risks •risk behaviour•adaptation to technological change
Age-related measures• design of tools, workplace & work organization• adaptation working environment • promotion of work ability (continuous training)• social conditions (integration, flexible retirement)
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Work ability
06-2013
4711
Opportunities for older workers and female workersWorking conditions do not change (A)Impact of advances in productivity (B)Effect of changes of necessary knowledge (C)
adapted from Liedtke P M (2002) Risiko Zukunft - Chance Arbeit.In Kilger G, Bienek H-J (Ed) Neue Qualität der Arbeit. Campus Verlag; Frankfurt New York; p. 197-209
[%]100
80
60
40
20
010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
age [years]
A
[%]100
80
60
40
20
010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
age [years]
B
[%]100
80
60
40
20
010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
age [years]
C
physical abilitymental abilityover all ability
demands
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Green Technologies
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work. Green jobs and occupational safety and health: Foresight on new and emerging risks associated with new technologies by 2020
https://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/green-jobs-foresight-new-emerging-risks-technologies, June 2014
In a buoyant economy, funds are available for inves tment in safety, but
the high pace of innovation and the rapid roll-out of new technologies and
new products, and the creation of new jobs requirin g new skills mean that
a wider population faces new risks over shorter tim escales.
It is, therefore, important that OSH assessments are undertaken early in
the development cycle of a technology or product so that the pace of
development doesn’t leave OSH behind.
• Wind energy• Green construction and building retrofitting• Bioenergy• Waste management and recycling• Green transport• Green manufacturing, robotics and automation• Domestic and small-scale renewable energy• Batteries and energy storage• Energy transmission and distribution
In a buoyant economy, funds are available for inves tment in safety, but
the high pace of innovation and the rapid roll-out of new technologies and
new products, and the creation of new jobs requirin g new skills mean that
a wider population faces new risks over shorter tim escales.
It is, therefore, important that OSH assessments are undertaken early in
the development cycle of a technology or product so that the pace of
development doesn’t leave OSH behind.
• Wind energy• Green construction and building retrofitting• Bioenergy• Waste management and recycling• Green transport• Green manufacturing, robotics and automation• Domestic and small-scale renewable energy• Batteries and energy storage• Energy transmission and distribution
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HFE: general remarksHFE: view of the world of work
• HFE: current SituationHFE: advantages and disadvantagesConclusion
Contents
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HFE
HFE: Current Situation
� Reparative versus prospective activity
� Standards
� "good practice" guidelines
� Certification
HFE: Current Situation
� Reparative versus prospective activity
� Standards
� "good practice" guidelines
� Certification
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HFE
business aspects
Business aspects of HFE� Unaware of the importance and the benefit of HFE specialists, there is
only a limited willingness of companies to outsource HFE tasks or to hire HFE experts.
� There is hardly a considerable knowledge transfer from science into practice.
� There are small enterprises in the field of HFE. But they are focused on specific problems, i.e. usability testing of software products, lighting companies, acoustic consultancies, experts for stress management and occupational health management, etc..
� Unlike the occupational medicine centers HFE centers are usually very small enterprises or one-person activities at least.
Business aspects of HFE� Unaware of the importance and the benefit of HFE specialists, there is
only a limited willingness of companies to outsource HFE tasks or to hire HFE experts.
� There is hardly a considerable knowledge transfer from science into practice.
� There are small enterprises in the field of HFE. But they are focused on specific problems, i.e. usability testing of software products, lighting companies, acoustic consultancies, experts for stress management and occupational health management, etc..
� Unlike the occupational medicine centers HFE centers are usually very small enterprises or one-person activities at least.
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Design
ISO 9241-210:2010 Human centered design process for interactive systems
2216
12-2011
4615
identify the need for human-centered design
understand &specify the context
of use
understand &specify the context
of use
specify the user &Organizationalrequirements
specify the user &Organizationalrequirements
produce design solutions to meet
the user requirements
produce design solutions to meet
the user requirements
evaluate designs against
requirements
evaluate designs against
requirements
Designed solutionmeets user
requirements
Umsetzung
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Juli 2014
Illumination
designer luminair
Lucellino NT is called "bird", and is a wall lamp by Ingo Maurer.2009
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46
Juli 2014
HFE
HFE: Current Situation
� StandardsHFE
industrial hygiene
toxicology
occupational medicine
� "good practice" guidelines
HFE: Current Situation
� StandardsHFE
industrial hygiene
toxicology
occupational medicine
� "good practice" guidelines
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H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
47
Juli 2014
HFE
education and training - certification
Education and training in ergonomics� There is no simple description of the HFE occupation.
� There are only few courses for specific problems that address practitioners.
� Universities offer small training courses and / or opportunitiesfor research projects, but no job perspectives.
CREE certified ergonomists: 422 in 2014
SwissErgo (CH):..……………….…............ca. 150 in 2010GfA (Arbeitswissenschaft DE):…………… ca. 470 in 2012SELF (Soc. Ergo. Langue Française):…... ca. 660 in 2012
Menozzi M (2014)
Education and training in ergonomics� There is no simple description of the HFE occupation.
� There are only few courses for specific problems that address practitioners.
� Universities offer small training courses and / or opportunitiesfor research projects, but no job perspectives.
CREE certified ergonomists: 422 in 2014
SwissErgo (CH):..……………….…............ca. 150 in 2010GfA (Arbeitswissenschaft DE):…………… ca. 470 in 2012SELF (Soc. Ergo. Langue Française):…... ca. 660 in 2012
Menozzi M (2014)
2323 55 114114 22 5050 7272 99 77
1919 4343 55 77 11 3535 2828
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Juli 2014
HFE: general remarksHFE: view of the world of workHFE: current Situation
• HFE: advantages and disadvantagesConclusion
Contents
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49
Juli 2014
HFE
consequences
Occupational Hygiene, occupational medicine and saf ety• Technical, industrial safety is generally accepted in practice.• Occupational medicine has the advantage of legally defined formal service time.• Occupational medicine and industrial hygiene are in a similar situation as HFE.
How can HFE be positioned?• Specialist for the triage of actual HFE problems of work and entertainment.• There are enough problems in practice, these relate to health, performance,
safety or acceptance of devices or work systems.
Result:
� There are many tasks for HFE specialists.� The problem of HFE is the variety.HFE is just an umbrella over many tasks and
objectives.� HFE specialists have to try to provide a platform for discussing general
problems and to involve different specialists. � HFE must operate as a network.
Occupational Hygiene, occupational medicine and saf ety• Technical, industrial safety is generally accepted in practice.• Occupational medicine has the advantage of legally defined formal service time.• Occupational medicine and industrial hygiene are in a similar situation as HFE.
How can HFE be positioned?• Specialist for the triage of actual HFE problems of work and entertainment.• There are enough problems in practice, these relate to health, performance,
safety or acceptance of devices or work systems.
Result:
� There are many tasks for HFE specialists.� The problem of HFE is the variety.HFE is just an umbrella over many tasks and
objectives.� HFE specialists have to try to provide a platform for discussing general
problems and to involve different specialists. � HFE must operate as a network.
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H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
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Juli 2014
HFE
proposals for development
� Organization of congresses with limited issues as opposed to "umbrella"
congresses. Presentation of concrete solutions of HFE problems with
discussion of "pros and cons". Targeted addressing of customers for
ergonomic knowledge.
� Creation of job opportunities in HFE and not just organizing education &
training.
� Effort to establish small HFE enterprises; best in terms of "outsourcing" with
start order of larger companies.
� It takes courage for a longer breath!
Result: HFE problems there are many. Let's do it.
� Organization of congresses with limited issues as opposed to "umbrella"
congresses. Presentation of concrete solutions of HFE problems with
discussion of "pros and cons". Targeted addressing of customers for
ergonomic knowledge.
� Creation of job opportunities in HFE and not just organizing education &
training.
� Effort to establish small HFE enterprises; best in terms of "outsourcing" with
start order of larger companies.
� It takes courage for a longer breath!
Result: HFE problems there are many. Let's do it.
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4747
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dvan
tage
s an
d di
sadv
anta
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H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
51
Juli 2014
HFE: general remarksHFE: view of the world of workHFE: current SituationHFE: advantages and disadvantages
• Conclusion
Contents
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52
Juli 2014
HFE
exemplary construction sites of interest
� Physical workmuskuloskeletal disorders (health ,performance, risk)
� TrafficEmployability and ability to work (risk, safety)
� Medical devicesergonomic examination of the functions (security, performance)
� Medical systemsorganisation of hospitals (performance, security, risk, acceptance)
� ICT (information and communication technologies) accessibility,
easy to use, usability (performance, safety, acceptance)
� Working timeunlimited working time (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Psychosocial factorsbullying, stress, rehabilitation,
health management (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Physical workmuskuloskeletal disorders (health ,performance, risk)
� TrafficEmployability and ability to work (risk, safety)
� Medical devicesergonomic examination of the functions (security, performance)
� Medical systemsorganisation of hospitals (performance, security, risk, acceptance)
� ICT (information and communication technologies) accessibility,
easy to use, usability (performance, safety, acceptance)
� Working timeunlimited working time (health, well-being, acceptance)
� Psychosocial factorsbullying, stress, rehabilitation,
health management (health, well-being, acceptance)
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Con
clus
ion
H. Krueger ZfA - Access for all | AEH - Centre for Occupational Medicine, Ergonomics & Hygiene
53
Juli 2014
HFE
exemplary construction sites of interest
� Age-appropriate product designConsideration of age-related restrictions of
physical, sensory and cognitive abilities (accessibility, acceptance)
� Age-appropriate system-designConsideration of age-related restrictions of
physical, sensory and cognitive abilities (risk, performance, acceptance)
� Age-appropriate Retirementfirst: age-appropriate working conditions
second: promoting work ability of all ages third: raising the retirement age (performance, acceptance)
� . . .
Attention!Cobbler, stick to your last. But a HFE specialist must be able to communicate at
eye level with the experts in physiology, neurology, psychology, technology and work design.
Therefore education and training in HFE is necessary!
� Age-appropriate product designConsideration of age-related restrictions of
physical, sensory and cognitive abilities (accessibility, acceptance)
� Age-appropriate system-designConsideration of age-related restrictions of
physical, sensory and cognitive abilities (risk, performance, acceptance)
� Age-appropriate Retirementfirst: age-appropriate working conditions
second: promoting work ability of all ages third: raising the retirement age (performance, acceptance)
� . . .
Attention!Cobbler, stick to your last. But a HFE specialist must be able to communicate at
eye level with the experts in physiology, neurology, psychology, technology and work design.
Therefore education and training in HFE is necessary!
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Con
clus
ion