Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology

PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University of North Carolina, Wilmington

DETERMINANTS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE Biological, Psychological, and Environmental Factors

Edited by Mark Galizio and Stephen A. Maisto

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Edited by John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning

THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT AND SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Edited by J aan Val siner

METHODOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Victor L. Willson

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Developmental Perspective

Edited by Lawrence C. Hartlage and Cathy F. Telzrow

PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Natural Science Approach

Hans J. Eysenck and Michael W. Eysenck

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND AROUSAL Edited by Jan Strelau and Hans J. Eysenck

PERSPECTIVES ON BIAS IN MENTAL TESTING Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Robert T. Brown

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY Edited by Hans J. Eysenck and Irene Martin

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

Historical Foundations of Educational Psychology Edited by

John A. Glover and

Royce R. Ronning University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Historical foundations of educational psychology.

(Perspectives on individual differences) Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Educational psychology-History. I. Glover, John A., 1949-

Royce R. III. Series. LB1051.H537 1987 370.15 ISBN 978-1-4899-3622-6 ISBN 978-1-4899-3620-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-3620-2

© 1987 Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1987. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1987

All rights reserved

. II. Ronning,

87-7875

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

Printed in the United States of America

Contributors

Thomas Andre Department of Psychology Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. Department of Psychology Texas A & M University College Station, Texas

Sidney W. Bijou Department of Psychology and Special Education University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona

Robert D. Brown Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

John B. Carroll Department of Psychology University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Don C. Charles Department of Psychology Iowa State University Ames, Iowa

Emily S. Davidson Department of Psychology Texas A & M University College Station, Texas

v

Walter Dick Department of Educational Research Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida

Francis J. Di Vesta Division of Counseling and Educational

Psychology Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania

David N. Dixon Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

Carolyn M. Evertson Department of Teaching and Learning Peabody College Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee

Robert M. Gagne Department of Educational Research Florida State University Tallahassee, Florida

John A. Glover Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

vi

Don E. Hamachek Department of Counseling, Educational

Psychology, and Special Education College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan

Ernest R. Hilgard Department of Psychology Stanford University Stanford, California

John E. Horrocks Department of Psychology Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio

Lloyd G. Humphreys Department of Psychology University of Illinois Champaign, Illinois

Arthur R. Jensen School of Education University of California Berkeley, California

Jack J. Kramer Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

CONTRIBUTORS

Thomas R. Kratochwill Department of Educational Psychology University of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin

Richard E. Mayer Department of Psychology University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California

Gerald J. Melican Educational Testing Service Princeton, New Jersey

Barbara S. Plake Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

Royce R. Ronning Department of Educational Psychology University of Nebraska Lincoln, Nebraska

Mark A. Smylie Department of Curriculum Instruction and

Evaluation University of Illinois Chicago, Illinois

Robert L. Williams Department of Educational and Counseling

Psychology University of Tennessee Knoxville, Tennessee

Preface

This volume represents a beginning effort to compile a history of educational psychology The project began, innocuously enough, several years ago when we decided to add mon material about the history of educational psychology to the undergraduate course we were teaching. What seemed like a simple task became very complex as we searched in vain for a volume dealing with the topic. We ended up drawing on various histories of psychology that devoted anywhere from a few paragraphs to several pages to the topic and on a very few articles addressing the issue. We were startled, frankly, by the apparent lack of interest in the history of our field and decided to attempt to compile a history ourselves.

As is the case with any edited volume, the contributing authors deserve credit for its positive features. They uniformly made every effort asked of them and taught us much about educational psychology. Any errors or omissions are our responsibility alone.

In retrospect, it seems that we misread the field when we began working on this volume. That is, we presumed that educational psychology was a much more coherent and readily defined field than it is. In fact, there is little agreement about what educational psychology is and who or what educational psychologists are. The ambiguous nature of the field is not something new, arguments about its identity have been a part of the literature since the turn of the century. Even so, our attempt to piece together a history of educational psychology has been fascinating and given us far more insight into educa­tional psychology than we could have gained in any other way. It is our hope that the readers of this volume will also gain a knowledge of the field different from what is available in the journal literature and traditional textbooks.

Given the lack of agreement about what educational psychology is, we devoted the first chapter to defining the field and examining issues that influence its definition. The second chapter explored the development of early departments of educational psychology. Then, because of the diverse nature of the field, we were faced with a difficult decision. We could attempt to follow Chapter 2 with chapters on topics such as educational psychol­ogy in the 1930s, educational psychology during World War II, or we could solicit chapters that focused on the history of specialties closely related to educational psychol­ogy. We decided on the latter course.

After reviewing available materials on the history of educational psychology, it seemed that our field was largely derivative, depending on work in individual differences, measurement, cognitive psychology, instructional design, and other areas for much of its growth. Because of this, we chose chapters on the history of specialty areas closely related

vii

viii PREFACE

to educational psychology, with particular emphasis on how these areas influenced educa­tional psychology. These chapters comprise the second section of the volume. Their topics, the child study movement, individual differences, measurement, the guidance movement, school psychology, behavioral psychology, humanistic psychology, instruc­tional design, and the cognitive movement describe, in large part, what educational psychology has been and what it is becoming.

The problem of defining educational psychology also led us to expand the volume beyond what we had originally envisioned. Rather than attempting to define the field as it is in the late 1980s, we decided to include a series of state-of-the-art chapters on topics representative of educational psychologists' interests. These chapters, dealing with read­ing, teacher effectiveness, classroom management, measurement, evaluation, and prob­lem solving, are not all inclusive but they do provide a sampling of the wide range of research interests incorporated in educational psychology.

The last section of the volume provides a much more personalized attempt to deal with the history of the field and its status. Here, we asked notable contributors to educa­tional psychology to give us their own perspectives. Each of these chapters is unique, offering insights into educational psychology not available from standard sources. The illness of some potential contributors, unfortunately, cut this section shorter than we had planned.

A large number of people were involved in the development of this volume-too many to list in this brief space. Grateful thanks, however, must be extended to some scholars who were especially helpful. We thank Cecil R. Reynolds for helping get the project off the ground and a whole series of discussions about the shape of the volume. We thank J. B. Stroud for his many insights into the evolution of the field. A very large debt of gratitude is owed to David C. Berliner for his grace, good will, and analytic skills in evaluating a wide-ranging discussion of the history of educational psychology. We are also grateful to E. Paul Torrance and Terry B. Gutkin for thoughtful analyses of the project. We also must express our appreciation and heartfelt gratitude to a very special group of scholars who graciously gave their time and expertise to reviewing chapters in this volume: Larry A. Braskamp, Roger H. Bruning, Joel Dill, Robert L. Egbert, Gene V. Glass, Elizabeth M. Goetz, Robert L. Linn, Wesley C. Mierhenry, William J. Moore, Wayne C. Piersel, Ernst Z. Rothkopf, and John W. Zimmer, Finally, we also must thank our editor at Plenum, Eliot Werner, whose unflagging enthusiasm helped us enormously.

We view this volume as a first step. As with any project, hindsight shows gaps and omissions that should have been foreseen but that were not. In particular, we hope to be able to devote a future volume to a decade-by-decade chronology of educational psychol­ogy with specific emphasis on educational psychology's relationship to professional orga­nizations. We also hope to be able to expand the individual perspectives on the field, which we believe give otherwise unobtainable information. We do hope that our readers will find the history we present to be as fascinating and illuminating as we did.

JOHN A. GLOVER

ROYCE R. RONNING

Contents

PART I BEGINNINGS

Chapter I Introduction... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning

Definitions of Educational Psychology ................................... 5 Influences on the Definition of Educational Psychology ..................... 6 Who Are Educational Psychologists? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Summary.................. ............ ............................. 14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Chapter 2 The Emergence of Educational Psychology. . ............. . . . . . 17

Don C. Charles

Nineteenth-Century Psychology and Its Role in Education ................... 19 The Turn of the Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21 The New Discipline .................................................. 27 Development of Educational Psychology in Principal Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 Concluding Observations .............................................. 35 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36

PART II THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 3 A History of the Child Study Movement in America

Emily S. Davidson and Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.

41

Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Views of Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 The Industrial Revolution and the Growth of Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 The Founding of Child Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46

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X CONTENTS

Child Study and the New Psychology .................................... 48 Influence of the Child Study Movement: 1890-1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54 The Demise of the Child Study Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 55 The Legacy of the Child Study Movement ................................ 57 Summary. . . . . . . . . ... ... . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . . .. 58 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59

Chapter 4 Individual Differences in Mental Ability ...................... 61

Arthur R. Jensen

The Pre scientific Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63 The Factor Analysts .................................................. 72 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86

Chapter 5 Measurement and Educational Psychology: Beginnings and Repercussions ............................................ 89

John B. Carroll

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89 Methods of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Theory of Measurement ............................................... 91 Test Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Factor Analysis ...................................................... 97 Test Validity ........................................................ 98 Research Design ..................................................... 99 Computational and Test Scoring Technology .............................. 100 Institutional and Organizational Arrangements ............................. 101 Summary Comments .................................................. 102 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103

Chapter 6 From Parsons to Profession: The History of Guidance and Counseling Psychology ..................................... 107

David N. Dixon

The Counseling Professions ............................................ 108 A River Story ....................................................... III Historical Contributions ............................................... 112 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118

Chapter 7 School Psychology: A Developmental Report with Special Attention to Educational Psychology .....•.......••.•........ 121

Jack J. Kramer

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121 School Psychology: A Developmental Analysis ............................ 121 The Nature and Extent of the School Psychology-Educational Psychology Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 125

CONTENTS

Summary and Conclusions: Maintaining the Diversity and Maximizing the Interaction .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129

Chapter 8 The Impact of Behaviorism on Educational Psychology ......... 131

Thomas R. Kratochwill and Sidney W. Bijou

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 Philosophical, Biological, and Physiological Origins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132 Operant Conditioning and Development of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior: B. F. Skinner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138 Development of Applied Behavior Analysis ............................... 141 Professional Developments in Behaviorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147 Concluding Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 154

Chapter 9 Humanistic Psychology: Theory, Postulates, and Implications for Educational Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159

Don E. Hamachek

Prologue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159 What is Humanistic Psychology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 Early Humanism: Parent of the Humanistic Spirit .......................... 160 Emergence of the Humanistic Orientation as Psychology's "Third Force" ...... 161 Basic Humanistic Views about Human Behavior ........................... 165 Role of the Self in Humanistic Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 Major Contributors to the Growth of Humanistic Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 167 Some Common Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology ....................... 168 Strengths and Virtues of the Humanistic Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169 Beginnings of the Humanistic Movement in Education ...................... 170 Implications of the Humanistic Movement for Educational Processes ......... " 171 Toward Facilitating Teaching and Learning within a Humanistic Framework .... 172 Implications for Educational Psychology ................................ " 176 Epilogue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180

Chapter 10 A History of Instructional Design and Its Impact on Educational Psychology .............................................. 183

Walter Dick

The Beginnings of Instructional Design~ World War II to 1958 .............. 183 The Late Fifties~Sputnik and Programmed Instruction ..................... 184 The Conceptual Revolution of the Sixties ................................. 186 From Instructional Design to Instructional Systems in the Seventies ........... 189 Current Status of Instructional Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192 The Instructional Designer: 1960 and 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194 The Current Impact of Instructional Design on Educational Psychology ........ 196 A Comparison of the Current Orientations of Educational Psychology and Instructional Design .................................................. 199

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xii CONTENTS

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 200

Chapter 11 The Cognitive Movement and Education

Francis J. Di Vesta

203

The Nature of Understanding ..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204 Education: Two Philosophies ........................................... 204 The Transition from Philosophy to Educational Psychology .................. 206 The Current Cognitive Movement ....................................... 208 Information Processing ................................................ 210 Facilitating Understanding by External Aids ............................... 213 Cognitive Skills and Control Processes ................................... 218 Illustrative Cognitive Strategies ......................................... 220 Cognitive Skills Training .............................................. 222 The Psychology of School SUbjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 223 Expertise: Procedural Knowledge and Declarative Knowledge ................ 225 Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 226 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 228 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 230

PART III CURRENT ISSUES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Chapter 12 Program Evaluation: Agendas for Discussion of Issues and for Future Research ......................................... 237

Robert D. Brown

Historical Perspective ................................................. 237' An Issue Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239 A Research Agenda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 249 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256

Chapter 13 Processes in Reading Comprehension and the Teaching of Comprehension .......................................... 259

Thomas Andre

Educational Psychology and the Study of Reading: A Brief Historical Overview. . . .. 261 Models of Reading Comprehension ............................. . . . . . . . .. 263 Issues in Reading Comprehension Research ............................... 272 Teaching Reading Comprehension Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 282 Summary and Conclusions ............................................. 288 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290

Chapter 14 Current Issues in Classroom Behavior Management

Robert L. Williams

297

Types of Participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 297 Target Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298

CONTENTS xiii

Treatment Strategies ................................................. . 299 Evaluation of Classroom Management Research ........................... . 317 References ......................................................... . 321

Chapter 15 The Elusive Search for Teachable Aspects of Problem Solving •. 327

Richard E. Mayer

Introduction ........................................................ . 327 Definitions ......................................................... . 328 Cognitive Analysis of Problem Solving .................................. . 329 Historical Example .................................................. . 332 Teaching for Transfer: Rote versus Meaningful Learning ................... . 334 Teaching Problem Solving in Reading ................................... . 338 Teaching Problem Solving in Writing ................................... . 339 Teaching Problem Solving in Math ..................................... . 340 Teaching Problem Solving for Intelligence Gains .......................... . 342 The Future of Problem-Solving Research ................................ . 343 References ......................................................... . 345

Chapter 16 Research on Teaching and Classroom Processes: Views from Two Perspectives ........................................ . 349

Carolyn M. Evertson and Mark A. Smylie

Two Lenses-Different Perspectives .................................... . 350 Planning and Decision Making ......................................... . 354 Classroom Management .............................................. . 357 Academic Instruction ................................................ . 362 Conclusion ......................................................... . 367 References ......................................................... . 367

Chapter 17 Future of Educational Measurement ....................... . 373

Barbara S. Plake and Gerald J. Melican

Introduction ........................................................ . 373 Aptitude and Achievement Testing ..................................... . 375 Future of Computers in Educational Measurement ......................... . 377 Testing for Decision Making .......................................... . 383 Implications of the Revised Joint Technical Standards on the Future of Educational Measurement ............................................. . 385 Conclusions ........................................................ . 388 References ......................................................... . 389

PART IV PERSPECTIVES ON EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 18 Peaks and Valleys of Educational Psychology: A Retrospective View ................................................... 395

Robert M. Gagne

Early Postwar Research ............................................... 397 Research on Training of Military Personnel ............................... 397

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School Subjects as Learning Tasks ...................................... 398 The Period of Development of Laboratories and Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 399 Development of Ideas about Instructional Psychology ....................... 400 Some Reflections on Educational Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 401 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 402

Chapter 19 Quantitative Methodology: Then, Now, and the Future ••••...• 403

Lloyd G. Humphreys

Methodology Then ................................................... 403 What We Have Added ................................................ 407 Problems in Psychological Research ..................................... 410 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 414

Chapter 20 Perspectives on Educational Psychology .....•.•••••.......•• 415

Ernest R. Hi/gard

The Nineteenth-Century Background in America ........................... 415 The Influence of Global Perspectives .................................... 416 Instructional Psychology in the Late Twentieth Century ..................... 420 The Future of Educational Psychology ................................... 422 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 422

Chapter 21 Retrospect and Prospect in Educational Psychology ••.......•. 425

John E. Horrocks

Chapter 22 Conclusion ...•..........•....•.•••......•.•••••••...••.. 431

Royce R. Ronning and John A. Glover

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 431 The "Splinter" Groups ............................................... 431 Problems of Definition ................................................ 432 Early Educational Psychology Content ................................... 433 Educational Psychology 1960-1987 ..................................... 435 The Future of Educational Psychology ................................... 436 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438

Index ............•••••••••••••....••••....................••....... 439