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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am feeling highly elated to work on the topic “The Chola
Administration” under the guidance of my HISTORY teacher. I am very
grateful to her for her exemplary guidance. I would like to enlighten my
readers regarding this topic and I hope I have tried my best to pave the way for
bringing more luminosity to this topic.
I also want to thank all of my friends, without whose cooperation
this project was not possible. Apart from all these, I want to give special
thanks to the librarian of my university who made every relevant materials
regarding to my topic available to me at the time of my busy research work
and gave me assistance. And at last I am very much obliged to the God
who provided me the potential for the rigorous research work.
At finally yet importantly I would like to thank my parents for the
financial support.
-----------Thanking you
Nidhi Navneet
C.N.L.U.
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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH METHODS
The project is basically based on the doctrinal method of research as no field
work is done on this topic.
AIMS & OBJECTIVES The aim of the project is to present a detailed study of „The Chola
Administration‟ through available texts and different writings, articles &
sources. Through this project, the researcher is trying to know more about the
administrative procedures of Cholas Empire, their functioning and government.
SOURCES OF DATA The whole project is made with the use of secondary source. The followingsecondary sources of data have been used in the project-
1. Articles
2. Books
3. Websites
METHOD OF WRITING
The method of writing followed in the course of this research paper is primarily
analytical.
MODE OF CITATION
The researcher has followed a uniform mode of citation throughout the course of
this research paper.
TYPE OF STUDY For this topic, the researcher has opted for Descriptive and Explanatory type of
study as in this topic; the researcher is providing the descriptions of the existing
facts.
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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
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Chola I from the third quarter of the eleventh century.3
Karikala Chola4
stands as
the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra
Chola and Kulothunga Chola I ruled as notable emperors of the medieval
Cholas. The Cholas reached the height of their power during the tenth, eleventhand twelfth centuries. Under Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja the Great) and his son
Rajendra Chola, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in
Asia. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched
the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also
successfully raided kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago.
The notable cities of the Cholas were Tanjore, Trichanapolis,
Kumbakonam. The capital of the Chola empire was Gangaikondacholapuram
which was built by Rajendra-I who took the title of Gangaikondachola which
means the conqueror of Ganga. This capital is said to have existed between 11
and 12 century AD. The two centres of this period which depict the very
evidence of the Chola rule was PUHAR on the coast and the PURAIYUR
island.
In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India came, for the first time,
brought under a single government5, when a reform movement attempted to face
and solve the problems of public administration. The Chola rule witnessed the
prosperity of trade and commerce. The Chola rule witnessed a large scale
development in all spheres of life. Writings of historians, inscriptions, temples,
literature and monuments speak much about the social, economic and religious
life of the people during the Chola period. The Chola kings followed a highly
systematised and efficient system of administration. The people of the Chola
Empire were more benefited by the Chola administration. The administration of
the Chola empire is going to be described in the subsequent chapters.
3The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to a bloody end with the assassination of
Virarajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola I a distant relation to the main Chola line through marriage ascended the
throne in 1070.4
Majumdar, p 1375The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under one umbrella before the Independence
occured during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 – 1614)
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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
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plates and Thiruvalangadu copper plates give useful information‟s about theCholas.
Monuments: Monuments are useful source of information of the Chola
empire.The Brahadeeswarar temple of Tanjore, the Gangaikonda Cholapuramtemple, Airavateesvarar temple of Dharasuram and the Kambagareswarar
temple in Thirupuvanam are some of the important monuments of the Cholas.
Numismatic Sources
The Chola kings issued gold, silver and copper coins. Specimen of gold coins is
extremely rare. Silver and copper coins are found in plenty.
Figure of tiger was engraved as the Chola emblem on every Chola coin issuedduring that period. Names of the Chola Kings are also engraved on chola coins.Chola Coins is useful to fix the chronology of the Chola rulers. Coins are also
useful to study the social and economic condition of the Chola period.
Literature
Literature sources are very useful for the study of both Sangam Cholas and later
Cholas. Sekkilar‟s Periyapuranam deals with the life of Saiva devotees. Sekkilar
was a contemporary of Kulothunga II Kalingathuparani of Jayamkondan, three
Ulas and the Kulothungan pillai tamil of Ottakoothar give useful information‟sabout the Cholas. Other literary works like Veerasoliyam. Sthalapuranam.Navachola charitham and Cholavamsa charitham speak about the early Cholas.
Foreign sources
Mahavamsam the Ceylon literature talks about the relationship between the
early Chola country and Ceylon kingdom. European traveler Marcopolo andforeign writer Megasthanese give interesting information‟s about the Cholas. Al-beruni a Muslim historian writes about the Cholas.
An early silver coin of Uttama
Chola found in Sri Lanka showing
the Tiger emblem of the Cholas
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The Rulers of Chola Dynasty
There are descriptions of various rulers belonging to the Chola Dynasty, there is
a long lineage but many of them didn‟t get much recognition. The Sangam
literature also testifies the rule of several Chola rulers. The first ruler is said tobe the feudatories of Pallavas of Kanchi, he was Vijalaya Chola.
Vijayalaya: (850-870 AD). In around 850 AD, Vijayalaya8
founded the
dynasty probably by starting off as a vassal of the Pallava king. With the conflict
between Pallavas and Pandyas, Vijayalaya occupied Tanjore and made his
capital and thus, was also called the master of Tanjore. He was succeeded by hisson Aditya-I.
Aditya-I: He defeated Pallava king Aparajita and also Parantaka Viranarayana,
the Kongu ruler.He was soon succeeded by his son Parantaka-I.
Parantaka-I: He ruled between 907 to 955 AD. Cholas power reached
supremacy under his reign. He annexed territory of Pandya King and soon
conquered the Vadumbas. He swept away all the traces of Pallavas power, but
received a set back at the hands of Rashtrakutas.
Sunder Chola: He ruled between 957-973 AD. Not much information is
available about him. He is succeeded by Rajaraja-I.
Rajaraja Chola: (985-1014 AD). He was the one of the imperialistic and
greatest rulers of South India. He was known as „Rajaraja, the Great‟. Under therule of Rajaraja, the Chola kingdom grew into an extensive
and well knit pire. It maintained diplomatic ties with
countries as distant as Burma (now Myanmar), China andMalaysia across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja I with the help of
his able son Rajendra conquered nearly the whole of the
present Madras Presidency. He defeated the eastern
Chalukyas of Vegi, the Pandyas of Madurai and the Gangas
of Mysore. He was an able administrator and also a great
builder. Rajaraja chola built a magnificent temple at Tanjore,which is named as Rajarajeshwar after his name.
8The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of Sripurambayam between the Pallava ally Ganga
Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna.
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Pandyan kingdom had already weakened. In about 1243, the Pallava chief
declared independence. The Kakatiyas and Hoysalas partitioned among
themselves the territory of the Chola empire and Chola empire ceased to existfor ever.
THE GENEOLOGICAL TABLE
Vijayalaya
Aditya-I
Parantaka-I
Rajaditya- I Arinjaya
Parantaka-II
Aditya-II Rajaraja-I
Rajendra-I
Rajadhiraja-I
Rajendradeva-II
Rajamahendra
Virarajendra
Adhi-Rajendra
Dau. Ammangadevi
Rajendra-III
RajarajaMummadi-
CholaVira Chola
VikramaChola
Kulottungachola
Dau.Kundavva
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The Chola Administration
The Chola kings followed a highly systematised and efficient system of‟administration. The details of this administration were based primarily on
literary sources. The form of government was usually hereditary which was
occasionally modified by the ruling kings choice as „Yuvaraj‟. The coronation
was celebrated with „pomp and show‟ at different places like Tanjore,Gangaikondacholapuram, and other places. The entire Tanjore district, parts
of‟Trichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of‟ the CholaMandalam. Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire embraced the entire
south Indian peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded
to the north by an irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengifrontier. Although Vengi had a separate political existence, its intimate
connection to the Chola Empire extended, for all practical purposes, the Chola
dominion to the banks of the Godavari river11
. Tanjore was the capital of the
Cholas.
The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central
Government, Provincial Government and Local Government. The
efficient Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many
historians and rulers.
1. The Central Administration
The Central Government remained under the headship of the King.
Administration of Chola dynasty was monarchical12
. The king was a benevolent
dictator and the supreme commander. He issued oral commands to responsible
officers when representations were made to him. In the tasks of administration
and in executing his orders a powerful bureaucracy assisted the king. Council of ministers and officials took active part in running the administration of Central
Government. The higher officials were called Peruntaram and the lower
officials were called Siruntaram. The justice of the orders of the King
depends on the goodness of the man and in his belief in a sense of righteousness.
UDAN-KUTTAM were the high officials of the state and they served as the
intermediaries between the king and the regular Bureaucrats. KANKANIS were
the supervisors who are the agents of central department of control and audit.
11Nilakanta Sastri, 1935, 448
12 Kulke and Rothermund, p 104
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They also served as a check on the officers of various departments in each
locality. As regards the methods of appointment including the promotions of
these officers, we have very less information.
Role of the King in Chola Administration
The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queenswere considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The
Chola kingship was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle
that eldest son should succeed the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent
was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs enjoyed enormous powers and
privileges. The Chola kings took up titles like Chakrvartigal (or Chakravarti).
which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. The
palace servants were called as „Vellams‟ and they were settled in separatequarters in the city. Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem. The Chola
kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth13
. The temples acted
not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefitingtheir entire community
14.
All handles and levers of the administration were controlled by King as
he enjoyed absolute power. Council of ministers and officials took active part in
running the administration of Central Government. The Chola administration
system was a highly centralised one. The feudal chiefs were kept away from
administration. The government had a direct link with the peasants instead of the
feudatories. The Chola kings had adopted the Yuvaraja during king‟s rule. The
orders of the kings were written and copies of it would be sent to respectivedepartments and officers. The royal priest was the reliable advisor of the King.
Law and Order Under Cholas
Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire. The Chola king
was the chief justice. The Chola kings gave enough care for the judicial
administration. Justice was administered through village courts, royal courtsand caste panchayats. Minor disputes were settled at the village level. Village
assemblies exercised large powers in deciding local disputes. Punishment was in
the form of fines or donation for some charitable purpose. Crimes such as
manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as
treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in
these cases was either execution or confiscation of property. Disputes were
13 Vasudevan, pp 20 – 2214
Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of thewealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. The temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and
contributed towards the integrity of the kingdom. – Keay, pp 217 – 218
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settled with proper evidences. Punishments were awarded by the judicial
officers.
Military Administration of Cholas
The Cholas had an efficient army and navy. The Chola army consisted of
elephant, cavalry and infantry. Soldiers were given proper training.Commanders enjoyed the ranks of NAYAKS and SENAPATHIS.
KARUMIGAL and PANI-MAKKAL are the general terms given to the
officials. The exact functions of the officials are not given in the records. The
army was divided into 70 regiments. The Chola army had 60,000 elephants. The
Chola kings defeated the Cheras at Kandalur salai. The kings of Ceylon and
Maldives were also defeated. The Chola navy was formidable one in South
India. With the help of their navy the Cholas controlled Coromandal andMalabar coasts. Bay of Bengal became the Chola lake. The Chola army and
navy together had 1,50,000 trained soldiers. The armies of the tributary
chieftains also joined Chola army at needy times. Generally the Chola army was
led by the King or Yuvaraja. The king was the commander of army and navy
which acted under his instructions. They helped the king in temple protectionand revenue collection other than participating in a war.
Revenue System under Cholas
The land revenue was the main source of income of the Chola
Government. Proper land survey was made. „PURAVU-VARI-TINAIK-
KALAM‟, this is the term given for Land Revenue Department, which ismentioned in the literary evidences. Agriculture was the principle occupation of the people, the land tax was termed as „IRAI-KUDIGAL‟. The taxes werecollected in cash or kind which was the chief source of revenue.
Lands were classified as taxable land and non taxable land. There were
many grades in the taxable lands. Land revenue differed according to these
grades. Generally 1/6 of the land yield was collected as tax either in cash or inkind or both according to the convenience of the farmers. Besides land revenue,
there were some other sources of income like customs and tolls. Taxes on mines,ports, forests and salt pans were collected. Professional tax and house tax were
also collected. Many other taxes were levied. Tax burden was more on the
society. State revenue was utilized in public works, in construction, maintenance
of institutions and temples. In the village and town, the residential part of the
village , temples, tanks, burning grounds and others were exempted from all
taxes. Many irrigation projects were undertaken by the Chola kings like dam
construction. Lake Cholagangam was an artificial reservoir build during the
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The general assemblies included most of the local residents and were of three
categories: the UR consisted of the tax paying residents of an ordinary village;
the SABHA was restricted to the Brahmans of the village or else was found
exclusively in villages gifted to Brahmans; and finally, the NAGARAM was
found more commonly in trade centers. In some villages the Ur and the Sabhawere found together. Very large villages had two Urs if this was more
convenient for their functioning. The working of these assemblies differed
according to local conditions. The Ur was open to all male adults of the village
but in affect the older members took a more prominent part, some of them
forming a small executive body for routine matters. The Sabha had the samesystem and in addition had the power to constitute smaller committees of any
size from among its members.
Generally mandalams or provinces were named after the original names orthe titles of the Chola kings. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close
relatives of kings were appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant
touch with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from the king.
They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had a large number of officials
to assist them in the work of administration.
There were officials of various grades organized in higher and lower ranks.
Every village was a self-governing unit. The general assembly was classifiedinto tax paying villagers, Brahmins and traders. The central government officers
examined accounts and supervised the work of the tax paying villagers. Thevillage assemblies received gifts from rich men or from king for developmental
activities. The feudatories were unable to impede in the village management.
Their job was very clerical in the sense it was a mere collection of taxes and
passing the share to the King. The land revenue was core of public finance,
thereby assessment of revenue being done carefully. Rajaraja I had introduced
periodical land surveys. Tax exemptions were carefully noted. The village as a
whole was responsible for payment of entire tax of a village. The other revenuesources were professional tax, salt tax, tax on goods and so on.
3. Local Administration
The most important feature of the Chola administration was the local
administration at districts, towns and villages level. Uttaramerur inscriptions
speak much about the Chola administration. Village autonomy was the most
unique feature of Chola administrative system.
Nadu
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Nadu was one of the important administrative units of the Cholas. Nadus
had representative assemblies. The heads of the nadus were called Nattars. The
council of nadu was called nattavai. Representatives of the Nattavais and nattars
promoted agriculture. They also took care of the protection of the people and tax
collection.
Village administration
The lowest unit of the Chola administration was the village unit. The
entire responsibility of the village administration was in the hands of the village
assembly called Grama Sabha. The village assemblies looked after the
maintenance of peace, tanks, roads, public ponds revenue collection, judiciary,
education and temples. The village assemblies were in charge of the payment of
taxes due from the villages to the treasury. They regulated public markets andhelped people at times of famine and flood. Assemblies provided provisions for
education. The village assemblies possessed absolute authority over the affairs
of villages. They maintained law and order in every village. Brahmin settlementwas called Chathurvedi mangalam.
Variyams
Village Assemblies carried on village administration effectively with the
help of variyams. Male members of the society were the members of these
variyams. Composition of these variyams, qualification and durations of
membership differed from village to village. There were many variyams in
every village. Niyaya variyam administered justice, Thottavariyam looked after
flower gardens. The Dharma variyam looked after charities and temples.Erivariyam was in charge of tanks and water supply. The pon variyam was in
charge of the finance. The Gramakariya variyam looked after the works of all
committees. The members of these varivams were known as “Varivaperumakkal
They rendered honorary service. The village officials were paid salary either in
cash or in kind. Good functioning of these variams increased the efficiency of
the local administration of the Cholas.
Kudavolai System
Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about Kudavolai system. This system was a
very notable and unique feature of the village administration of the Cholas.
There were 30 wards in each village. A representative for each ward was elected
through Kudavolai system. Names of the contestants from whom one could be
chosen were written on palm leaf tickets. These palm leaves were put into a pot
and shuffled. A small boy picked up palm leaves one by one from the pot.Persons whose name tickets were picked up by the boy were declared elected.
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Tribhuvanam. The mutt of Thiruvavaduturai had run a school of medicine.
Apart from the medical and religious education, general education was alsoimparted. Scholarships were given to students.
Status of Women
Women were given high status and freedom in the Chola society. Chastity and
modesty were considered important. The women of upper classes enjoyed the
right to property. Some queens were associated with the admimstration of the
kingdom. Queens gave liberal donations to temples. Queen Sembian Mahadevi
and Kundavai were patrons of temples. Monogamy was prevalent in society.Less skilled jobs were given to female laborers.
During the Chola period Sati was commonly practiced among the women of royal family. Women were also appointed as officers in the Chola Government.
There were child marriages among the higher castes. Women who were talentedin music and dance were attached to the temples. They performed programs
during festival times. There were also women slaves. Writings of Morcopolo
and some inscriptions speak about the position of women during the Cholaperiod.
Economic Conditions Under Cholas
The Chola rule witnessed the prosperity of trade and commerce. Income through
agriculture yield, land tax, trade tax and other taxes were main revenue of the
Government. King was the owner of all public land. Special officers were
appointed to look into the income and expenditure of the state. Governmentmoney was spent on public works, defense, justice, education, temples,
irrigation, police, king and his households, secretariat etc., The Chola kings
issued gold, silver and copper coins. Merchant guilds were functioning to take
care for the welfare of the merchants and commerce. The Chola economy
mainly depended on agriculture and trade. Agriculture was the main occupationof the people. The ownership of the land had a high social value. The landlords
were members of the village administrative units. Generally the economiccondition of the people during the Chola period was good.
Foreign Trade
According to information‟s given by writer‟s like Ibin Batuta and Morcopolo,
the Cholas had trade relationship with China and other South East Asian
countries. Elephants, cardamom, cotton, textile were exported. Arabian horses
were imported. Mahabalipuram, Kavirippumpattinam, and Korkai were Cholaports which were useful for foreign trade. The liberal taxation policies of King
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CONCLUSION
The Cholas had ruled as chieftains in Tamil-nad since the first century
A.D. Towards the middle of the ninth century, one of them conquered the region
of Tanjore (the heart of Tamil-nad), declared himself the ruler of an independent
state, and sought to establish his status by claiming descent from the Solar race.
With the passage of time because of weak successive rulers, the chola
power rapidly declined. The power of the Cholas declined around the twelfthcentury with the rise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala, eventually coming to an
end towards the end of the thirteenth century. From the 4th
to the 9th
century, the
cholas played a very marginal but effective part in the South India‟s history.
The Cholas left behind a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil
literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of
Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings avidly built temples,
envisioned them in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also ascentres of economic activity. They pioneered a centralized form of government
and established a disciplined bureaucracy. They were known for their trade
practices and land surveys done by Rajaraja-I and Kulottunga-I. Also, their
administrative policies were known for their effectiveness at both the central and
provincial level. The local self government was known as the best part of Chola
Administration. Chola political system was the only one which still maintained
contact with the cultivator on a wild scale, and retained characteristics of a
centrally organized administration.
The Chola government during the imperial period (850-1200 CE) was
marked for its uniqueness and innovativeness. Cholas were the first dynasty who
tried to bring the entire South India under a common rule and to a great extent
succeeded in their efforts. Although the form and protocols of that government
cannot be compared to a contemporary form of government, the history of the
Chola empire belongs to a happy age in their history and great things wereachieved by the government and the people. Development of local self
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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
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people as they had to pay different taxes and custom tolls along with the land tax
which was the main source of revenue. Still the people were happy with the
administration as the Chola period is somewhere attributed as the golden period.
Because of the paucity of authentic and elaborative sources which could
give detailed information, not much can be said about the Chola empire. But
with the help of the available sources, it could be said that Cholas managed to
operate their empire with efficient local, provincial and central level
administration.
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CHOLA ADMINISTRATION 2011
Bibliography
List of sites-
1. http://indiansaga.com/history/south_india.html
2. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho
la_local_administration.php
3. http://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/cho
la_administration.php
4. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Chola_Dynasty
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Dynasty
List of books-
1. „A History of South India‟, K.A. Nilakanta Shastri
2. „Ancient India‟, V.D. mahajan 3. „An advanced history of India‟, R.C. Majumdar,
H.C.Raychaudhuri & Kalinkinkar Dutta
4. „A History of India‟, Burton Stein
5. „India‟s Ancient Past‟, R.S. Sharma