Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor

This article is about the Holy Roman Emperor. For otheruses, see Henry IV.

Henry IV (German: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 –7 August 1106) ascended to King of the Germans[1] in1056 . From 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105, hewas also referred to as the King of the Romans and HolyRoman Emperor. He was the third emperor of the Saliandynasty and one of the most powerful and important fig-ures of the 11th century. His reign was marked by theInvestiture Controversy with the Papacy and several civilwars over his throne both in Italy and Germany. He diedof illness, soon after defeating his son’s army near Visé,in Lorraine.

1 Biography

In 1057, at the age of seven, Henry IV became theKing ofthe Germans, and his mother, Agnes of Poitou, becameregent. In 1062 the young king was kidnapped as a resultof the Coup of Kaiserswerth, a conspiracy of German no-bles led by Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne. Henry, whowas at Kaiserwerth, was persuaded to board a boat lyingin the Rhine; it was immediately unmoored and the kingjumped into the stream, but he was rescued by one of theconspirators and carried to Cologne. Agnes retired to aconvent, and the government was placed in the hands ofAnno whose first move was to back Pope Alexander IIagainst the antipope Honorius II, whom Agnes had ini-tially recognized but subsequently left without support.Anno’s rule proved unpopularThe education and training of Henry were supervised byAnno, who was called his magister, while Adalbert ofHamburg, archbishop of Bremen, was styled Henry’s pa-tronus. Henry’s education seems to have been neglected,and his willful and headstrong nature developed under theconditions of these early years. The malleable Adalbertof Hamburg soon became the confidante of the ruthlessHenry. Eventually, during an absence of Anno fromGer-many, Henrymanaged to obtain control of his civil duties,leaving Anno with only an ecclesiastical role.

1.1 First years of rule and the SaxonWars

In March 1065, Henry was enthroned at the age of fif-teen. His entire reign was marked by apparent efforts toconsolidate Imperial power. In reality, however, it was a

careful balancing act to maintain the loyalty of the nobil-ity and the support of the pope. In 1066, he expelled fromthe Crown Council Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen, whohad profited from his position for personal enrichment.Henry also adopted urgent military measures against theSlav pagans, who had recently invaded Germany and be-sieged Hamburg.In June 1066 Henry married Bertha of Savoy/Turin,daughter of Otto, Count of Savoy, to whom he had beenbetrothed in 1055. In the same year, at the request of thePope, he assembled an army to fight the Italo-Normansof southern Italy. Henry’s troops had reached Augsburgwhen he received news that Godfrey of Tuscany, hus-band of the powerful Matilda of Canossa, marchionessof Tuscany, had already attacked the Normans. There-fore the expedition was halted. In 1068, driven by hisimpetuous character and his infidelities, Henry attemptedto divorce Bertha.[2] His peroration at a council in Mainzwas rejected, however, by the Papal legate Pier Damiani,or Peter Damian, who hinted that any further insistencetowards divorce would lead the new pope, Alexander II,to deny his coronation. Henry obeyed and his wife re-turned to Court, but he was convinced that the Papal op-position aimed only at overthrowing lay power within theEmpire, in favour of an ecclesiastical hierarchy.In the late 1060s, Henry demonstrated his determina-tion to reduce any opposition and to enlarge the nationalboundaries. He led expeditions against the Lutici and themargrave of a district east of Saxony; soon afterwardshe had to quell the rebellions of Rudolf of Swabia andBerthold of Carinthia. Much more serious was Henry’sstruggle with Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria. Thisprince, who occupied an influential position in Germanyand was one of the protagonists of Henry’s early kidnap-ping, was accused in 1070 by a certain Egino of beingprivy to a plot to murder the king. It was decided that atrial by battle should take place at Goslar, but when Otto’sdemand for safe conduct to and from the place of meet-ing was refused, he declined to appear. He was there-upon declared deposed in Bavaria, and his Saxon estateswere plundered. However, he obtained sufficient sup-port to carry on a struggle with the king in Saxony andThuringia until 1071, when he submitted at Halberstadt.Henry aroused the hostility of the Thuringians by sup-porting Siegfried, archbishop of Mainz, in his efforts toexact tithes from them. More formidable still was the en-mity of the Saxons, who had several causes of complaintagainst the king—hewas the son of one enemy, Henry III,and the friend of another, Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen.

1

2 1 BIOGRAPHY

1.2 Investiture Controversy

Main article: Investiture Controversy

The momentum for a reform of the church had its clearbeginning during the reign of Henry’s father, in the shortbut effective pontificate of Leo IX, whom Henry III hadnominated. Since that time, the reforming initiative hadbeen carried on by men like Cardinal Bishop Humbert ofMoyenmoutier and St. Peter Damian. After the death ofCardinal Humbert, who had called for a return to the oldcanonical principles of free election of the papacy and theemancipation of the Church from the control of the secu-lar power, the leadership of the reform movement passedto younger men of whom the Tuscan monk Hildebrand, afollower of Humbert, stood foremost.[3] Hildebrand as-cended the papacy in 1073 as Gregory VII, and whileHenry adhered to Papal decrees in religious matters tosecure the Church’s support for his expeditions in Sax-ony and Thuringia, Gregory saw the opportunity to pressthe Church’s agenda.The tension between Empire and Church culminated inthe councils of 1074–75, which constituted a substantialattempt to undo Henry III’s policies. Among other mea-sures, they denied secular rulers the right to place mem-bers of the clergy in office; this had dramatic effects inGermany, where bishops were often powerful feudato-ries who, in this way, were able to free themselves fromimperial authority. In addition to restoring all privilegeslost by the ecclesiasticals, the council’s decision deprivedthe imperial crown of almost half its lands, with grievousconsequences for national unity, especially in peripheralareas like the Kingdom of Italy.Suddenly hostile to Gregory, Henry did not relent fromhis positions: after defeating Otto of Nordheim, he con-tinued to interfere in Italian and German episcopal life,naming bishops at his will and declaring papal provisionsillegitimate. In 1075, Gregory excommunicated somemembers of the Imperial Court and threatened to do thesame to Henry himself. Furthermore, in a synod heldin February of that year, Gregory clearly established thesupreme power of the Catholic Church, with the Empiresubjected to it. Henry replied with a counter-synod of hisown.The beginning of the conflict known as the InvestitureControversy can be assigned to Christmas night of 1075:Gregory was kidnapped and imprisoned by Cencio IFrangipane, a Roman noble, while officiating at SantaMaria Maggiore in Rome. Later freed by Roman peo-ple, Gregory accused Henry of having been behind theattempt. In the same year, the king had defeated a rebel-lion of Saxons in the First Battle of Langensalza and wastherefore free to accept the challenge.At Worms, on 24 January 1076, a synod of bishops andprinces summoned by Henry declared Gregory VII de-posed. Hildebrand replied by excommunicating the king

and all the bishops named by him on 22 February 1076.In October of that year a diet of the German princesin Tribur attempted to find a settlement for the conflict,conceding Henry a year to repent from his actions, be-fore the ratification of the excommunication that the popewas to sign in Swabia some months later. Henry didnot repent, and, counting on the hostility showed by theLombard clergy against Gregory, he decided to move toItaly. He left Speyer in December 1076, spent Christ-mas in Besançon and, together with his wife and his son,he crossed the Alps with help of the Bishop of Turinand reached Pavia. Gregory, on his way to the diet ofAugsburg and hearing that Henry was approaching, tookrefuge in the castle of Canossa (near Reggio Emilia), be-longing to Matilda. Henry’s troops were nearby.

Henry IV begging Matilda of Canossa

Henry’s intent, however, was apparently to perform thepenance required to lift his excommunication and ensurehis continued rule. The choice of an Italian location forthe act of repentance, instead of Augsburg, was not acci-dental: it aimed to consolidate the Imperial power in anarea partly hostile to the Pope; to lead in person the prose-cution of events; and to oppose the pact signed byGermanfeudataries and the Pope in Tribur with the strong Ger-man party that had deposed Henry atWorms, through theconcrete presence of his army.Henry stood in the snow outside the gates of the castleof Canossa for three days, from 25 January to 27 January1077, begging the pope to rescind the sentence (popularlyportrayed as without shoes, taking no food or shelter, andwearing a hairshirt - see Walk of Canossa). The Popelifted the excommunication, imposing a vow to complywith certain conditions, which Henry soon violated.

1.4 Second voyage to Italy 3

1.3 Civil war and recovery

Rudolf of Rheinfelden, a two-time brother-in-law ofHenry, along with allied German aristocrats, took ad-vantage of the momentary weakness of the king in whatbecame known as the Great Saxon Revolt. Rudolf de-clared himself antiking by a council of Saxon, Bavarian,and Carinthian princes in March 1077 in Forchheim. Hepromised to respect the electoral concept of the monar-chy and declared his willingness to submit to the Pope, towhich the Pope agreed.Despite these difficulties, Henry’s situation in Germanyimproved in the following years. When Rudolf wascrowned king at Mainz in May 1077 by one of the plot-ters, Siegfried I, Archbishop of Mainz, the population re-volted and forced Rudolf, the archbishop, and other no-bles to flee to Saxony. Positioned there, Rudolf was ge-ographically and then militarily deprived of his territo-ries by Henry; he was later stripped of Swabia as well.After the inconclusive Battle of Mellrichstadt (7 August1077) and the defeat of Henry’s forces in the Flarchheim(27 January 1080), Gregory flip-flopped to support the re-volt and launched a second anathema (excommunication)against Henry in March 1080, thereby supporting the an-tiking Rudolf. However, the ample evidence that Gre-gory’s actions were rooted in hate for the Emperor-electinstead of theology had an unfavourable personal impacton the Pope’s reputation and authority, leading much ofGermany to return to Henry’s cause.On 14 October 1080 the armies of the two rival kings metat the White Elster river during the Battle of Elster,[4][5]in the plain of Leipzig. Henry’s forces again suffered amilitary defeat but won the battle with a strategic out-come: Rudolf was mortally wounded and died the nextday at nearby Merseburg, and the rebellion against Henrylost much of its momentum.Soon after, another antiking, Hermann of Salm, arose asfigurehead, but he was fought successfully by Frederick ofSwabia, Rudolf’s Henry-appointed successor in Swabiawho had married Henry’s daughter Agnes of Germany.Henry convoked a synod of the highest German clergyin Bamberg and Brixen in June 1080. Here, Henry hadPope Gregory (whom he had dubbed “The False Monk”)again deposed and replaced by the primate of Ravenna,Guibert (now known as the antipope Clement III, thoughwho was in the right was unclear at the time).

1.4 Second voyage to Italy

Henry entered Pavia and was crowned as King of Italy,receiving the Iron Crown of Lombardy. He assigneda series of privileges to the Italian cities who had sup-ported him, marched against the hated Matilda of Tus-cany, declaring her deposed for lese majesty, and confis-cated her possessions. Then he moved to Rome, whichhe besieged first in 1081: he was compelled to retire to

Henry IV (left), count palatine Herman II of Lotharingia andAntipope Clement III (center), from Codex Jenensis Bose (1157)

Tuscany, however, where he granted privileges to variouscities and obtained monetary assistance (360,000 goldpieces)[6] from a new ally, the eastern emperor, AlexiosI Komnenos, who aimed to thwart Norman aims againsthis empire.A second and equally unsuccessful attack on Rome wasfollowed by a war of devastation in northern Italy with theadherents of Matilda. Towards the end of 1082 the kingmade a third attack on Rome, and after a siege of sevenmonths, the Leonine City fell into his hands. A treaty wasconcluded with the Romans, who agreed that the quarrelbetween king and pope should be decided by a synod,and they secretly bound themselves to induce Gregory tocrown Henry as emperor or to choose another pope. Gre-gory, however, shut up in Castel Sant'Angelo, would hearof no compromise; the synod was a failure, as Henry pre-vented the attendance of many of the pope’s supporters,and the king, pursuant to his treaty with Alexios, marchedagainst the Normans.The Romans soon fell away from their allegiance to thepope. Recalled to the city, Henry entered Rome inMarch1084, after which Gregory was declared deposed andClement was recognized by the Romans. On 31 March1084 Henry was crowned emperor by Clement and re-ceived the patrician authority. His next step was to attackthe fortresses still in the hands of Gregory. The pope wassaved by the advance of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apu-lia, who left the siege of Durazzo and marched towardsRome: Henry left the city and Gregory was freed. Gre-gory soon died at Salerno, in 1085, but not before a lastletter in which he exhorted the whole of Christianity to acrusade against the Emperor.Feeling secure of his success in Italy, Henry returnedto Germany. He spent 1084 in a show of power there,where the reforming instances had still ground due to thepredication of Otto of Ostia, advancing up to Magdeburgin Saxony. He also declared the Peace of God in allthe Imperial territories to quench any sedition. On 8March 1088 Otto of Ostia was elected pope as Urban II.With Norman support, he excommunicated Henry andClement III, who was defined as “a beast sprung out from

4 1 BIOGRAPHY

the earth to wage war against the Saints of God”. Healso formed a large coalition against the Holy Roman Em-pire, including, aside from the Normans, the Kievan Rus’,the Lombard communes of Milan, Cremona, Lodi, andPiacenza, and Matilda of Canossa, who had remarried toWelf II of Bavaria, thereby creating a concentration ofpower too formidable to be neglected by the emperor.

1.5 Internecine wars and death

In 1088 Hermann of Salm died, and Egbert II, Margraveof Meissen, a long-time enemy of the Emperor, pro-claimed himself the successor of the antiking. Henry hadhim condemned by a Saxon diet and then a national oneat Quedlinburg and Regensburg respectively, but he wasdefeated by Egbert when a relief army came to the mar-grave’s rescue during the siege of Gleichen. Egbert wasmurdered two years later, in 1090, and his ineffectual in-surrection and royal pretensions fell apart.

The abdication of Henry IV in favour of Henry V, from theChronicle of Ekkehard von Aura

Henry then launched his third punitive expedition in Italy.After some initial success against the lands of Canossa,his defeat in 1092 caused the rebellion of the Lombardcommunes. The insurrection extended when Matildamanaged to turn against him his elder son, Conrad, who

was crowned King of Italy at Monza in 1093. The Em-peror therefore found himself cut off from Germany; hewas unable to return until 1097. In Germany itself hispower was still at its height. Matilda of Canossa had se-cretly transferred her property to the Church in 1089, be-fore her marriage to Welf II of Bavaria (1072–1120). In1095, a furiousWelf left her and, together with his father,switched his allegiance to Henry IV, possibly in exchangefor a promise of succeeding his father as duke of Bavaria.Henry reacted by deposing Conrad at the diet of Mainzin April 1098, designating his younger son Henry (futureHenry V) as successor, under the oath swearing that hewould never follow his brother’s example.The situation in the Empire remained chaotic, worsenedby the further excommunication against Henry launchedby the new pope Paschal II, a follower of Gregory VII’sreformation ideals, who was elected in August 1099. Butthis time the Emperor, meeting with some success in hisefforts to restore order, could afford to ignore the papalban. A successful campaign in Flanders was followed in1103 by a diet at Mainz, where serious efforts were madeto restore peace, and Henry IV himself promised to go oncrusade. This plan was shattered in 1104, however, by therevolt of his son Henry, who, encouraged by the adher-ents of the pope, declared he owed no allegiance to his ex-communicated father. Saxony and Thuringia were soonin arms; the bishops held mainly to the younger Henry,while the Emperor was supported by the towns. A desul-tory warfare was unfavourable to the Emperor, however,and he was taken as prisoner at an alleged reconciliationmeeting at Koblenz. At a diet held in Mainz in Decem-ber, Henry IV was forced to resign his crown, being sub-sequently imprisoned in the castle of Böckelheim. Therehe was also obliged to say that he had unjustly persecutedGregoryVII and illegally namedClement III as anti-pope.

The funeral of the Emperor Henry IV

When these conditions became known in Germany, a

5

strong dissent movement spread. In 1106 the loyal partyset up a large army to fight Henry V and Paschal. HenryIV managed to escape to Cologne from his jail, find-ing considerable support in the lower Rhineland. Healso entered into negotiations with England, France, andDenmark.Henry was able to defeat his son’s army near Visé, in Lor-raine, on 2 March 1106. He died soon afterwards, how-ever, after nine days of illness, at the age of 56, while hewas the guest of his friend Othbert, Bishop of Liège. Hewas buried by the bishop of Liège with suitable ceremony,but by command of the papal legate he was unearthed,taken to Speyer, and placed in the unconsecrated chapelof Saint,[7] which was built on the side of the ImperialCathedral. After being released from the sentence of ex-communication, his remains were buried in Speyer cathe-dral in August 1111.

2 Evaluation

Henry IV in later life displayed much diplomatic ability.His abasement at Canossa can be regarded as a move ofpolicy to strengthen the pope’s position at the cost of apersonal humiliation to himself. He was always regardedas a friend of the lower orders, was capable of generosityand gratitude, and showed considerable military skill andgreat chivalry.

3 Family and children

Henry’s wife Bertha died on 27 December 1087. She wasalso buried at the Speyer Cathedral. Their children were:

• Adelheid (1070 – 4 June 1079).[8]

• Henry (1 August 1071 – 2 August 1071).

• Agnes (1072/73 – 24 September 1143), marriedfirstly Frederick I, Duke of Swabia and secondlyLeopold III, Margrave of Austria.

• Conrad (12 February 1074 – 27 July 1101), laterRoman-German King and King of Italy.

• Mathilde.[9]

• Henry V (11 August 1086 – 23 May 1125), laterRoman-German King and Holy Roman Emperor.

In 1089 Henry married Eupraxia of Kiev (crowned Em-press in 1088), a daughter of Vsevolod I, Prince of Kiev,and sister to his son Vladimir II Monomakh, prince ofKievan Rus.

4 In fiction

The title character in the tragedy Henry IV by Luigi Pi-randello is a madman who believes himself to be HenryIV.

5 Ancestry

6 See also• Kings of Germany family tree. He was related toevery other king of Germany.

• Concordat of Worms

• First Council of the Lateran

7 Notes[1] Medieval Europeans: studies in ethnic identity and national

perspectives in medieval Europe By Alfred P. Smyth, Pal-grave Macmillan (1998)

[2] Bertha in the meantime had retired to the Abbey ofLorscheim.

[3] Religion and the Rise of Western Culture By ChristopherDawson, Image Books Doubleday (1950), pages 129-133

[4] John France (1996). Victory in the East (Book extract).ISBN 9780521589871. Godfrey was almost certainlypresent in support of Henry IV at the battle of Elster in1080 (sic 1085), when the forces of the anti-king Rudolftriumphed on the field only to see their victory nullifiedbecause Rudolf was killed

[5] Donald J.Kagay, L.J.Andrew Villalon (January 2003).Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfarein Societies Around the World. ISBN 9004125531. Re-trieved 2008-06-05. One of two brief accounts of thebattle of Volta reports it occurred on the same day as thebattle of Elster (15 October 1080) in which Rudolf wasfatally wounded.

[6] J. Norwich, Byzantium: The Decline and Fall, 21

[7] Afro

[8] The chronicles of Jan Długosz and Archdiacon Sulger re-ported that she married Bolesław III Wrymouth, Duke ofPoland at Bamberg in 1110 as her second wife. This viewwas challenged by Oswald Balzer (O. Balzer: BolesławIII Krzywousty, pp. 122-123) and contemporary chartersand documents, who placed her as deceased in infancy orat least before 1101. Die Urkunden Heinrichs IV no. 466,p. 629 and no. 474, p. 644.

[9] Morkinskinna records that Magnus III of Norway “wasmuch smitten” with “the emperor’s daughter…with whomhe had exchanged messages…Matilda”. No other refer-ence to this alleged daughter has been found. Andersson,

6 8 SOURCES

T.M. and Gade, K. E. (trans.) (2000)Morkinskinna (Cor-nell), 58, p. 307.

8 Sources• I. S. Robinson, Henry IV of Germany, 1056–1106(Cambridge, 1999).

• T. J. H. McCarthy: Chronicles of the InvestitureContest: Frutolf of Michelsberg and his continuators(Manchester, 2014).

• Gerd Althoff (Ed.): Heinrich IV. (Ostfildern, 2009)(Vorträge und Forschungen; 69).

• Gerd Althoff: Heinrich IV. (Darmstadt, 2006)

• Charter given byHenry to the bishopric of Bamberg,17.8.1057. Photography taken form the collectionsof the Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden atMarburg University showing the emperor’s seal.

7

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