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HİBRİD VE ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR
«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»
Abdullah DEMİR, Yrd. Doç. Dr.
VERİMLİLİK VE KIYASLAMALAR
What is an EPA rating?
Conditions
Drive cycle: e.g. city or highway cycle, real-world, or constant speed
Test temperature
Start: (warm or cold) Fuel: convert to gasoline-equivalent
Test mass: (accounts for passengers and cargo)
MPGe rating
PHEV’s
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The fuel economy of conventional vehicles is evaluated by fuel consumption (liters) per 100 km, or miles per gallon. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency sets the methods for fuel economy certification. There are usually two numbers, one for city driving and one for highway driving. There is an additional fuel economy number that evaluates the combined fuel economy by combining the 55% city and 45% highway MPG numbers [6–8]:
For pure EVs, the fuel economy is best described by electricity consumption for a certain range, for example, watt hour/mile or kWh/100 km. For example, a typical passenger car consumes 120–250 Wh/mile. In order to compare the fuel efficiency of EVs with conventional gasoline or diesel vehicles, the energy content of gasoline is used to convert the numbers. Since 1 gallon of gasoline contains 33.7 kWh energy (http://www.eere.doe.gov), the equivalent fuel economy of an EV can be expressed as
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Therefore, a passenger car that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have an equivalent gasoline mileage of 140 MPG from the energy point of view.
Notlar: MPG = mil/gal 1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK) 1 gal = 3,78 litre (US) 1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal = 158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US] 1 mil= 1609 m
Avrupa: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi) 40 saniye rölanti periyotsuzdur. Ölçüm motor çalıştırıldıktan hemen sonra başlar.
Özellikler: Çevrim uzunluğu : 11,007 km Ortalama hız : 33.6 km/h Maks. hız : 120 km/h
Çevrim: Bir taşıtın belli bir mesafeyi belli hız ve viteslerde katetmesidir.
EK NOTLAR: NEDC (New European Driving Cycle - Yeni Avrupa Sürüş Çevrimi)
EK NOTLAR: YAKIT TÜKETİMİ ÖLÇME Yakıt tüketim testleri/değerleri, genellikle 2004/3/EC ile düzeltilmiş AB Direktifi 80/1268/EEC'ye göre yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca AB’nin RL 1999/100/CE normuna göre de değerler verilmektedir. Araçların teknik özelliklerinin belirtildiği broşür ya da kullanıcı el kitaplarındaki şehir içi, şehir dışı ve ortalama yakıt tüketim değerlerinin hangi direktiflere göre tespit edildiği genellikle ilgili bölümde dipnot olarak belirtilmektedir.
80/1268/EEC direktifi yakıt tüketimi değerleri: Laboratuar ortamında ve belirli koşullarda yapılan testlerde elde edilen, l/100 km mertebesinde sonuçları göstermektedir. Bu direktife göre: Şehir içi yakıt tüketimi, laboratuar ortamında soğuktan çalıştırılmış motor ile 4 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 50 km/h ve ortalama 19 km/h hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerlerdir. Şehir dışı yakıt tüketimi ise şehir içi ölçümünden hemen sonra gerçekleştirilen, 7 km'lik teorik bir mesafe boyunca maksimum 120 km/h hıza ulaşacak şekilde, yarı zamanlı sabit hız ve yarı zamanlı değişken hızla ölçülmüş yakıt tüketim değerleridir. Birleşik/Karma tüketim değeri ise şehir içi ve şehir dışı testlerinin kat edilen mesafe ölçüsüyle ağırlıklı ortalaması alınarak hesaplanmaktadır. Karma yakıt tüketimi; otomobil yaklaşık %37 normal şehir içi trafikte ve yaklaşık %63 şehir dışı trafikte kullanılarak elde edilir.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Well-to-Wheel Efficiency
The above fuel efficiencies are also called tank-to-wheel efficiencies. This does not reflect the losses during the refining and distribution. It is sometimes easier to compare the overall fuel efficiencies of conventional vehicles and EVs. For gasoline, this efficiency is 83%, which reflects a lumped efficiency from the refining and distribution of gasoline. For electricity generation, this efficiency is 30.3%, which reflects a lumped efficiency that includes electricity generation of 32.8% (assume electricity is generated from gasoline) and distribution of electricity at 92.4%. Charge efficiency of the battery also needs to be reflected [9]. Thus,
where ηelectricity =30.3 and ηgasoline =83%, and subscript ICEV stands for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle.
Example 4: A car of 30 MPG will have a well-to-wheel fuel efficiency of 24 MPG, and an EV that consumes 240 Wh/mile will have a well-to-wheel efficiency of 42.5 MPG.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy
For PHEVs, it is usually confusing as to which number should be used. Here, we discuss two different scenarios: all-electric capable PHEVs and blended PHEVs. For all-electric capable PHEVs, it is useful to indicate the electric range, in miles or kilometers, and associated energy consumption during that range, in kilowatt hours/mile, and potentially gas equivalent MPG. Another set of numbers is needed to show the MPG during CS mode driving. A suggested label is shown in Figure 4. For blended PHEVs, since there is no pure electric driving range, it is useful to label the fuel economy in CD and CS mode separately as shown in Figure 5. It may be preferred to include the electric energy consumption during CD mode as well.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives, First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao. / 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PHEV Fuel Economy
Figure 4: Fuel economy labeling for all-electric-capable PHEV
Figure 5: Fuel economy labeling for blended PHEV
Energy Loss : City Driving
Engine Loss 76%
Engine
Standby 8%
Driveline Losses
3%
Driveline
Aero 3%
Rolling 4%
Braking 6%
Fuel Tank 100%
16% 13%
POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance / 2005 3 L Toyota Camry
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : Highway Driving
Engine Loss 77%
Engine
Standby 0%
Driveline Losses
4%
Driveline
Aero 10%
Rolling 7%
Braking 2%
Fuel Tank: 100%
23% 19%
POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related
Highway Drive Cycle Energy Balance / 2005 3 L Toyota Camry
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
•Can eliminate engine entirely
•Engine downsizing •Decoupling of engine and wheel
Energy Saving : Hybrid Systems
Engine Loss 76%
Engine
Standby 8%
Driveline Losses
3%
Driveline
Aero 3%
Rolling 4%
Braking 6%
Fuel Tank: 100%
16% 13%
Micro Hybrid Eliminates
Mild Hybrid Reduces Plug-in
Full Hybrid Reduces
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Energy Loss : City Driving – Electric Vehicle
Motor Loss 10%
Motor
Driveline Losses
14%
Driveline
Aero 29%
Rolling 35%
Braking 11%
Batteries 100%
90% 76%
POWERTRAIN VEHICLE-Related
Urban Drive Cycle Energy Balance
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Well-to-Wheels Efficiency
Generation 33%
Transmission 94%
Plug-to-Wheels 76%
Refining 82%
Transmission 98%
Pump-to-Wheels 16%
23%
13%
31%
80%
Well-to-Tank Tank-to-Wheels
31% 76% = 23%
80% 16% = 13%
[http://www.nesea.org/]]
Source: http://www.nesea.org
Kaynak: Dan Lauber, Electric Vehicles 101, Nov 13, 2009
Prof . Dr . Ali Sürmen, "Ulaşımda Unutulmaması Gereken Bir Boyut: Taşıt Teknolojileri", Mimar ve Mühendis - Gelişmenin Lokomotifi Ulaşım Sistemleri, Sayı: 82 Mart - Nisan 2015
Verimlilik
EV vs. ICEV Well-to-Wheel
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Well-to-Wheel
http://no-petroleum-vehicles.blogspot.com.tr/2010/10/10-electric-car-for-2010-and-2011-1.html
EVs are the most efficient propulsion technology and can reduce CO2-emissions in transport
Note: BEV: Battery Electric Vehicle; RME: Raps-Methyl-Ester / Source: Own calculations and LBST
Efficiency and Emissions of Different Propulsion Technologies
Em
issio
ns i
n G
HG
-Eq
uiv
ale
nts
(in
g/
km
)
Efficiency (Well-to-Wheel Analysis)
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
0
50
100
250
300
350
150
200
Coal-to-
Liquid
ICE
Hydrogen Fuel Cell
Bio-diesel (RME)
Biofuels
Less e
mis
sio
ns
More efficient
Battery Electric Vehicle (Wind)
Plug-In Hybrid
(EU mix)
BEV (EU mix) Plug-In Hybrid
(Wind)
Electric Cars – Vehicles of the Future? Patrick Plötz, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, SÜD Heidelberg, November 2011
The future of alternative fuels – various technologies for different applications
high
distance
Vehicle weight
low
Short trips (city) Long trips (highway)
City LDVs
Electro cycle
2nd car
Long range public transport Public
transport
transportation
Everyday use
acceptance
Battery vehicle
Plug-in hybrids
Fuel cell vehicles
2nd generation biofuels
safety
Energy density
Economy of fuel
challenges
Economy of propulsion system
Electric Cars – Vehicles of the Future? Patrick Plötz, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, SÜD Heidelberg, November 2011
Challenges Why don’t they catch on? A conspiracy?
Gasoline: The (almost) perfect fuel
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density
Energy Equivalency
135 MJ of energy
21 Li-ion batteries (Car battery size)
2.7 kg
340 kg
Gas 1 Gallon
Batteries
54 gal
Challenges
Limited Range
Large battery weight/size
Long charge times
High initial cost
Battery life
Consumer acceptance
Grid Integration
Operating Costs
In Europe, $60/barrel oil is enough,
In the US, $4/gal gas is needed to be price competitive
Addressing customer perception
Accepting limited range
Most people drive less than 40 mi/day
Most cars are parked 23 hours of the day anyway
Smaller vehicles & reduced performance
In the last 30 years, nearly 100% of efficiency improvements have gone to increasing vehicle size and performance, not reducing consumption
How do you get people to charge at the right time?
Source: On the Road in 2035, Heywood, et.al.
Konvansiyonel Yakıtlar ile
Kıyaslama ve Hesaplaman
Operating Costs
On-board energy consumption 300 Wh/mile
Charging Efficiency 90%
Electricity consumption 333 Wh/mile
Electricity Cost 10 cents/mile
Driving Cost (electricity only) 3.3 cents/mile
Fuel economy 25 MPG
Fuel Cost $2.00/gallon
Driving Cost (fuel only) 8.0 cents/mile
Conventional Gasoline Vehicle
Battery Electric Vehicle
At 15,000 miles/year, you
would save $700/year on
fuel
The estimated price range
for advanced batteries is
$500 - $1,000 per kWh
~ buying 1 kWh of battery
energy (~3 miles of electric
range) each year
CO2 Emissions
Elektrikli Araç Akü kapasitesi 24 kWh (İyi durumda batarya) (0.25kWh/kg) Elektrik Motor verimi (ortalama): %85 Tekerleğe aktarılan enerji: 20.4 kWh Düz yolda ortalama güç: 20.4 kW Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 130 km
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Benzinli Araç Depo hacmi: 45 l Özgül Ağırlık: 0.75 kg/l Benzin ağırlığı: 33.75 kg Benzin enerji yoğunluğu: 45MJ/kg Toplam enerji yaklaşık: 1520MJ= 422kWh Tekerleğe aktarılan (verim %20 kabul edilerek): 84.4 kWh Düz yolda ortalama güç : 20.4 kW Ortalama hız: 130 km/h Alınan mesafe yaklaşık 537 km (EV den yaklaşık 4 kat fazla)
Benzinli Araç Enerji Tüketimi = Ortalama Tüketim x Enerji Yoğunluğu Enerji Tüketimi = 0.076 l/km x 32 MJ/l = 2.4 MJ/km = 0.667 kWh/km Mekanik Verim %20 alınırsa: 2.4 MJ/km x 0.2 = 0.48 MJ/km
Özgür ÜSTÜN, Elektrikli Otomobiller, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
Elektrikli Araç Doldurma/boşaltma verimi: %86 Elektrik motoru verimi (ortalama): %85 Enerji tüketimi: 0.48 MJ/km/ (0.85 x 0.86) = 0.65 MJ/km Geri kazanımlı frenleme ile enerji tüketimi bir miktar azalacaktır.
ELEKTRİKLİ ARACIN EKONOMİKLİĞİ
Fatura Bilgisi: 139 kWh =37,8 TL (1 kWh = 0,27 TL); Tarih: 20/11/2010
OTOPARKTA ŞARJ Evimizde 6.04 kWh/gün = 6.04 kWh/gün x 365=2204 kWh/yıl Elektrikli araç: 2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için 11.000 km = 600 TL Otopark ücreti: 100 şarj/yıl x 5 TL/gün = 500 TL Hizmet Bedeli: 100 şarj/yıl x 2,5 TL/gün = 250 TL Toplam: 1350 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL
Yaklaşık %100 tasarruf
EVDE ŞARJ Elektrikli araç: 2204 kWh/yıl: Elektrikli araç için 11.000 km = 600 TL + 200 TL sanayi farkı Toplam: 800 TL Benzinli araç: Benzinli bir araç (7 lt/100 km) = 7x110x3,7 = 2849 TL
Yaklaşık %280 tasarruf
Looking Forward
Tipping point will be ~2020 when 10% of vehicles sold will be BEV’s
Battery cost: ~$700-$1,500 / kWh, down to $420 by 2015, but still too high.
Price Premium PHEV40 $11,800 > ICE
EV100 $24,100 > ICE
Long-term PHEV’s will beat out HEV’s
PHEV’s likely to dominate BEVs
A 30-50% reduction in fuel consumption by 2035 *Heywood
47% reduction by 2030 *McKinsey Source: McKinsey Quarterly: Electrifying Cars: How three industries will evolve ; http://newenergynews.blogspot.com/2009/08/mckinsey-looks-at-coming-ev-phenomenon.html