History and Theory of Anthropology - Paper I

8/9/2019 History and Theory of Anthropology - Paper I

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Simpson 1

Jason Simpson

Dr. Kimbra Smith

Anthropology 3970

9 October 2013

In orer to create a common society in !hich to raise the chilren" !e m#st etermine the

basic tenants o$ the society that is to be create. %irst" !e loo& at ho! the society is to be i'ie

an in !hat !ays it is to be #nite" base on (mile D#r&heim)s ieas on soliarity an i'ision

o$ labor. *e+t" !e m#st loo& at ho! ini'i#als interact !ith the instit#tions o$ their society"

either by manip#lating the system" as ,ronisla! -alino!s&i belie'e" or by $ollo!ing the

inherent c#stoms" as -arcel -a#ss belie'e. e m#st also etermine ho! the instit#tions a$$ect

the ini'i#als" base on /acli$$e,ro!n)s iea abo#t the sel$s#staining system o$ instit#tions

an -a+ eber)s ieas on social actions. %inally" !e nee to loo& at !hat an ho! the chilren

are to learn. e !o#l #se -a#ss) ieas abo#t gi$ts an (. ('ansritchar)s ieas abo#t &inship

relations to etermine !hat to teach the chilren an #se /#th ,eneict an -argaret -ea)s

ieas abo#t socialiation to escribe ho! to teach them.

D#r&heim)s ieas abo#t society" in general" are base on the i'ision an #nity o$ the

people !ithin the instit#tions create. e belie'e that society is i'ie into 'ario#s

instit#tions" s#ch as religion an economics4 their $#nctions !ithin society an their interactions

!ith each other e$ine the society. e belie'e that the collecti'e conscio#sness o$ the

comm#nity" their !orl'ie!" consists o$ their 'al#es" belie$s" an goals $or li$e. 5hese general

'al#es !o#l then create the instit#tions that ma&e sense o$ the base o$ the society" the nees"

constraints" an i'ision o$ labor. 6sing -ar'in arris) concept o$ c#lt#ral materialism" society

is $irstly base on the in$rastr#ct#re" the basic nees an constraints" !hich creates the str#ct#re"


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Simpson 2

the instit#tions4 in$rastr#ct#re an str#ct#re then etermine the s#perstr#ct#re" !hich is

essentially D#r&heim)s collecti'e conscio#sness8.

%or a relati'ely small" an i'erse" gro#p o$ people li'ing on an islan" a more li&ely

scenario !o#l be that the material constraints o$ the islan an the basic nees o$ the

ini'i#als !o#l come $irst" since it alreay e+ists as cocon#ts an h#nger" then the i'ision o$

labor !o#l be create to e$ine !ho gets !hat an !hich people m#st o !hich ob. As the

society mo'es beyon meeting basic nees" a more comple+ organiation is re:#ire. %or

e+ample" an economic system !ith speci$ic r#les $or traing bet!een the i$$erent gro#ps o$

!or&ers an a basic system !o#l be re:#ire $or ealing !ith those !ho o not !ish to $ollo!

the establishe r#les" anomies8 as D#r&heim calle them. A portion o$ the pop#lation" i.e. the

yo#ng a#lts on the islan" has pree+isting ieas abo#t !hat 'al#es" belie$s" an goals sho#l

e+ist in society. As time passes" a ne!" an i$$erent" collecti'e conscio#sness !ill emerge" base

not on a single person an their ieals" b#t base on the physical constraints o$ the area" the

biological nees o$ the pop#lation" the instit#tions create" an the original ieals o$ the yo#ng

a#lts that ha trans$erre to the chilren.

5he relationship bet!een ini'i#als an their societal instit#tions has been e+amine by

many anthropologists" b#t t!o pre'alent theories !ere create by ,ronisla! -alino!s&i an

-arcel -a#ss. -alino!s&i belie'e that ini'i#als manip#late the instit#tions an collecti'e

conscio#sness o$ their society in orer to meet biological nees. hen a society is small" li&e a

han$#l o$ yo#ng a#lts an 200 chilren" an some $eel the nee to manip#late the collecti'e

conscio#sness" a e$initi'e hierarchy !ill e'elop !ith those e+ploiting the c#lt#re8 at the top

manip#lating the others. 5his is a'oie partially by ha'ing all members o$ the society

manip#late the ieals o$ the others" b#t some people !ill still manip#late to a greater e+tent than


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others" creating a hierarchy again. 6nless the society has a principle in place that allo!s those at

the bottom o$ the hierarchy to $eel goo abo#t their position" t#rmoil !ill be the norm !ith the

people on the bottom contin#ally changing places !ith those on the top.

-a#ss belie'e that ini'i#als in a society !o#l $ollo! the r#les place be$ore them.

%or the islan case s#ggeste" the occ#pants !o#l ha'e to belie'e in the social r#les;obligations

in orer to ma&e the society to !or&. 5his is base on -a#ss) research into the instit#tion o$ the

magical ceremony" !here belie'ing tens to ma&e it !or& an not belie'ing tens to ma&e it not

!or&. So" the inhabitants !ill ha'e to belie'e that their ne! society !ill !or&" !hich !ill ma&e

them more !illing to $ollo! the prescribe r#les to &eep the society !or&ing.

5he relationship bet!een the ini'i#als an their societal instit#tions !as also a topic o$

ebate among early anthropologists. (mile D#r&heim)s iea o$ the collecti'e conscio#sness8" or

!orl'ie!" seeme to be central to se'eral later theorists. /acli$$e,ro!n belie'e that the

collecti'e conscio#sness re:#ires instit#tions that #phol the basic logic an morals o$ the

society. (ssentially" the peoples< morals g#ie an maintain the instit#tions that e+ist in their

society !hile being in$l#ence by the instit#tions that they s#stain. /acli$$e,ro!n also

belie'e that !hile the instit#tions are g#ie by the moral ieas o$ the people" a large o#tsie

p#sh co#l change the o'erall collecti'e conscio#s o$ the people" th#s changing the instit#tions it

maintaine. -a+ eber belie'e that ini'i#als act accoring to speci$ic social responses. A

person co#l react !ith a response base on goaloriente rational tho#ght" a response base on

'al#eoriente rational tho#ght" a response base on emotion" or a traitional response base on

!hat is e+pecte. 5ho#gh eber sa! these as ieal types" an ini'i#al)s response co#l be any

combination o$ these.


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%inally" $or a society to $#nction" there m#st be a systematic metho to trans$erring the

societal r#les to the ne+t generation. In the case o$ the yo#ng a#lts on an islan !ith 200

chilren" a speci$ic society m#st e+ist to teach to the chilren. In terms o$ !hat to teach the

chilren" the iea o$ gi'ing an recei'ing is central to many societies" b#t ho! they e+change is

not. -a#ss !rote a general r#le associate !ith the e+pectation o$ reciprocity" !here the e$$icacy

o$ gi$ts is base on the social obligations $or reciprocity. >eneral reciprocity is the e+pectation o$

inirect" longterm" an possibly intangible gi$ts by the gi'er. ,alance reciprocity is the

e+pectation o$ a irect an immeiate ret#rn o$ gi$ts to the gi'er. *egati'e reciprocity is the

minset that the gi'er m#st try to gain as many gi$ts as possible by gi'ing as $e! gi$ts as

possible. 5eaching this to the chilren !o#l s#ggest to them that gi$ts are not really $ree" since

there is an e+pectation o$ ret#rn.

Depening on the relationship o$ the chilren to each other" ('ansritchar)s theories on

&inship co#l be biological or strictly societal. Since the chilren are not li&ely biologically

relate to the yo#ng a#lts !ho are to teach them" the iea o$ the e:#i'alence o$ brothers8 !ill

be employe by the yo#ng a#lts" e'en i$ they ecie to separate the chilren into gro#ps

assigne to each a#lt. 5he e:#i'alence o$ brother)s states that e'ery person o$ a certain

generation" in this case the yo#ng a#lts" is treate as the same societal $ig#re. So" all o$ the

yo#ng a#lts !o#l ha'e the same societal obligation to all o$ the chilren as the others an

!o#l be treate as e:#al !ith the other a#lts in the eyes o$ the chilren.

Since the chilren !o#l be learning by irect contact !ith the a#lts" there is a

li&elihoo o$ !hat /#th ,eneict calle socialiation. 5here is also the possibility o$

acc#lt#ration" !here t!o c#lt#res8 interact an e+change ieas" i$ the chilren alreay ha'e a

basic #nerstaning o$ a pre'io#s c#lt#re. I$ the chilren alreay ha'e a c#lt#re" there is also the


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possibility o$ assimilation o$ the chilren)s c#lt#re8 into the chosen ieals o$ the yo#ng a#lts

!ho are to teach them. -argaret -ea loo&e at the speci$ics o$ the teaching o$ chilren abo#t

c#lt#re" speci$ically the i$$erence bet!een socialiation an isco#rse. Disco#rse is the irect"

'ocalie teachings that a#lts #se to inoctrinate chilren abo#t their c#lt#re8. Socialiation

incl#es all o$ the other !ays a#lts teach chilren abo#t society other than isco#rse. ('en i$

the yo#ng a#lts ecie to teach the chilren a certain collection o$ ieals" their #nconscio#s

actions !ill be i$$erent" since they are all $rom i$$erent bac&gro#ns an their inherent

responses !ill be i$$erent.

Documents

History and Theory of Anthropology - Paper I