High Tech Cooking: A Literature Review of Evolving Technologies …leighzeitz.com/classes/seminar/articles/HighTechCooking.pdf · 2017-02-07 · Lunch Cookbook: Jackson, 1998) and

Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 2008, 43(4), 474-485© Division on Developmental Disabilities

High Tech Cooking: A Literature Review of Evolving

Technologies for Teaching a Functional Skill

Linda C. MechlingUniversity of North Carolina Wilmington

Abstract: This review synthesizes the empirical literature (1986-2006) focusing on teaching cooking skills topersons with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities. Twenty-two studies were identified which providedinformation on four forms of technologies currently being used to teach food preparation: (a) picture-basedsystems; (b) Palmtop personal (hand-held) computer-based systems; (c) auditory systems; and (d) video-basedsystems. Implications for instruction and future research are discussed based on the results of review.

Over the past two decades food preparationhas been frequently studied and identified asan essential skill for living independentlyacross a range of settings (Graves, Collins,Schuster, & Kleinert, 2005; Horsfall & Maggs,1986; Martin, Rusch, James, Decker, & Trtol,1982; Schuster, 1988). In addition to provid-ing nutrition, preparing meals has addedvalue including social opportunities (i.e. cook-ing with friends), recreation (i.e. watching ca-ble cooking shows; joining cooking classes),choice making, and employment opportuni-ties in the food industry (Schuster). Com-pared to eating out, ordering in, or hiringsomeone else to cook, preparation of meals athome may be more economically feasible forpersons with disabilities (Schuster). Cost effi-ciency of pre-prepared meals may also be aconcern for some persons living on a fixed orsupported income. For example, although itmay require fewer steps for preparation, thecost of microwavable macaroni and cheese perounce (compared to box preparation) may bean important factor when selecting meals topurchase, prepare, and teach.

A number of studies have been conductedto evaluate the effectiveness of teacher deliv-ered prompts and procedures for teachingcooking skills to persons with disabilities. Thestrategies have included: constant time delay

Correspondence concerning this article shouldbe addressed to Linda C. Mechling, University ofNorth Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road,Wilmington, NC 28403-5940.

(Bozkurt & Gursel, 2005; Schuster, Gast, Wol-ery, & Guiltinan, 1988); teaching in dyads(Hall, Schuster, Wolery, Gast, & Doyle, 1992;Wolery, Ault, Gast, Doyle, & Griffen, 1991);teaching chained tasks in specific order versusfunctional order (Wright & Schuster, 1988);teaching in a total task versus backward chain-ing format (Kayser, Billingsley, & Neel, 1986);system of least prompts (Demchak, 1992;Horsfall & Maggs, 1986;Jones & Collins, 1997;Schleien, Ash, Kiernan, & Wehman, 1981;Steege, Wacker, & McMahon, 1987); andgraduated guidance (Demchak, 1992). Thesestudies found each of the procedures to beeffective in the acquisition of food prepara-tion skills when instructors used a set of pre-scribed prompting and instructional proce-dures. Concern exists, however, for thetransfer of stimulus control from adult leadinstruction to natural sets of prompts that canbe independently used over an extended pe-riod of time and across a range of stimuliwhile cooking. Decreasing the need for con-tinuous supervision and prompting by otherscontinues to be an educational focus whendesigning instructional programs for personswith disabilities.

Persons without disabilities use permanentprompts such as written notes and text basedmessages to direct their own behavior. Cookbooks and recipe cards, for example, providepermanent prompts to adults for meal prepa-ration. These prompts prohibit the need tomemorize step sequences and allow prepara-tion of simple to complex meals. These

474 / Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities-December 2008

prompts are permanent resources in manykitchens and it is recognized that it would notbe functional to take away these examples ofvisual prompts for food preparation. When aperson has an intellectual disability it may bemore critical that prompts are permanentlyavailable to them so that multiple and varyingrecipes are available regardless of their lengthand complexity.

Encouraging research on cooking instruc-tion for persons with disabilities has shiftedthe control away from the instructor to stim-ulus materials and equipment that can serveto teach or prompt completion of tasks. Thesematerials have traditionally been in the formof picture based systems, but the use of audi-tory prompting became the focus of researchin the 1990s as well as the emergence of video-based procedures. The purpose of this reviewwas to examine the published, empirical liter-ature evaluating technology to assist personswith disabilities to complete cooking tasks.The focus of this review is technology applica-tions for teaching food preparation skills topersons with moderate to severe intellectualdisabilities, including those with a diagnosis ofautism spectrum disorder. The review in-cluded studies that used both light tech (pic-ture prompts and audio recording devices),mid tech (VCR, DVD players) and high techdevices (Palmtop PC, computer-based sys-tems). Studies reviewed included those usingtechnology to teach new cooking skills orthose which used technology as an indepen-dent self-prompting device (used alone by theperson) for completing a cooking skill.

Method

Studies conducted over the past 20 years(1986-2006) were reviewed. Those identifiedand included in the review met the followingcriteria:

1. Empirical study2. Publication in peer-reviewed journal3. Evaluation of food preparation skills4. Participants were diagnosed with a mod-

erate to severe intellectual disability5. Article published in English

Studies were located by conducting an elec-tronic search of ERIC using the key search

words: cooking, food, food preparation, nutri-tion, meal preparation, snack, drink, recipe,microwave, stovetop, oven, and kitchen skills.A manual search was completed by examiningthe table of contents for the following relevantjournals: American Journal of Mental Retardation,Exceptionality, Education and Training in Devel-opmental Disabilities, Exceptional Children, Focuson Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,Focus on Exceptional Children, Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis, Journal of the Association forPersons with Severe Disabilities, Journal of Autismand Developmental Disabilities, Journal of Develop-mental and Physical Disabilities, Journal of SpecialEducation, Journal of Special Education Technol-ogy, Mental Retardation, and Remedial and Spe-cial Education. Lastly, an ancestral search wasmade of all reference lists of identified arti-cles.

Studies emerged which focused on technol-ogy for: a) teaching new food preparationskills; and b) controlling antecedents for self-prompting food preparation.

Results

Twenty-two studies and two reviews were iden-tified. An earlier review, conducted by Schus-ter (1988), reported the results of six studiesfocusing on cooking instruction with personswith intellectual disabilities while Marchand-Martella, Smith, and Agran (1992) focusedtheir review on both food preparation andmeal planning for persons with disabilities.The technology identified in the current re-view included: (a) picture prompts (7 stud-ies); (b) Palmtop personal (hand held) com-puter-based systems (3 studies); (c) audiocassette players (5 studies); and (d) video-based systems (7 studies). Table 1 providesfurther information concerning the design ofeach study, participants, cooking skills taught,and results.

The review found a range of technologythat was effective for teaching both new cook-ing tasks and self-operation of devices to guidecompletion of cooking tasks independent ofinstructor prompts. The first part of the paperreviews each of the identified studies andstructures the review around types of technol-ogy. The final part of the paper addressesimplications for current practice and sugges-tions for future research.

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Picture Based Systems

To accommodate for a lack of text readingskills, picture prompts, in the form of recipecards, were researched as early as 1977 (Rob-inson-Wilson). Early picture-based systems re-lied on hand drawn illustrations and were fre-quently paired with written instructions(Browder, Hines, McCarthy, & Fees, 1984;

Johnson & Cuvo, 1981). Preparation of pic-ture systems then evolved to film based devel-opment of black and white photographs, colorphotographs, Xerox copies of photographs,and scanned images onto computer based sys-tems. Currently, digital photography anddownloaded images from internet sources arealso available for developing picture-based sys-tems.

The current review identified seven studiesemploying the use of picture based systems toteach food preparation skills. The format ofthe system and number of pictures per pagevaried among the studies. Agran, Fodor-Davis,Moore, and Martella (1992) presented singlephotographs of items to be placed into sacklunches for customers. Photographs wereturned over as items were placed into the bag.Other researchers used single pictures perpage to represent one step of a task analysisand assembled the pages into book form usingmetal ring binders (Griffen,Wolery, & Schus-ter, 1992; Pierce & Schreibman, 1994; Schus-ter & Griffen, 1993). Others have presentedrecipes (task analysis) in book form with morethan one picture per page (Fiscus, Schuster,Morse, & Collins, 2002; Singh, Oswald, Ellis, &Singh, 1995; Schuster & Griffen, 1991).

Commercially made cookbooks for personsunable to read have also become available topractitioners and present individual steps orsmall clusters of steps on single pages (StepwiseLunch Cookbook: Jackson, 1998) and multiplepictures per page (Look'n Cook Microwave: Easy-to-Make Illustrated Recipes: Hanson, 1999; VisualRecipes: A Cookbook for Non-Readers: Orth,2000). It is unclear from the literature re-viewed whether a single picture per page ormultiple pictures per page are more effectivefor certain learners. Multiple pictures de-crease the need to turn pages and possiblylosing one's place, while other students mayfind it difficult to follow multiple pictures on a

page and may lose their place if temporarilydistracted.

Palmtop Personal Computers

As one of the most newly emerging forms forprompting task completion, palmtop personalcomputers also represent one of the "highesttech" forms of technology being used as ante-cedent prompts for persons with intellectualdisabilities. They are presented next in thecurrent review because to date they are pri-marily a picture based system. Using featuresof a "touch screen", persons access digital pho-tographs by touching a dynamic display on ahand-held system. The system can be pro-grammed to move to the next step (next pho-tograph) by pressing a "Done" or "Next" but-ton on the touch screen. One advantage thatthese systems may have over traditional staticpicture systems is the incorporation of audio.By touching a photograph, "Play", or "Start"button, a description of how to complete thestep is heard. A student can repeat the audi-tory and visual step as often as needed.

Recent evaluations have been importingdigital photographs onto Palmtop personalcomputers to provide antecedent prompts forfood preparation to persons with intellectualdisabilities (Lancioni et al., 1999; Lancioni,O'Reilly, Seedhouse, Furniss, & Cunha, 2000;Lancioni, Van den Hof, Boelens, Rocha, &Seedhouse, 1998). In two interesting compar-ison studies, Lancioni and others (1998; 1999)found that the Palmtop PC programs withauditory prompts and step-by-step instructionswere more effective than traditional picturecards when measuring the percentage of stepsperformed correctly on tasks. They attributethe difference to students losing their placeand mishandling the manual pictures. Theportable systems also included auditory andvibrating prompts to cue students to initiatesteps of a task analysis, features unavailablewith manual picture systems. Also of interestwas the comparison made between single pic-tures for each task step and multiple stepsclustered into a picture in the Lancioni et al.(1999) study. Results indicated that studentswere able to maintain high levels of task per-formance when steps were clustered togetherinto one picture.

Commercially available hand-held products


Figure 1. Hand-held prompting devices: Cyrano Communicator and Independent Living Suite.

(Cyrano Communicator, One Write Company;Independent Living Suite, AbleLink Technolo-gies) (Figure 1) are appearing on the marketand are being distributed among companiesthat sell products specifically designed for in-dividuals with disabilities (i.e. Mayer-JohnsonLLC). Cost is one argued disadvantage ofthese systems, although it is predicted thatsimilar to other evolving technologies, costswill continue to decrease (Davies, Stock, &

Wehmeyer, 2002; Swan, Swan, Van Hover, &Bell, 2002). Another disadvantage for thehand-held system is that although the systemsare manufactured with some features alreadybuilt into them, they do require some com-

puter skills and initial set-up time to customizesettings, photographs, and tasks.

Auditory Systems

Traditionally, auditory systems used portablecassette players with recorded step-by-stepprompts for completing a task. As described inthe previous review section, use of hand-heldelectronic devices such as Palmtop PCs, arebeginning to replace the traditional use ofauditory cassette players for delivering audi-

tory cues to persons with disabilities. Thesesystems now have the advantage of presentingboth visual and auditory information simulta-neously. None the less, five studies were iden-tified which effectively taught students withdisabilities to complete multi-step cookingtasks using auditory prompts (Alberto, Sharp-ton, Briggs, & Stright, 1986; Lancioni, Klaase,& Gooseens, 1995; Lancioni, O'Reilly, &Oliva, 2001; Trask-Tyler, Grossi, & Heward,1994; Steed & Lutzker, 1999). In addition, oneof the studies compared the effects of picturesalone to auditory prompting and found nosignificant differences between the twoprompting procedures (Lancioni et al. 1995).A second study compared single word instruc-tions (one word corresponding to each step ofa task analysis) to clustering of instructions(two or more steps heard by the student when"Play" was selected on the cassette player).Results supported students' abilities to followmultiple word prompts to complete foodpreparation tasks.

While the audio system used by Lancioni etal. (1995) allowed the cassette recorder tostop automatically after each prompt, and rep-etition of prompts, most systems rely on the


following sequence of steps : a) a "beep" tosignal the end of a step; pushing a "Stop"button; completion of the step; and pushing a"Start" button to hear the next step; or b)recording of a pause between instructions toallow for completion of the step before thenext direction was provided. These require-ments may make auditory systems difficult forpersons with intellectual disabilities to operateand to repeat steps when errors are made. Adistinct advantage of new technologies such ashand-held computer-based systems are provi-sion for repetition of steps (touch a photo-graph) while including digital images for per-sons who are not strong auditory learners.

Video Based Systems

The majority of the work investigating videoinstruction for persons with disabilities beganin the mid to late 1990s (Mechling, 2005).Understandably, with the increased availabil-ity of VCRs, classroom teachers and research-ers began to implement the use of video toteach a range of skills. With the exception ofone identified study (Lasater & Brady, 1995)all of the studies in the current review onteaching cooking skills were completed in the21't century.

Use of video to instruct can be presentedthrough four primary modes (Mechling,2005):1. Video Modeling. Student watches a com-

plete video segment of a skill performed bysomeone else (i.e. peer or adult) and laterperforms the task.

2. Video Self-Modeling. Student watcheshim/herself in an edited video in which itappears that he/she is proficient at the taskto be learned. Video is created by editingout errors or by taping segments so thatadult prompting cannot be seen in the fi-nal version.

3. Video Prompting. Student watches a stepof a task and then completes that step be-fore continuing on with the next video seg-ment.

4. Subjective Point of View. Video modelingor video prompting is presented from thestudent's perspective as if the student werecompleting the task (i.e. walking through astore) (Norman, Collins, & Schuster,2001).

The current review found that the majority ofthe studies teaching cooking skills used video

modeling (Bidwell, & Rehfeldt, 2004; Reh-

feldt, Dahman, Young, Cherry, & Davis, 2003;

Shipley-Benamour, Lutzker, & Taubman,

2002; Van Laarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers,2006), while self-modeling was used in the

earlier study by Lasater and Brady (1995) and

video prompting was used to teach microwave

use (Sigafoos et al., 2005). Additionally,

Graves et al. (2005) used video prompting by

presenting cooking tasks using subjective

point of view and Shipley et al. conducted one

of the first studies evaluating subjective point

of view to teach functional skills (includingpreparation of orange juice).

As expected, earlier studies frequently used

a VCR to present video instruction to learners,however, evolving technology is bringing an

increase in the use of laptop computers and

portable DVD players to present video instruc-

tion. Advantages to these mediums of instruc-

tion are portability and ease of use. Similar to

the advantages of hand-held computer-basedsystems over audio cassettes, a portable DVDplayer or laptop computer allow the learner to

replay and skip video segments to precise lo-

cations, whereas a VCR is often controlled by

the instructor (Graves et al., 2005). Four of

the seven studies teaching cooking skills withvideo used laptop or portable computer-based

systems (Bidwell & Rehfeldt, 2004; Rehfeldt etal., 2003; Sigafoos et al., 2005; Van Laarhoven

& Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006).All of the reviewed studies show promise for

presenting information to students through

video technology. Results support researchers

who have found that video can present infor-

mation in "real life" scenarios (Alcantara,1994), provide multiple teaching examples

(Charlop-Christy, Le, & Freeman, 2000), andcan add the features of motion and sound that

allow learners to experience actual actions in

process (Stephens & Ludy, 1975).Although the merits of video seem appar-

ent, the advantage of video instruction over

static picture presentation is unclear and willcontinue to require future investigation.

While video-based systems may include

more information and cues than can be ob-

tained from static pictures, future research

should include comparison between these two

modes of presentation.


Researchers are also investigating the com-bined strength of using both video and pic-tures. For example, Van Laarhoven and VanLaarhoven-Myers (2006) found that videomodeling with pictures and video modelingwith in vivo video prompting were more effi-cient (although all were equally effective)than video modeling presented alone to teachstudents to complete daily living skills (includ-ing cooking microwave pizza).

Another area of interest is whether oneform of video instruction (i.e. video prompt-ing versus video modeling) holds particularadvantage for some learners. Although notconducted with a cooking related task, Can-nella-Malone et al. (2006) found videoprompting to be effective in teaching multi-step daily living tasks to adults with intellectualdisabilities while video modeling was "gener-ally shown to be ineffective." These resultsappear to have implications for persons devel-oping video-based prompting systems for foodpreparation. The researchers state that thedifferences may have been due to use of briefvideo clips (video prompting) versus the at-tentional and retentional requirements ofwatching an entire task. In this current reviewof the literature, cooking tasks taught usingvideo modeling were: orange juice (Shipley-Benamou et al., 2002); microwave pizza (VanLaarhoven & Van Laarhoven-Myers, 2006);peanut butter and jelly sandwich (Rehfeldt etal., 2003; Lasater & Brady, 1995); school lunch(Lasater & Brady); and coffee (Bidwell & Re-hfeldt, 2004). Although these tasks had mul-tiple steps, complete recipes and meal prepa-ration with more than one item, tend to bemore complex. It appears that recipes pre-sented in a step-by-step format through videoprompting may hold particular value* forteaching cooking tasks that individuals willface in their daily lives. An additional avenueof research will be the application of step-by-step video prompting on portable hand helddevices as the capability of presenting videoon these devices increases.

Discussion

Attention to increasing independence and op-portunities for persons with disabilitiesthrough teaching functional skills such ascooking will likely continue to evolve just as it

has for the last 20 years covered in this review.As technology advances, so will the demandsfor response in special education to stayabreast of how these advances can be appliedto improving the lives of persons with disabil-ities. Increasingly, novice technology users willlikely become familiar with the process ofmaking their own personal CDs, DVDs, andcomputer-based programs. Joined with this in-crease will be opportunities to develop cus-tomized programs to meet the individualneeds and styles of learners. For example, per-sonalized DVDs or CDs could be made forpreparing a recipe, step-by-step, with videofootage taken in the learner's personalkitchen. Persons following the DVD or CD canwatch a step, pause the player, complete thestep, and so forth while watching the taskbeing completed with the exact appliancesand utensils that they will be using and whileviewing exactly where items are stored withintheir own kitchen.

Research supports the efficient presenta-tion of information to learners with disabili-ties. While handheld devices and portableprompting systems with video capabilities pro-vide promise for delivering information in aformat that can be operated independently bystudents to direct their own behavior, the im-portance of "traditional" light tech applica-tions and combination of systems should notbe overlooked. Findings from this review sug-gest some implications for future research toenhance instruction in the area of food prep-aration:1. More studies comparing video prompting

and video modeling to teach complex mealpreparation.

2. Generalization measures of systems such ofvideo prompting to untaught recipes (sim-ilar to cooking new recipes from a cook-book).

3. Comparison of video-based systems andstatic picture systems.

4. Comparison of picture-based systems us-ing:a. single pictures per page versus multiple

pictures per pageb. single step per picture versus clustering

of steps per picture5. Studies combining static pictures and vid-

eo-based systems.6. More studies regarding hand-held systems


and portable DVD players that can be usedin the kitchen to deliver picture based or

video based instruction.

7. Social validation of the various proceduresand student preference for use.

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Received: 8 March 2007Initial Acceptance: 5 May 2007Final Acceptance: 20 July 2007

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TITLE: High Tech Cooking: A Literature Review of EvolvingTechnologies for Teaching a Functional Skill

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