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The Origin and Migration of the

Hamburger

The Hamburger began life as an obscure meal cooked by Northern European immigrants throughout the North Eastern United States. Today the hamburger is one of the most popular dishes in the world, with Americans consuming over fifty billion burgers a year.1 How did an obscure immigrant’s meal turn into a global food icon? Medieval Origins: Like most foods, the exact origins of the hamburger have been largely lost to time. The predecessor to the hamburger is said to have originated from Mongol raiders who rode their horses with raw meat underneath their saddles, the constant friction and motion of riding would tenderize the meat and allow it to be eaten virtually raw.2 As Mongol troops raided Europe this meal spread and took hold throughout Russia and Eastern Europe. The meal was named “Tartar” after one of the nomadic tribal groups who had

joined the Mongols in their raids throughout Europe.3 “Tartar” grew in popularity throughout Eastern Europe, particularly in Russia where many would enjoy raw and flattened horse or cow meat. Traders from Russia, particularly Novgorod spread this new food throughout Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The

meal gained popularity throughout Northern Europe especially in Hamburg, a major trading port and member of the Northern European Hanseatic league.4 Hamburg at the time was often referred to as the “Russian port” due to the large number of Russians who worked and settled in Hamburg, bringing with them their culture and

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cuisine such as the “Tartar”. The Hamburg Steak By the late seventeen and early eighteen hundreds meat producers in the port city of Hamburg had taken the Russian Tartar and developed it into a new meal, later called a Hamburg steak. A Hamburg steak consisted of flattened ground meat which was then fried with onion. This meal was often very expensive and purchased only by the richest classes of Germans.5 The meat had to be ground in a long and expensive process then transported to the city as quick as possible to prevent the meat from spoiling.6 Hamburg during the seventeen and

eighteen hundreds was a large commercial port and a major traffic route for German and Northern European immigrants heading to North America.7 Many immigrants would spend time in Hamburg before embarking to cities in the United States, bringing with them many of their cultural food from their homelands. The Hamburg steak was one of many recipes which was brought to the United States from Germany. Early Existence in America When German immigrants arrived in the busy cities of the Untied States such as Chicago and New York, a number of them

opened restaurants and began to serve their traditional dishes, including the Hamburg steak. The 1837 New York restaurant Delmonico’s offered Hamburg steak on its first menu for the expensive price of 10 cents.8 At this time Hamburg steak was still very expensive due to the time consuming effort required to grind meat and the quick rate at which ground meat spoiled. Throughout the early eighteen hundreds the Hamburg steak was still relatively obscure. It was only after the invention of refrigerated train cars, and meat grinding machines in the mid eighteen hundreds

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that ground meat became affordable to many Americans.9 This gave large numbers of Americans access to the Hamburg steak. Although, becoming more popular the Hamburg Steak was still seen as an obscure German food which was not very popular beyond the German immigrant population living in the industrial cities of the Eastern United States. 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition By the 1870s the dish was rising in popularity, the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition greatly expanded the popularity of the Hamburg steak.10 Philadelphia’s sizeable German immigrant population set

up a number of Hamburg steak stalls throughout the fair, serving the dish to thousands of Americans. By 1885 the Hamburg steak was featured in Mrs. Lincolns Boston Cook book a popular American cook book from the late 1890s. “Hamburg steak – pound a slice of round steak enough to break the fibre. Fry two or three onions, minced fine, in butter until slightly browned. Speak the onions over the meat, fold the ends of the meat together and pound again, to keep the onions in the middle, broil two or three minutes. Spread with butter salt and pepper.”11 The invention of refrigerated train cars, and inexpensive meat grinding and packing

technologies allowed the Hamburg steak to be enjoyed by all classes of American society. The meal became particularly popular among poor factory workers who wanted to have a convenient and cheap meal while taking a break or after their long work shifts. Hamburg steak stalls began to open up throughout the North Eastern United States marketed as a cheap source of protein and a convenient snack which could be eaten right outside one’s place of work. The 1876 Centennial exposition greatly increased the popularity of the Hamburg steak turning it into a cheap staple food for

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factory workers throughout the Northern United States. From steak to sandwich. In the late eighteen seventies the Hamburg steak was still just a flattened piece of fried ground beef. By the eighteen nineties several chefs thought of adding bread to the Hamburg steak, making the meal more portable and easier to eat for workers on the job; the most popular type of customer for Hamburg steak stalls. Unfortunately, like many popular foods, the exact origin of the hamburger has many competing stories, giving the origin of the hamburger an almost mythical status. Three claimants in

particular have reason to believe they developed this iconic American meal. Myth #1 One of the oldest myths of invention comes from Athens, Texas where Fletchers Davis claimed he developed the hamburger during the 1890s.12 Davis claimed he used bread slices to hold a Hamburg steak for customers who were too busy to sit and eat.13 Legend says that he opened a stall at the 1904 St. Louis World Fair where it became one of the most popular stalls effectively creating the hamburger stall.14 Fletcher Davis continued to sell burgers from his store and maintain his claim until his death in the mid nineteen hundreds.15

Myth #2 The second claim comes from Charlie Nargreen who sold meatballs out of his ox drawn cart.16 Charlie realised that the meatballs were difficult for his standing customers to eat and decided to invent a more mobile snack. He decided to flatten his meatballs and place them in between two slices of bread. His first burger was sold in 1885 during the Seymour Fair, it is said he came up with the name due to the meat he used, which was Hamburg meat.17 This claim is supported by newspapers and interviewees who state they saw the creation of the first burger from his ox cart in 1885.18 Charlie continued to serve his burgers until his death in 1951. The town of Seymour Wisconsin even passed a law stating the town was the official home of the first hamburger.19 Myth #3 The third claim comes from New Haven Connecticut in 1900.20 Louis Lassen had a small stall with boilers where he would boil Hamburg meat. Louis’ stall had no seats and his customers

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were often in a rush and needed to eat their Hamburg meat on the go.21 Louis decided on developing a more comfortable way for his customers to eat on the go, and placed his Hamburg meat in between two slices of toast inventing the hamburger.22 This third claim is often seen as the most legitimate claim; the US library of Congress recognises Louis Lassen as the first official creator of the hamburger.23 The Modern Hamburger The 1904 St. Louis World Fair greatly increased the popularity of the hamburger. By 1921 the first official hamburger fast food restaurant was opened in Wichita,

Kansas, White Castle in Kansas revolutionized the hamburger industry.24 The hamburger quickly permeated throughout American society. By the late 1920s the hamburger had become an American food staple. The American Red Cross would even send hamburgers to American prisoners of war during the Second World War to give them a taste of home.25 Like many cultural icons, the origin of the hamburger is based largely upon secondary sources such as myths and assumptions. Only the third claim from Louis Lassen has been given significant support but even Louis’ myth lacks a significant amount of

primary evidence to support his claim. It is impossible to know the exact origin and inventor of the hamburger. Regardless, of the mysteries behind the meals origin there is no question that the hamburger has become an American cultural icon with a mythical history.

!!!!!!!!!No fast-food menu item has played a more vital role in the transformation of American society than the hamburger. !The hamburger isn't just a symbol of America - it is part of a story of evolution and nation-wide development. Its story holds great political and cultural meaning and it has both shaped and been shaped by the post-war century of growth, industrialization and corporate culture.! !At the start of the new millennium Americans were spending more than $110 billion dollars on fast food.1 In 2004 this figure grew to 153.1 billion.2 Based upon these figures alone, it is clear that this mode of consumption has significance in a broader social context. Fast food has revolutionized the way we eat. It has also revolutionized society with regards to employment, homogenization of cuisine across America (and around the world), and infrastructural innovations. !!!!!!!!!

!!!!It is impossible to think of fast food without thinking of the hamburger. And it is impossible to !consider the hamburger without understanding the (literal) driving forces of auto-mobility and industrialization behind the hamburger industry. These forces – the fast food revolution, car-culture and industrialization – intertwined and forever changed American society, and placed the hamburger front and center of America’s foodscape. !!The Origin Story of the Hamburger as Fast Food: The White Castle System! !This story begins in the early 20th century, with two visionaries that would change American consumption patterns forever. J. Walter Anderson and Edgar Waldo Ingram went into business together in 1921, selling hamburgers at five cents apiece at their new operation, White Castle. Their business model was comprised of several core elements and systems. It must be efficient and cheap, which meant a limited menu and ready-made food with a simplistic preparation process. It must be standardized so that customers would have the same experience, no matter which White Castle location they frequented. Finally, it must be located in areas of mass transit in order to reach a larger consumer base.3 !

HAMBURGER: THE FAST

FOOD KING !

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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!If it sounds like the fast food model that we know and love today, you wouldn’t be wrong. Under this model, at White Castle and other chains, the hamburger’s popularity grew. However despite commercial success, fast food hamburgers did not immediately become a significant part of the American food-scape until after the war with the emergence of car-culture and production innovations.4!!Automobility ! !As noted, a key component of the White Castle system was the !!!!

location, stipulated to be most effective in areas of mass transit. It should come at no surprise, therefore, to reveal that the fast food industry, of which the hamburger was king, grew alongside the highway system thanks to the emergent automobile industry.5 In 1921, there were 8 million automobiles registered in the United States. This number nearly tripled within ten years and reached almost eight times as many by 1955 – what many consider to be the golden age of hamburger drive-ins.6 !!The growth of the automobile industry in this time period tends to be attributed to a single automobile model – the Ford Model T, produced by Henry Ford in 1908. For the first time, automobiles were available at an achievable cost for the mass-market, especially middle class consumers, revolutionizing the way people move today.7 This vital industrial change led to the redefinition of the nation's geography and infrastructure - the creation of highways, drive-throughs, and roadside restaurants. It is not a coincidence that the first McDonald’s restaurant was opened !!!!along Route 66 in San Bernardino,

California – one of the most traveled highways in the state with one of, if not the most prominent car culture at the time.8 It is also not coincidental that the hamburger became so popular amongst motorists in the fast-food era – it is possible to eat a burger while driving, making it both cheap and transportable.9!!The emergence of the auto-mobility of the nation led to a countrywide infrastructure project - the Interstate Highway Act, passed in 1956, and supported strongly by President Dwight Eisenhower. Impressed by the German autobahns, Eisenhower ensured that the United States would see the development of its own extensive roadway system following the war.10 The project was one of the largest in the nation’s history, with approximately 46,000 miles of road built, on the budget of $130 billion.11 This was an endeavor of massive proportions with huge impacts on the way people travelled, and indeed, ate. It would forever change the landscape of America, both geographically, and socially. !

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The Infrastructural Iterations of the Hamburger Joint! !As Ingram and Anderson stipulated, and as every good businessperson knows, the closer the proximity of your product to the consumer base, the more likely you are to maximize your sales. In this era of automobiles and highways, the more car-friendly or car-accessible a restaurant was, the more successful it would be. This understanding led to a number of variations on the architecture and service-style of the hamburger chain.12!!The first iteration of the hamburger chain in response to America’s car culture was the drive-in, which relied on the service of ‘carhops.’ Carhops were essentially waitresses who took the orders of patrons and carried the food out to them from the restaurant on trays. This particular system enticed young men in particular as carhops tended to be pretty girls who made their money on commission and tips.13 For this reason, the drive-in became a popular symbol and location of youth culture in the 1950s. However, it was this same youth culture that promoted a shift towards a more efficient model, instead of a system where the carhops might get distracted by friends or potential suitors, lowering the sales quota of the store.14 Various systems were tested to try and attempt to address this goal. Some examples include the Motormat - an elaborate motorized system that transported food and beverages from the kitchen to parked cars,15 and various remote-control ordering systems such as the Fone-A-Chef, the Teletray, and the Electro-Hop, all of which attempted to replace the car-hop with technology.16 However, the most successful of all new systems, the Speedee Service System, was that introduced by the chain that would later come to dominate the hamburger market – McDonald’s.17!!Ironically, the assembly-line model that produced Ford’s Model Ts was the inspiration behind McDonald’s Speedee Service System. This industrial system, applied to the commercial kitchen18 in 1948 by Richard and Maurice McDonald, was based on principles of division of labour, where each worker was trained on a singular task.19 This made their business run faster and kept costs low as more expensive workers such as cooks and a waitressing-carhop staff weren't necessary.20 However, it took some time for this service to catch on - society was used to carhops and not having to leave their cars. This was later addressed with the introduction of drive-through windows.!!Reports differ as to whether it was the hamburger chain Wendy’s or Jack in the Box that first introduced drive-through service. Some accredit Jack in the Box with the innovation in the 1950s21 while most others22 state it was Wendy’s in the 1970s.23 Whichever chain it was,

the goal was the same: cut down on labour costs, encourage the business of motorists, and provide the fastest food possible.24 As we can see today, this has been a lasting trend that has proved enormously successful for hamburger chains and for the fast-food industry in general. Most chains now have drive-through windows, if not double drive-throughs for the most popular of locations. The numbers show the success of this iteration of the hamburger joint: take-out and drive-through sales account for about 60 per cent of fast-food income in America.25 !!Some innovations of the fast food industry, such as the drive-through, are still in use today. Others have faded out of fashion for an array of reasons - cost, efficiency, malfunctions. Regardless of the longevity of the innovation, it is clear that technology and industrialization drove the success of hamburgers in post-war America.!!!

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THE HAMBURGER IS the quintessential American meal, and is known as such not just in the North American sphere, but also by countries around the world. While the Japanese have their sushi, and the Canadians have their poutine, the hamburger is the ultimate American food. Indeed, fast food hamburger restaurants are saturated in the media, and are especially prominent in American television shows. From the Krusty Krab in Spongebob, the Krusty Burger in The Simpsons, and the Paunch Burger in Parks and Recreation, it is clear that outside of the fictional coffee shop and pub environment on screen, hamburger restaurants dominate this sphere. However, why is the hamburger America’s most ubiquitous food, and not other fast food items such as the hot dog, or pizza? “Beef is Bad” According to the historian David Gerard Hogan, during the early twentieth century, the hamburger was considered ‘a food for the poor’, tainted and unsafe to eat. They were often sold at lunch carts near factories, or at circuses and fairs for cheap.1 How did the hamburger go from a low-class meal, to a staple of the American diet? It perhaps helped that beef was the meat of choice in

America until recent. At one time, beef consumption became concomitant with wealth and increased status and thus hamburger became a food preferred among a people coveting upward social mobility.2 The American Century Another important factor to note is that the hamburger developed alongside the period of mass industrialization, consumption, and urbanization that followed World War II. Both men and women were

steadily entering the workforce, and many found themselves with expendable money, free to spend at diners and fast food restaurants for a fast meal.3 Indeed, the automobile became inextricably linked to the hamburger, forcing fast food restaurants to account for and adapt to the emergence of car culture. One reason the hamburger so far outstripped its rivals in the fast-food era was because it was so easy to eat a hamburger while driving.4

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During this time, Americans became more mobile, less formal, and more in need of quick and easy meals that could be eaten on the go.5 This need to create an efficient, fast, and streamlined method of cooking hamburgers and distributing them to consumers resulted in innovations such as the drive-through window and the indoor and outdoor walk-up. It also often included a complete redesign of the architecture and interior of fast food restaurants. Out with the Old McDonald’s initial success was rooted in their decision to close their restaurant in 1948, a hamburger stand still fitted in the pre-automotive dining fashion in that it had knives, forks, plates, a big menu, and slow-smoked meats. The McDonald brothers, Richard and Maurice, fired their carhops, and changed the way in which the restaurant was operated. This entailed removing the need for flatware, glasses, and tableware by replacing them with paper or plastic containers and utensils, and removing barbeque items off of their menu.6 Ultimately, McDonalds, as well as other rival fast food establishments such as Burger King and Wendy’s, sought to create an automated,

assembly-line system that quickly produced each item on their menu list while reducing labour costs, a model that echoes Ford and his own assembly line. Advertising Fast food hamburger chains lay claim to using some of the first advertising techniques. The hamburger chain, White Castle, once ran a coupon advertisement in city newspapers in each market where it had a restaurant, offering five hamburgers, carryout only, for just ten cents. While the chain lost money on each burger sold during the promotion, it increased its customer base.7 Later, White Castle began giving out premiums, including fold-up castles and collectible trading cards that were redeemable for prizes such as footballs and flash cameras, much like McDonald does with their Happy Meal toys now.8 Another facet of hamburger fast food advertising includes cross-promotional advertisements where restaurants team up with a film. For example, in 1998, McDonald’s launched its first truly global Happy Meal promotion, built around Disney’s film Mulan, in which

children were given a toy with each Happy Meal.9 Outside of fast food restaurants, other drink and food companies often incorporated the hamburger into their advertisements. Soft drinks, beer, and condiment manufacturers have long recognized the inherent marketing potential of the hamburger. Companies ranging from Coca-Cola, Canada Dry, Campbell’s Soup, Hunt’s, Kraft, and Frito’s, all incorporated the hamburger into their printed advertising campaigns.10 Hamburgers in the Home The hamburger was indeed a significant item in most fast food restaurants, but it also had a place in the home. After the creation of frozen patties, advertising campaigns marketing the hamburger as an easy lunch or dinner option, flourished. Television advertisements in the late-1950s and early-1960s, such as Swift’s Premium Hamburger Patties commercial, demonstrates to the public how to cook the frozen patties at home. Now, Americans need not go to a hamburger joint to get their fix.

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Burgers and the BBQ The hamburger and other forms of red meats gave men a role in the domestic space. Barbequing, perhaps because it was done outdoors and on a grill, became masculinized and transformed into a father’s, or a man’s responsibility.11 Moreover, due to the rapid suburbanization of America, there was a sudden increase in social activities within the community. The easiest way to socialize though, was to invite the neighbours over for dinner and the backyard barbeque made this festive. Hamburgers of course, had a prominent place during these events.12 The Baby Boomer Clientele Lastly, one of the most important reasons why the hamburger is an American icon is the fact that hamburger fast food establishments targeted the baby boomers when they were children and used the “cradle-to-grave” advertising strategy. That is, appealing to

nostalgic childhood memories of a brand will lead to a lifetime of purchases.13 In the 1950s, few American retailers targeted children with their advertising. However, Ray Kroc, a business man and McDonald’s first national franchising agent, saw that children had ‘pester power’ and often determined where their families ate.14 Seeing the power of kid customers, hamburger fast food restaurants such as McDonald’s and Burger King flooded the television with commercials. McDonald’s relied on their primary mascot, Ronald McDonald, to attract kids.15 They knew that a child who loves a restaurant’s TV commercials and brings their grandparents to a McDonald’s gives the store two more customers.15 By 1980, 96 percent of American children recognized Ronald McDonald – second only to Santa

Claus.16 McDonald’s and Burger King also took to building playgrounds in their stores, and creating kid clubs to draw children to their restaurants. An American Icon Hamburgers then, serve as a symbol of America’s ingenuity and excess, their populism and capitalism, and their gastronomy and gluttony.18 It is a national food, not tied to a specific state unlike Pennsylvania’s Philly cheesesteak, or deep dish pizza in Chicago, Illinois. The hamburger was extremely influential and altered the advertising and franchising business, the ways in which fast food stores are designed and operated, and the food Americans consume. Indeed, the hamburger serves as a reflection of America’s history, values, and culture.19

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THE$ENVIRONMENTAL$EFFECTS$OF$THE$GLOBALIZATION$OF$THE$MEAT$PRODUCTION$INDUSTRY$$

$Worldwide meat production has surged from 78 million tons per year in 1963 to 308 million tons in 2014.1 $ As a result of the ability to mass-produce meat at a global scale, the price of meat is more affordable than ever, which has fed the ever growing consumer demand for it. It is now clear that our planet cannot support this growing appetite. There is a strong case that meat is now too cheap, with prices being pushed down by evermore-intensive farming practices. Around 70% of agricultural land and 30% of the global land surface are now used by animal production.2

Shift In Farming Practices Traditionally, farmers used extensive methods for the raising of livestock. This extensive method generally consisted of mixed farming systems, where farmers would raise livestock along with crops on small farms. They would use the animal waste to

fertilize crop fields, and use mixed crop fields for animal consumption and human consumption, creating a diverse agricultural unit.3 Another traditional method used was a pastoral system. Pastoral livestock production makes extensive use of ecosystem services and eliminates many of the problems of confinement production. Pastured animals consume plants growing in a field, and plant growth is increased by animal wastes deposited and recycled in the field.4 When appropriately stocked and managed, grassland–ruminant ecosystems are an efficient, sustainable method of producing high-quality protein with minimal environmental impacts.5 In recent years, industrial livestock production has grown at twice the rate of more traditional mixed farming systems and at more than six times the rate of production based on grazing.6 This industrial production uses what are called intensive methods of farming. These intensive methods involve large numbers of animals being raised on limited land areas or in confined animal feeding operations (CAFO). These methods have provided the ability to mass-produce beef on a global scale to meet the consumption needs of consumers.

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Environmental Impacts While these intensive farming methods have provided an economically efficient way to mass-produce meat, they are linked to a number of serious environmental issues. For instance, meat production is associated with 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions arising from methane linked to animal digestion, deforestation of carbon rich trees, and the vast amounts of artificial fertilizers required to feed cattle housed in highly concentrated numbers.7 The main sources of emissions are feed production and processing (45% of the total), outputs of green- house gases (GHGs) during digestion by cows (39%), and manure decomposition (10%).8 Water Pollution Worldwide, 80% of the area of all agricultural land is used for fodder, with 44% of the world’s grain harvest diverted to industrialized meat production.9 This is a problem because today, crops take in only 30–50% of applied nitrogen fertilizer, and 41-45% of phosphorus fertilizer.10 This means that there is a significant amount of the applied nitrogen and phosphorus that is lost from agricultural fields. These losses then run off into coastal waters, lakes, rivers and streams creating over-enrichment, eutrophication and low-oxygen conditions, endanger fisheries. This has such overbearing affects that, it is predicted we could see fishless oceans by 2048.11 Furthermore, animal agriculture is responsible for

20%-33% of all fresh water consumption in the world today.12 It takes 2,500 gallons of water to produce 1 pound of beef.13 If people were more aware of these stats, they would think twice about choosing to eat a hamburger. With fresh water resources becoming an increasing concern, it might be wise to rethink how and where we use them. Deforestation and Impact on Biodiversity Animal production is also one of the main drivers of deforestation and degradation of wildlife habitats. Animal agriculture is a significant catalyst for the conversion of wooded areas to grazing land or cropland for feed production. This conversion process involves in most cases, the clearing of rainforests. Deforestation and desertification are responsible for CO2 emissions from the livestock sector's use of land. Earth’s rainforests are being destroyed at the rate of 1.5 acres per second worldwide with 136 million rainforest acres cleared for animal agriculture.14 At least 50% of all species are found only in tropical

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rainforests, as a result of deforestation, 110 animals and insect species are lost everyday from rainforest destruction.15

Animal Waste The handling and disposal of animal wastes are significant problems of high-density animal confinement facilities. Manure lagoons can release high levels of hydrogen sulphide and other toxic gases, volatilize ammonium that greatly increases regional nitrogen deposition, and contaminate surface and ground waters with nutrients, toxins and pathogens.16 These pollutants also run-off through the soil, into water systems; destroying ecosystems and causing extinction in the ocean.

Developing Countries Furthermore, the dedication of vast amounts of land to feed crops for livestock has caused a mass hunger issue in developing countries. The bottom line is that at least 90% of the planet’s 1.3 billion poor are located in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, and that 60% of them depend on livestock for some part of their livelihoods.17 Farmers are forced to grow feed crops because there is more money in the export of them than form growing food for the local people. 82% of starving children live in countries where food is fed to animals, which are consumed by western countries.18 Having said that, as people achieve higher and higher incomes, their ability to purchase not just more products, but also those of higher quality, increases. This is happening in the growing middle class of developing countries. As they begin to gain more income they are choosing to consume meat as a status symbol. Thus, the demand for global food is estimated to double by 2050.19 Such increases will also double meat’s impacts on the environment unless more efficient meat production methods are adopted.

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Possible Solutions Agriculturalists are the principal managers of global useable lands and will shape, perhaps irreversibly, the surface of the Earth in the coming decades.20 There are a number of sustainable paths they could take to reduce the amount of emissions that are involved in animal production. The global estimates suggest that, per unit of protein, GHG emissions from beef production are around 150 times those of soy products, by volume, and even the least emissions-intensive meat products—pork and chicken—produce 20– 25 times more GHGs than plant-based foods.21 Thus, focusing efforts on harvesting soy crops are an important step. However, the biggest problem is curbing consumption patterns of beef. Another sustainable route is the development of cultured meat (i.e., meat produced in vitro using tissue engineering techniques), which is being developed as a potentially healthier and more efficient alternative to conventional meat.22 There are a number of environmental benefits to cultured meats. The replacement of conventionally produced meat by cultured meat could potentially contribute toward mitigating GHG emissions because, instead of clearing more land for agriculture, large land areas could be reforested or used for other carbon sequestration purposes.23 Furthermore, shifting farming practice back to extensive or organic

methods would significantly reduce these negative effects in the energy consumption, global warming potential and ground water impact categories, because they renounce mineral nitrogen fertilizer. Organic farms need only one-third of area-related energy input and only half of the product-related energy that intensive farms need.24 The only problem with shifting from intensive farming methods is that extensive and organic farming cannot produce at the same level as intensive farming and not as economically efficient. However, the repercussions of intensive farming are far greater than the costs not producing as much meat. In order for this method to work, there needs to be a change in consumption patterns around the world. If current crop production used for animal feed and other nonfood uses (including bio- fuels) were targeted for direct consumption, some 70% more calories would become available, potentially providing enough calories to meet the basic needs of an additional 4 billion people.25 While this is a less likely scenario, by changing the consumption preferences of people away from meat to more efficient foods like soy, a positive environmental impact can be made worldwide, as well as creating healthier lives and decreasing the impact of health problems on a society.

NOTES

The Hamburger: America’s Icon 1. Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 197. 2. John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle, Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 98. 3. Ibid. 4. Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 62. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 64. 7. John McDonough and Karen Egolf, The Advertising Age Encyclopaedia of Advertising (New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2003), 1354. 7. Ibid., 1355. 8. Ibid., 1356. 9. Ibid. 10. Jeffrey Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven (New York: Hyperion, 1993), 94. 11. Ozersky, The Hamburger , 111. 12. Ibid. 13. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation, 43. 14. Andrew F. Smith, Hamburger , 53. 15. Ibid. 16. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation , 41. 17. Andrew F. Smith, Hamburger , 53. 18. Besha Rodell, “What Makes the Hamburger So Important to L.A.,” LA Weekly, August 5, 2015, http://www.laweekly.com/restaurants/what-makes-the- hamburger-so-important-to-la-5875423. 19. Ibid. Hamburger: The Fast Food King 1. Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 3. 2. S. Bryn Austin, et al., “Clustering of Fast-Food Restaurants Around Schools: A Novel Application of Spatial Statistics to the Study of Food Environments,” American Journal of Public Health 95 (2005): 1575. 3. Andrew F. Smith, Hamburger: A Global History (London: Reaktion, 2008), 28. 4. Andrew F. Smith, Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006), 125. 5. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation , 8. 6. John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle, Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 40. 7. Ibid. 8. Bill Ganzel, “Fast Food,” Living History Farm, last modified 2007, accessed March 27, 2016. http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe50s/life_16.html. 9. Josh Ozersky, The Hamburger: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 62. 10. Ibid, 100. 11. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation, 22. 12. Austin, et al., Clustering of Fast-Food Restaurants Around Schools, 1575. 13. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation , 19.

14. Ganzel, “Fast Food.” 15. Schlosser, Fast Food Nation, 24. 16. Ibid. 17. Smith, Hamburger, 44. 18. Bruce A. Lohof, “Hamburger Stand: Industrialization and the American Fast-Food Phenomenon,” Journal of American Culture 2 (1979): 528. 19. Smith, Hamburger , 44. 20. Smith, The Encyclopedia of Junk Food and Fast Food, 125. 21. Ibid, 126. 22. Ozersky, The Hamburger, 142. 23. Ganzel, “Fast Food.” 24. Jackle and Sculle, Fast Food, 66. 25. Smith, Hamburger , 55. The Origin and Migration of the Hamburger 1. Tori Avery. "A Brief History of Hamburgers." Web log post. Tori Avery. Aug. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2016. 2. Stradley, Linda. "Hamburgers - History and Legends of Hamburgers." Weblog post. Whats Cooking

America . 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Tori Avery. "A Brief History of Hamburgers." Web log post. Tori Avery. Aug. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2016. 6. "History of the Hamburger: From Immigrant Fare to Fast Food Favourite." Fox News. Fox Networks Groups, 03 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. 7. Stradley, Linda. "Hamburgers - History and Legends of Hamburgers." Weblog post. Whats Cooking

America . 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 8. Ibid. 9. "Burgerology: Origin of the Hamburger." Weblog post. Burger Doctor . Aug. 2013. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 10. Tori Avery. "A Brief History of Hamburgers." Web log post. Tori Avery. Aug. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2016. 11. Ibid. 12. Harper, Roseanne. "HAMBURGER HISTORY." Supermarket News 52.19 (2004): 52. ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2016. 13. Ibid. 14. Herman, Judith B. "The History of the Hamburger." Weblog post. Mental Floss. Mental Floss Magazine, 28 May 2014. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 15. Harper, Roseanne. "HAMBURGER HISTORY." Supermarket News 52.19 (2004): 52.ProQuest. Web. 4 Apr. 2016. 16"Hamburger Charlie Nagreen." Seymour History. Balance Interactive Studios, 2008. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Stradley, Linda. "Hamburgers - History and Legends of Hamburgers." Weblog post. Whats Cooking

America . 2010. Web. 29 Mar. 2016. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24."History of the Hamburger: From Immigrant Fare to Fast Food Favourite." Fox News. Fox Networks Groups, 03 Sept. 2012. Web. 30 Mar. 2016. 25. Tori Avery. "A Brief History of Hamburgers." Web log post. Tori Avery. Aug. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2016.

The Environmental Effects of The Globalization of the Meat Industry 1. Koneswaran, Gowri, and Danielle Nierenberg. "Global Farm Animal Production and Global Warming: Impacting and Mitigating Climate Change." Environ Health Perspect Environmental Health Perspectives 116, no. 5 (2008): 578-82. 2. Stoll-Kleemann, Susanne, and Tim O'riordan. "The Sustainability Challenges of Our Meat and Dairy Diets." Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 57, no. 3 (2015): 34-48. 3. Tilman, David, Kenneth G. Cassman, Pamela A. Matson, Rosamond Naylor, and Stephen Polasky. "Agricultural Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices." Nature 418, no. 6898 (2002), 671. 4. Ibid., 675. 5. Haas, Guido, Frank Wetterich, and Ulrich Köpke. "Comparing Intensive, Extensified and Organic Grassland Farming in Southern Germany by Process Life Cycle Assessment." Agriculture, Ecosystems &

Environment 83, no. 1-2 (2001): 43-53. 6. Ibid. 7. Fiala, Nathan. "Meeting the Demand: An Estimation of Potential Future Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Meat Production." Ecological Economics 67, no. 3 (2008): 412-19. 8. Stoll-Kleemann, Susanne, and Tim O'riordan. "The Sustainability Challenges of Our Meat and Dairy Diets." Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 57, no. 3 (2015): 34-48. 9. Tilman, David, Kenneth G. Cassman, Pamela A. Matson, Rosamond Naylor, and Stephen Polasky. "Agricultural Sustainability and Intensive Production Practices." Nature 418, no. 6898 (2002), 675. 10. Ibid. 673. 11. "Facts and Sources." COWSPIRACY. Accessed March 29, 2016. http://www.cowspiracy.com/facts/. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Koneswaran, Gowri, and Danielle Nierenberg. "Global Farm Animal Production and Global Warming: Impacting and Mitigating Climate Change." Environ Health Perspect Environmental Health Perspectives 116, no. 5 (2008): 578-82. 17. "Facts and Sources." COWSPIRACY. Accessed March 29, 2016. http://www.cowspiracy.com/facts/. 18. "Meat Too Cheap for Consumers but Expensive for the Environment." Environmental Forum 32, no. 2 (March 2015): 22. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21. Fiala, Nathan. "Meeting the Demand: An Estimation of Potential Future Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Meat Production." Ecological Economics 67, no. 3 (2008): 412-19. 22. Tuomisto, Hanna L., and M. Joost Teixeira De Mattos. "Environmental Impacts of Cultured Meat Production." Environmental Science & Technology Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, no. 14 (2011): 6117-123. 23. Ibid. 24. Haas, Guido, Frank Wetterich, and Ulrich Köpke. "Comparing Intensive, Extensified and Organic Grassland Farming in Southern Germany by Process Life Cycle Assessment." Agriculture, Ecosystems &

Environment 83, no. 1-2 (2001): 43-53. 25. Ibid.