HIS 105Chapter 2

Four Great Revolutions in Thought and Religion

Changes in Thought and Religion 800-300 B.C.E.

Some things in common:– Occurred near river valley civilizations– Born out of crisis– These major changes don’t happen often– Had great influence on culture and culture helped

to spread ideas– These changes have endured over time

During 8th century B.C.E., Zhou Dynasty disintegrated

Chaos followed – Invasions– Rising merchant class changing old order– Old etiquette and old rituals changing– A search for new principles began

5th and 6th centuries B.C.E. gave Chinese society new thinkers: Confucius, Mencius, Xunzi, and Laozi

Their teachings were important then and they are still important today

Confucius

Also known as Kung Fuzi Born in 551 B.C.E. Educated in writing, music, and rituals Believed to be of lower nobility His father died when Confucius was very

young and his mother fell on hard times Worked in accounting and teaching

He was opinionated and outspoken Traveled from state to state with followers

looking for a ruler who would put his ideas into practice

Most saw his ideas as impractical His ideas or sayings are called his “Analects” He believed in moderation, propriety,

optimism, good sense, and wisdom

He was ethical and saw himself as a transmitter of tradition

He saw a proper order to society, relationships, and government

Confucius felt superior men were made, not born, and they should be the ones to govern

Others should show respect, obedience, and support to their superiors

Loyalty and obedience held society together

Felt that if everyone fulfilled his/her duties, then harmony would prevail

The well-being of society depends on the morality of its members

Confucianism was not adopted as the official philosophy of China until the second century B.C.E. during the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E. – 9 C.E.)

Mencius (Meng Ko) (370 290 B.C.E.)

Believed that humans are inclined to be good The role of education is to uncover and

cultivate that innate goodness Stressed that government needed the

consent of the people to rule Said people had the right to rise up and

overthrow an oppressor or unjust government

Xunzi (300 – 237 B.C.E.)

Believed heaven was indifferent to whether China was ruled by a tyrant or a wise man

Believed human nature was bad or at least, desires and emotions, if unchecked, could lead to conflict

Emphasized education and etiquette as a restraint on behavior

Said strong, authoritarian government was needed to control humans

Laozi (Lao Tsu)

Had little use for government Recommended a retreat from society as a

way to solve suffering Contemplation of nature can help humans

find the Dao, the way, the mysterious Recommended a return to simplicity; become

a babe, an uncarved block Learn to be without learning

Felt knowledge was bad because it created distinctions

Learn to be without desires beyond the simple needs of nature

The basis of the political philosophy of Daoism is “not doing”

This means something between “doing nothing” and “being but not acting”

Rule without action The way never acts, yet nothing is left

undone Emphasis on withdrawal from the world,

communion with nature, and meditation

Xia Shang Zhou Qin ( 256-206 B.C.E.) (Shi Huangdi) Han ( 206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.)

Qin

In 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.E., the Qin Dynasty grew more and more powerful, and Shi Huangdi, a warlord of the 3rd century B.C.E., united China under Qin rule

Shi Huangdi

Created a centralized state Had grandiose public works projects Experimented with bronze and ironworking Improved tools and weapons Freed peasants from bondage and allowed

them to own land Gained peasants’ loyalty

Peasants then joined the army to fight for Shi Huangdi

Followed the writings of the Legalists

Legalists

Founded by Shang Yang, a Qin ruler of the 4th century B.C.E.

Said power of China’s rulers was absolute Wanted to find true peace for China That required a unified country and a strong

state Favored conscription and saw war as a way

to extend a country’s power

Believed human nature was selfish and punishments should be severe and impartial

That which weakens the state should be punished

Laws should contain incentives for loyalty, bravery, obedience, diligence, and frugality

Saw merchants as parasites

Liked farmers

Legalism was the philosophy adopted by the Qin which finally destroyed the Zhou in 256 B.C.E. and unified China in 221 B.C.E.

Hinduism

Arose from Aryan society Aryans had a social hierarchy that would

evolve into the rigid Indian caste system Brahmans, who educated princes and were

advisors at court, also compiled and interpreted the Vedic texts

These Vedic texts provided the religion which shaped the lives of everyday people

In this new religion, Brahmans were at the top

There was a caste system with warriors, priests, and commoners

Later merchants, artisans, and peasants were added

The classes were called Varnas

Each varna was subdivided into occupational groups or caste

Holy men who did not labor were at the top Those who worked hard and cleaned up the

filth of society were at the bottom Boundaries between castes were rigid In each caste life was laid out

One’s caste and its accompanying duties became known as one’s Dharma

The idea of reincarnation determined one’s caste

A person’s life was full of merits and demerits, and these became known as one’s Karma

The idea of reincarnation kept people under control

Caste system stressed the importance of one’s obligations and loyalties

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (566-486 B.C.E.)

Became known as the Buddha or the “enlightened one”

Stressed meditation By meditating, he saw his past lives and

learned how to stop the suffering of life

He then pledged to help others release themselves from it

The Buddha then spent the rest of his life teaching others the “middle path” between indulgence and asceticism

4 Noble Truths– All life is full of suffering– The source of suffering is desire– If you get rid of desire, you will no longer suffer– The path to this is eightfold: right understanding,

thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration

You will then achieve Nirvana

He emphasized compassion for all beings He gained a large following His followers became monks and spread his

message Buddhism provided an alternative to the

religion of the Brahmans Buddha retained the ideas of karma and

reincarnation but rejected the Vedas

Mahavira and the Jain Tradition

Jains were an Indian religious community who sought to extricate themselves from the material world and the endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth

They sought to eliminate evil thoughts and actions

They tried to have compassion for all sentient beings, hence vegetarianism

Hebrews

Had belief in one God – Monotheism Their monotheistic faith later influenced

Christianity and Islam It is thought that Moses led the Hebrews to

Palestine looking for a homeland as promised by Yahweh between 1900 and 1600 B.C.E.

They were encouraged to give up the worship of other gods and follow Yahweh and his laws

If they did, they would be protected These Jews felt they were then God’s

Chosen People

Beliefs:– One God– An overall divine plan– A divinely organized morality as spelled out in the

Torah (the Christian Old Testament)

Through this written book, Jews were able to hold onto their identity through all subsequent takeovers and dispersals

Greek Philosophy

Greeks asked questions about their lives and the universe without invoking God

This began an intellectual revolution using rational thinking to answer their questions

Their way of looking at humans and their world was encapsulated in their philosophies

Many rationally questioned their world:– Thales believed water was our primary substance– Anaximander believed humans originated in water

and evolved into their present state– Heraclitus said all is in motion; nothing ever really

exists– Parmenides & Zeno said reality is fixed; change is

an illusion of the senses

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle

Three great Greek philosophers who were concerned with ethical, political, and religious issues

Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.)– Committed to searching for truth– Wanted moral self-enlightenment– “Know thyself” – Through discussion and questioning got others to

defend their views

Had many followers and many detractors who didn’t like to have their views questioned

He was condemned to death in 399 B.C.E. for corrupting the morals of youth because he was skeptical of religion

Felt we should use self-examination to get to the truth

Had a chance to go into exile but chose death because it was Athenian law and drank hemlock

Plato (429-347 B.C.E.)– Student of Socrates– Like Socrates, believed in the polis and its laws– Prolific writer– Founded the Academy in 386 B.C.E. in Athens– Taught others through dialogue and discussion– Grew up during Peloponnesian War– Experienced democracy and imperialism

– Felt humans were a pale image of what they could be

– Felt justice consists of each person doing what he/she is best suited for

– Taught Aristotle

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)– pupil of Plato– Founded Lyceum where students gathered,

ordered, and analyzed all human knowledge– Stressed the importance of moderation in human

behavior and promoted virtue– Said every object has some purpose in the

universe– Was the tutor of Alexander the Great

Even though philosophers looked for truths of the universe, the rest of Greek citizens looked to their gods, who were styled after humans, for enlightenment; polytheism