History of Afghanistan

The written history of Afghanistan (Pashto: دافغانستان , تاريخ Da Afġānistān Tārīkh), can betraced back to around 500 BCE when the area was un-der the Achaemenid Empire,[1] although evidence in-dicates that an advanced degree of urbanized culturehas existed in the land since between 3000 and 2000BCE.[2][3][4] The Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up tolarge parts of Afghanistan in the north, with several sitesbeing known.[5] Alexander the Great and his Macedonianarmy arrived to what is now Afghanistan in 330 BCE af-ter conquering Persia during the Battle of Gaugamela.[6]

Since then, many empires have established capitals insideAfghanistan, including the Greco-Bactrians, Mauryas,Kushans, Hindu Shahi, Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids,Ghurids, Timurids, Mughals, Hotakis and Durranis.[7]

Afghanistan (meaning “land of the Afghans”) has beena strategically important location throughout history.[8]

The land served as “a gateway to India, impinging onthe ancient Silk Road, which carried trade from theMediterranean to China".[9] Sitting on many trade andmigration routes, Afghanistan may be called the 'CentralAsian roundabout'[10] since routes converge from theMiddle East, from the Indus Valley through the passesover the Hindu Kush, from the Far East via the TarimBasin, and from the adjacent Eurasian Steppe.The Aryans arrived to Afghanistan from the north afterthe 20th century BCE,[2] who left their languages that sur-vived in the form of Pashto and Dari. The Arab invasionsinfluenced the culture of Afghanistan, as its pre-Islamicperiod of Zoroastrian, Hindu and Buddhist past had longvanished. Turkic empire-builders such as the Ghaznavidsand Timurids made the region now called Afghanistan ofmajor importance.Mirwais Hotak followed by Ahmad Shah Durrani uni-fied Afghan tribes and founded the last Afghan Empire inthe early 18th century CE.[11][12][13][14][15] Afghanistan’ssovereignty has been held during the Anglo-Afghan Wars,the 1980s Soviet war, and the 2001-present war by thecountry’s many and diverse people: the Pashtuns, Tajiks,Hazaras, Uzbeks, Turkmen, Aimak, Baloch and others.The Pashtuns form the largest group, claiming to be de-scendants of ancient Israelites or Qais Abdur Rashid butscholars believe that they are a confederation of variouspeoples from the past who united under Pashtunwali.

1 Prehistory

Main article: Pre-Islamic period of AfghanistanExcavations of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree and oth-

Tents of Afghan nomads in the northern Badghis province ofAfghanistan. Early peasant farming villages came into existencein Afghanistan about 7,000 years ago.

ers at Darra-e Kur in 1966 where 800 stone implementswere recovered along with a fragment of Neanderthalright temporal bone, suggest that early humans were liv-ing in what is now Afghanistan at least 52,000 years ago.A cave called Kara Kamar contained Upper Paleolithicblades Carbon-14 dated at 34,000 years old.[16] Farm-ing communities in Afghanistan were among the earli-est in the world.[4] Archaeologists have found evidenceof human habitation in Afghanistan from as far backas 50,000 BC. The artifacts indicate that the indigenouspeople were small farmers and herdsmen, very proba-bly grouped into tribes, with small local kingdoms ris-ing and falling through the ages. Urbanization may havebegun as early as 3000 BCE.[17] Zoroastrianism pre-dominated as the religion in the area; even the modernAfghan solar calendar shows the influence of Zoroastri-anism in the names of the months. Other religions such asBuddhism and Hinduism flourished later, leaving a majormark in the region. Gandhara is the name of an ancientkingdom from the Vedic period and its capital city lo-cated between the Hindukush and Sulaiman Mountains(mountains of Solomon),[18] although Kandahar in mod-ern times and the ancient Gandhara are not geographi-cally identical.[19][20]

Early inhabitants, around 3000 BCE were likely to havebeen connected through culture and trade to neighboringcivilizations like Jiroft and Tappeh Sialk and the IndusValley Civilization. Urban civilization may have begun

1

2 2 ANCIENT HISTORY (700 BCE–565 CE)

as early as 3000 BCE and it is possible that the early cityof Mundigak (near Kandahar) was a colony of the nearbyIndus Valley Civilization.[3] The first known people wereIndo-Iranians,[4] but their date of arrival has been esti-mated widely from as early as about 3000 BCE[21] to1500 BCE.[22] (For further detail see Indo-Aryan migra-tion.)

1.1 Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Agecivilisation (3300-1300 BCE; mature period 2600-1900BCE) extending from what today is northwest Pakistanto northwest India and northeast Afghanistan.[5] An In-dus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River atShortugai in northern Afghanistan.[23] Apart from Short-ughai is Mundigak another notable site. There are severalother smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan aswell.

1.2 Bactria-Margiana

Main article: Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex

The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex becameprominent in the southwest region between 2200 and1700 BCE (approximately). The city of Balkh (Bactra)was founded about this time (c. 2000–1500 BCE). Itis possible that the BMAC may have been an Indo-European culture, perhaps the Proto-Indo-Aryans.[21]

But the standard model holds the arrival of Indo-Aryansto have been in the Late Harappan which gave rise to theVedic civilization of the Early Iron Age.[24]

2 Ancient history (700 BCE–565CE)

2.1 Medes

Further information: Medes

There have been many different opinions about the ex-tent of the Median kingdom. For instance, according toErnst Herzfeld, it was a powerful empire, which stretchedfrom central Anatolia to Bactria, to around the bordersof nowadays India. On the other side, Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg insists that there is no real evidence aboutthe very existence of the Median empire and that it wasan unstable state formation. Nevertheless, the regionof nowadays Afghanistan came under Median rule for ashort time.[25]

2.2 Achaemenid Empire

Main article: Achaemenid EmpireAfghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it

Arachosia, Aria and Bactria were the ancient satraps ofthe Achaemenid Empire that made up most of what is nowAfghanistan during 500 BCE. Some of the inhabitants of Ara-chosia were known as Pactyans, whose name possibly survivesin today’s Pakhtuns (Pashtuns).

was conquered by Darius I of Persia. The area wasdivided into several provinces called satrapies, whichwere each ruled by a governor, or satrap. Theseancient satrapies included: Aria (Herat); Arachosia(Kandahar, Lashkar Gah, and Quetta); Bactriana (Balkh);Sattagydia (Ghazni); and Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad,Peshawar).[26]

2.3 Alexander and the Seleucids

Main article: Wars of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great arrived in the area of Afghanistanin 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a yearearlier at the Battle of Gaugamela.[27] His army facedvery strong resistance in the Afghan tribal areas wherehe is said to have commented that Afghanistan is “easyto march into, hard to march out of.”[28] Althoughhis expedition through Afghanistan was brief, Alexan-der left behind a Hellenic cultural influence that lastedseveral centuries. Several great cities were built inthe region named “Alexandria,” including: Alexandria-of-the-Arians (modern-day Herat); Alexandria-on-the-Tarnak (near Kandahar); Alexandria-ad-Caucasum (nearBegram, at Bordj-i-Abdullah); and finally, Alexandria-Eschate (near Kojend), in the north. After Alexan-der’s death, his loosely connected empire was divided.Seleucus, a Macedonian officer during Alexander’s cam-

2.5 Mauryan Empire 3

paign, declared himself ruler of his own Seleucid Empire,encompassing Persia and Afghanistan.[29]

2.4 Greco-Bactrian Kingdom

Main article: Greco-Bactrian KingdomThe Greco-Bactrian Kingdom was founded when

Approximate maximum extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdomcirca 180 BCE, including the regions of Tapuria and Traxianeto the West, Sogdiana and Ferghana to the north, Bactria andArachosia to the south.

Diodotus I, the satrap of Bactria (and probably the sur-rounding provinces) seceded from the Seleucid Empirearound 250 BCE. Greco-Bactria continued until c. 130BCE, when Eucratides’ son, King Heliocles I, was de-feated and driven out of Bactria by the Yuezhi tribes. Itis thought that his dynasty continued to rule in Kabul andAlexandria of the Caucasus until 70 BCE when King Her-maeus was defeated by the Yuezhi.One of Demetrius’ successors, Menander I, brought theIndo-Greek Kingdom to its height between 165–130BCE, expanding the kingdom in Afghanistan and Pak-istan to even larger proportions than Demetrius. AfterMenander’s death, the Indo-Greeks steadily declined andthe last Indo-Greek king was defeated in c. 10 CE.

2.5 Mauryan Empire

Main article: Mauryan Empire

The territory fell to the Maurya Empire, which wasled by Chandragupta Maurya. The Mauryas introducedHinduism and Buddhism to the region, and were plan-ning to capture more territory of Central Asia until theyfaced local Greco-Bactrian forces. Seleucus is said tohave reach a peace treaty with Chandragupta by givencontrol of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to theMauryas upon intermarriage and 500 elephants.

Alexander took these away from theIndo-Aryans and established settlements of

Maurya Empire under Ashoka the Great

Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Provinceof Afghanistan. Similar stupas have been discovered in neigh-boring Ghazni Province, including in the northern SamanganProvince.

his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them toSandrocottus (Chandragupta), upon terms ofintermarriage and of receiving in exchange500 elephants.[30]

— Strabo, 64 BCE–24 CE

Some time after, as he was going to warwith the generals of Alexander, a wild elephantof great bulk presented itself before him ofits own accord, and, as if tamed down togentleness, took him on its back, and becamehis guide in the war, and conspicuous infields of battle. Sandrocottus, having thusacquired a throne, was in possession of India,when Seleucus was laying the foundationsof his future greatness; who, after making aleague with him, and settling his affairs inthe east, proceeded to join in the war againstAntigonus. As soon as the forces, therefore, ofall the confederates were united, a battle wasfought, in which Antigonus was slain, and hisson Demetrius put to flight.[31]

4 2 ANCIENT HISTORY (700 BCE–565 CE)

— Junianus Justinus

Having consolidated power in the northwest, Chan-dragupta pushed east towards the Nanda Empire.Afghanistan’s significant ancient tangible and intangi-ble Buddhist heritage is recorded through wide-rangingarcheological finds, including religious and artistic rem-nants. Buddhist doctrines are reported to have reached asfar as Balkh even during the life of the Buddha (563 BCEto 483 BCE), as recorded by Husang Tsang.

In this context a legend recorded by Hu-sang Tsang refers to the first two lay disciples ofBuddha, Trapusa and Bhallika responsible forintroducing Buddhism in that country. Origi-nally these two were merchants of the kingdomof Balhika, as the name Bhalluka or Bhallikaprobably suggests the association of one withthat country. They had gone to India for tradeand had happened to be at Bodhgaya when theBuddha had just attained enlightenment.[32]

2.6 Indo-Scythians

The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded byBrahma (left) and Śakra (right) was found inside a stupa withcoins of Azes inside. British Museum.

The Indo-Scythians were descended from the Sakas(Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia toPakistan and Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd cen-tury BCE to the 1st century BCE.[33] They displacedthe Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched

from Gandhara to Mathura. The power of the Sakarulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after theScythians were defeated by the south Indian EmperorGautamiputra Satakarni of the Satavahana dynasty.[34][35]

Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed byChandragupta II of the Gupta Empire from eastern In-dia in the 4th century.[36]

2.7 Indo-Parthians

Main article: Indo-ParthiansThe Indo-Parthian Kingdom was ruled by the Gon-

Gandhara Buddhist reliquary with content, including Indo-Parthian coins. 1st century CE.

dopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous firstruler Gondophares. They ruled parts of present-dayAfghanistan, Pakistan,[37] and northwestern India, dur-ing or slightly before the 1st century AD. For most oftheir history, the leading Gondopharid kings held Taxila(in the present Punjab province of Pakistan) as their res-idence, but during their last few years of existence thecapital shifted between Kabul and Peshawar. These kingshave traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, astheir coinage was often inspired by the Arsacid dynasty,but they probably belonged to a wider groups of Iranictribes who lived east of Parthia proper, and there is noevidence that all the kings who assumed the title Gon-dophares, which means ”Holder of Glory”, were evenrelated. Christian writings claim that the Apostle SaintThomas – an architect and skilled carpenter – had a longsojourn in the court of king Gondophares, had built apalace for the king at Taxila and had also ordained leadersfor the Church before leaving for Indus Valley in a char-iot, for sailing out to eventually reach Malabar Coast.

2.8 Kushans

Main article: Kushan EmpireThe Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now

Afghanistan into the northwest of the subcontinent underthe leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises,about the middle of the 1st century CE. They came ofan Indo-European language speaking Central Asian tribe

5

Early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushandevotee, Maitreya, the Buddha, Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhistmonk. 2nd–3rd century, Gandhara

called the Yuezhi,[38][39] a branch of which was known asthe Kushans. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka, theyhad conquered most of northern India, at least as far asSaketa and Pataliputra, in the middle Ganges Valley, andprobably as far as the Bay of Bengal.[40]

They played an important role in the establishment ofBuddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia andChina. Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:

He played the part of a second Ashoka inthe history of Buddhism.[41]

The kingdom linked the Indian Ocean maritime tradewith the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indusvalley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly be-tween China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trendsto the budding and blossoming Gandhara Art, whichreached its peak during Kushan Rule. H.G. Rowlinsoncommented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude tothe Age of the Guptas.[42]

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disinte-grating and their last known great emperor was VasudevaI[43][44]

2.9 Sassanids

Main article: Sasanian Empire

For a period, much of modern-day Afghanistan was partof the Sasanian Empire. Shapur I extended his authorityeastwards into Afghanistan. The previously autonomousKushans were obliged to accept his suzerainty.

2.10 Kidarites

Main article: Kidarites

The Kidarites were a nomadic clan. They are supposed tohave originated in Western China and arrived in Bactriawith the great migrations of the second half of the 4thcentury.

2.10.1 The White Huns

Main article: Hephthalite EmpireThe Hephthalites (or Ephthalites), also known as the

Sardonyx seal representing Vishnu with a worshipper (proba-bly Mihirakula), 4th-6th century CE. The inscription in cursiveBactrian reads: "Mihira, Vishnu and Shiva". British Museum.

White Huns, were a nomadic confederation in CentralAsia during the late antiquity period. The White Hunsestablished themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by thefirst half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun militaryleader Toramana, they overran the northern region ofPakistan and North India. Toramana’s son Mihirakula,a Saivite Hindu, moved up to near Pataliputra to the eastand Gwalior to the central India. Hiuen Tsiang narratesMihirakula’s merciless persecution of Buddhists and de-struction of monasteries, though the description is dis-puted as far as the authenticity is concerned.[45] TheHuns were defeated by the Indian kings Yasodharman ofMalwa and Narasimhagupta in the 6th century. Some ofthem were driven out of India and others were assimilatedin the Indian society.[46]

6 3 MIDDLE AGES (565–1504 CE)

Map of the region during the 7th century

3 Middle Ages (565–1504 CE)

From the Middle Ages to around 1750 part ofAfghanistan was recognized as Khorasan.[47] Two of thefour main capitals of Khorasan (Balkh and Herat) arenow located in Afghanistan. The countries of Kanda-har, Ghazni and Kabul formed the frontier region be-tween Khorasan and Hindustan.[48] The land inhabitedby the Afghan tribes (i.e. ancestors of Pashtuns) wascalled Afghanistan, which loosely covered a wide areabetween the Hindu Kush and the Indus River, princi-pally around the Sulaiman Mountains.[49][50] The earli-est record of the name "Afghan" (“Abgân”) being men-tioned is by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire duringthe 3rd century CE[51][52][53] which is later recorded inthe form of “Avagānā" by the Indian astronomer VarāhaMihira in his 6th century CE Brihat-samhita.[54] It wasused to refer to a common legendary ancestor knownas "Afghana", grandson of King Saul of Israel.[55] HivenTsiang, a Chinese pilgrim, visiting the Afghanistan areaseveral times between 630 to 644 CE also speaks aboutthem.[51] Ancestors of many of today’s Turkic-speakingAfghans settled in the Hindu Kush area and began toassimilate much of the culture and language of the Pash-tun tribes already present there.[56] Among these were theKhalaj people which are known today as Ghilzai.[57]

3.1 Hindu Shahi

Main article: Kabul Shahi

The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled the Kabul Valley andGandhara from the decline of the Kushan Empire in the3rd century to the early 9th century.[58] The Shahis aregenerally split up into two eras: the Buddhist Shahisand the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought tohave occurred sometime around 870. The kingdom wasknown as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565-

670, when the capitals were located in Kapisa and Kabul,and later Udabhandapura, also known as Hund[59] for itsnew capital.[60][61][62]

The Hindu Shahis under Jayapala, is known for his strug-gles in defending his kingdom against the Ghaznavids inthe modern-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan region.Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaz-navids and invaded their capital city of Ghazni both inthe reign of Sebuktigin and in that of his son Mahmud,which initiated the Muslim Ghaznavid and Hindu Shahistruggles.[63] Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, andhe was forced to pay an indemnity.[63] Jayapala defaultedon the payment and took to the battlefield once more.[63]

Jayapala however, lost control of the entire region be-tween the Kabul Valley and Indus River.[64]

Before his struggle began Jaipal had raised a large armyof Punjabi Hindus. When Jaipal went to the Punjab re-gion, his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and aninnumerable host of foot soldiers. According to Ferishta:

“The two armies having met on the confinesof Lumghan, Subooktugeen ascended a hill toview the forces of Jeipal, which appeared inextent like the boundless ocean, and in num-ber like the ants or the locusts of the wilder-ness. But Subooktugeen considered himself asa wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: call-ing, therefore, his chiefs together, he encour-aged them to glory, and issued to each his com-mands. His soldiers, though few in number,were divided into squadrons of five hundredmen each, which were directed to attack suc-cessively, one particular point of the Hindooline, so that it might continually have to en-counter fresh troops.”[64]

However, the army was hopeless in battle against thewestern forces, particularly against the young Mahmud ofGhazni.[64] In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmudcame to power and was occupied with the Qarakhanidsnorth of the Hindu Kush, Jaipal attacked Ghazni oncemore and upon suffering yet another defeat by the power-ful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day Peshawar. Afterthe Battle of Peshawar, he committed suicide because hissubjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace tothe Shahi dynasty.[63][64]

Jayapala was succeeded by his son Anandapala,[63] whoalong with other succeeding generations of the Shahiyadynasty took part in various unsuccessful campaignsagainst the advancing Ghaznvids but were unsuccess-ful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to theKashmir Siwalik Hills.[64]

3.4 Ghaznavids 7

3.2 Palas

Main article: Pala Empire

The Pāla’s were a Buddhist and Vaishnav Hindu Bengalidynasty of India, which lasted for four centuries (750-1120 CE). Dharmapala expanded the empire into thenorthern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. This trig-gered once again the power struggle for the control of thesubcontinent. Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, ex-tended the empire even further, covering much of SouthAsia and several other territories. His empire stretchedfrom Assam and Utkala in the east, and Afghanistanin the north-west and Deccan in the south. Accordingto Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminatedthe Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shat-tered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords ofPratiharas, Gurjara and the Dravidas. The Pala Empireeventually disintegrated in the 12th century CE under theattack of the Sena dynasty.

3.3 Islamic conquest

Main article: Islamic conquest of Afghanistan

In 642 CE, Rashidun Arabs had conquered most of WestAsia from the Sassanids and Byzantines, and from thewestern city of Herat they introduced the religion of Is-lam as they entered new cities. Afghanistan at that periodhad a number of different independent rulers, dependingon the area. Ancestors of Abū Ḥanīfa, including his fa-ther, were from the Kabul region.The early Arab forces did not fully explore Afghanistandue to attacks by the mountain tribes. Much of the east-ern parts of the country remained independent, as partof the Hindu Shahi kingdoms of Kabul and Gandhara,which lasted that way until the forces of the MuslimSaffarid dynasty followed by the Ghaznavids conqueredthem.

Arab armies carrying the banner of Islamcame out of the west to defeat the Sasanians in642 CE and then they marched with confidenceto the east. On the western periphery of theAfghan area the princes of Herat and Seistangave way to rule by Arab governors but in theeast, in the mountains, cities submitted only torise in revolt and the hastily converted returnedto their old beliefs once the armies passed.The harshness and avariciousness of Arabrule produced such unrest, however, that oncethe waning power of the Caliphate becameapparent, native rulers once again establishedthemselves independent. Among these theSaffarids of Seistan shone briefly in the Afghanarea. The fanatic founder of this dynasty,

the persian Yaqub ibn Layth Saffari, cameforth from his capital at Zaranj in 870 CE andmarched through Bost, Kandahar, Ghazni,Kabul, Bamyan, Balkh and Herat, conqueringin the name of Islam. [65]

— Nancy Hatch Dupree, 1971

The Shahi or Shahiya dynasties ruled portions of theKabul Valley (in eastern Afghanistan) and the oldprovince of Gandhara (northern Pakistan and Kashmir)from the decline of the Kushan Empire up to the early9th century CE. The Shahis continued to rule easternAfghanistan until the late 9th century until the Ghaznavidinvasions.

During the eighth and ninth centuries CEthe eastern parts of modern Afghanistan werestill in the hands of non-muslim rulers. TheMuslims tended to regard them as Indians, al-though many of the local rulers were appar-ently of Hunnish or Turkic descent. Yet, theMuslims were right in so far as the non Mus-lim population of Eastern Afghanistan was,culturally, strongly linked to the Indian sub-continent. Most of them were either Hindusor Buddhists.[66]

3.4 Ghaznavids

Main article: Ghaznavids

was ruled from the city of Ghazni in eastern Afghanistan.Mahmud of Ghazni consolidated the conquests of his pre-decessors and turned the city of Ghazni into a great cul-tural center as well as a base for frequent forays into theIndian subcontinent. The Nasher Khans became princesof the Kharoti until the Soviet invasion.[67][68][69]

3.5 Ghorids

Main article: Ghurid Dynasty

The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in 1148 by theGhurids from Ghor, but the Ghaznavid Sultans contin-ued to live in Ghazni as the 'Nasher' until the early 20thcentury. They did not regain their once vast power un-til about 500 years later when the Ghilzai Hotakis roseto power. Various princes and Seljuk rulers attempted torule parts of the country until the Shah Muhammad II ofthe Khwarezmid Empire conquered all of Persia in 1205CE. By 1219, the empire had fallen to the Mongols, ledby Genghis Khan.

8 4 MODERN ERA (1504–1973)

3.6 Mongol invasion

Further information: Mongol invasion of Central Asiaand Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia

The Mongols resulted in massive destruction of severalcities, including Bamiyan, Herat, and Balkh, and the de-spoliation of fertile agricultural areas. Large numbers ofthe inhabitants were also slaughtered. Most major citiesnorth of the Hindu Kush became part of the Mongol Em-pire. The Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kushwere usually either allied with the Khilji dynasty of north-ern India or independent.

3.7 Timurids

Main article: Timurid Empire

Timur (Tamerlane), incorporated much of the area intohis own vast Timurid Empire. The city of Herat becameone of the capitals of his empire, and his grandson PirMuhammad held the seat of Kandahar. Timur rebuiltmost of Afghanistan’s infrastructure which was destroyedby his early ancestor. The area was progressing under hisrule. Timurid rule began declining in the early 16th cen-tury with the rise of a new ruler in Kabul, Babur. Taimur,a descendent of Genghis Khan, created a vast new em-pire across Russia and Persia which he ruled from hiscapital in Samarkland in present-day Uzbekistan. Taimurcaptured Herat in 1381 and his son, Shah Rudkh movedthe capital of the Timurid empire to Herat in 1405. TheTimurks, a Turkic people, brought the Turkic nomadicculture of Central Asia within the orbit of Persian civil-isation, establishing Herat as one of the most culturedand refined cities in the world. This fusion of CentralAsian and Persian culture was a major legacy for the fu-ture Afghanistan. A century later, the emperor Babur,a descendent of Taimur, visited Herat and wrote, “thewhole habitable world had not such a town as Herat.”For the next 300 years the eastern Afghan tribes period-ically invaded India creating vast Indo-Afghan empires.In 1500 CE, Taimur’s descendent Babur was driven outof his home in the Ferghana valley. By the 16th centurywestern Afghanistan again reverted to Persian rule underthe Safavid dynasty.[70][71]

4 Modern era (1504–1973)

4.1 Mughals, Uzbeks, and Safavids

Main articles: Mughal Empire and Khanate of BukharaIn 1504, Babur, a descendant of Timur, arrived from

present-day Uzbekistan and moved to the city of Kabul.He began exploring new territories in the region, withKabul serving as his military headquarters. Instead of

A miniature from Padshahnama depicting the surrender of theShia Safavid garrison of Kandahar in 1638 to the Mughal armyof Shah Jahan commanded by Kilij Khan.

looking towards the powerful Safavids towards the west,Babur was more focused on the Indian subcontinent,which included the region known as Kabulistan. In 1526,he left with his army to capture the seat of the Delhi Sul-tanate, which at that point was possessed by the AfghanLodi dynasty of India. After defeating Ibrahim Lodi andhis army, Babur turned Delhi into the capital of his newlyestablished Mughal Empire.From the 16th century to the 17th century CE,Afghanistan was divided into three major areas. Thenorth was ruled by the Khanate of Bukhara, the west wasunder the rule of the Iranian Shia Safavids, and the east-ern section was under the Sunni Mughals of northern In-dia. The Kandahar region in the south served as a bufferzone between the Mughals and the Safavids, with the na-tive Afghans often switching support from one side to theother. Babur explored a number of cities in the regionbefore his campaign into India. In the city of Kanda-har his personal epigraphy can be found in the Chilzinarock mountain. Like in the rest of the territories that usedto make part of the Indian Mughal Empire, Afghanistanholds tombs, palaces, and forts build by the Mughals.[72]

4.2 Hotaki dynasty

Main article: Hotaki dynasty

4.2 Hotaki dynasty 9

In 1704, the Safavid Shah Husayn appointed George XI(Gurgīn Khān), a ruthless Georgian subject, to governtheir easternmost territories in the Greater Kandahar re-gion. One of Gurgīn’s main objectives was to crush therebellions started by native Afghans. Under his rule therevolts were successfully suppressed and ruled Kandaharwith uncomprising severity. He began imprisoning andexecuting the native Afghans, especially those suspectedin having taken part in the rebellions. One of those ar-rested and imprisoned was Mirwais Hotak who belongedto an influential family in Kandahar. Mirwais was sent asa prisoner to the Persian court in Isfahan but the chargesagainst him were dismissed by the king, so he was sentback to his native land as a free man.[73]

In April 1709, Mirwais along with his militia under KhanNasher revolted.[74][75] The uprising began when Gurgīnand his escort were killed after a picnic and a banquetthat were prepared by Mirwais at his farmhouse out-side the city. "[76] Around four days later, an army ofwell-trained Georgian troops arrived in the town afterhearing of Gurgīn’s death but Mirwais and his Afghanforces successfully held off the town. From 1710 to1713, the Afghan forces defeated several large Persianarmies that were dispatched from Isfahan by the heavilydeclining Safavids, which included Qizilbash and Geor-gian/Circassian troops.[77]

Several half-hearted attempts to subduethe rebellious city having failed, the PersianGovernment despatched Khusraw Khán,nephew of the late Gurgín Khán, with anarmy of 30,000 men to effect its subjugation,but in spite of an initial success, which ledthe Afghans to offer to surrender on terms,his uncompromising attitude impelled themto make a fresh desperate effort, resulting inthe complete defeat of the Persian army (ofwhom only some 700 escaped) and the deathof their general. Two years later, in 1713,another Persian army commanded by RustamKhán was also defeated by the rebels, who thussecured possession of the whole province ofQandahár.[78]

— Edward G. Browne, 1924

Southern Afghanistan was made into an independent lo-cal Pashtun kingdom.[15] Refusing the title of a king, Mir-wais was called “Prince of Qandahár and General of thenational troops” by his Afghan countrymen. He died of anatural cause in November 1715 and was succeeded byhis brother Abdul Aziz Hotak. Aziz was killed abouttwo years later by Mirwais’ son Mahmud Hotaki, al-legedly for planning to give Kandahar’s sovereignty backto Persia.[79] Mahmud led an Afghan army into Persia in1722 and defeated the for decades declining Safavids atthe Battle of Gulnabad. The Afghans captured Isfahan

Modern-day sketch work of Mahmud Hotaki

(Safavid capital) and Mahmud became briefly the newPersian Shah, known after that as Shah Mahmud.Mahmud began a short-lived reign of terror against hisPersian subjects who defied his rule from the very start,and he was eventually murdered in 1725 by his owncousin, Ashraf Hotaki. Some sources say he died ofmadness. Ashraf became the new Afghan Shah of Per-sia soon after Mahmud’s death, while the home regionof Afghanistan was ruled by Mahmud’s younger brotherShah Hussain Hotaki. Ashraf was able to secure peace, athighly unfavourable terms, with the Ottoman Empire in1727 winning against a superior Ottoman army, but theRussian Empire took advantage of the continuing politi-cal unrest, civil strife and utter disgust and disloyalty bythe vast majority of people in the empire, to seize formerPersian territories for themselves, limiting the amount ofterritory under Shah Mahmud’s control.The short lived Hotaki dynasty was a troubled and vio-lent one from the very start as internecine conflict madeit difficult to establish permanent control. The dynastylived under great turmoil due to bloody succession feudsthat made their hold on power tenuous, and after themassacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan; includingmore than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and

10 4 MODERN ERA (1504–1973)

members of the Safavid family.[80] The vast majority ofthe Persians rejected the Afghan regime as usurping fromthe very start. Hotaki’s rule continued in the region ofAfghanistan until 1738 when Shah Hussain was defeatedand banished by Nader Shah of Persia.[81]

The Hotakis were eventually removed from power by1729, after a very short lived reign. They were defeatedby the emerging Iranian military commander NaderShah, head of the Afsharids, in the October 1729 Battleof Damghan, also banishing the Hotaki’s to southernAfghanistan. The last ruler of the Hotaki dynasty, ShahHussain, ruled southern Afghanistan until 1738 whenthe Afsharids and the Abdali Pashtuns crushed him atKandahar.[81]

4.3 Durrani Empire

Main article: Durrani Empire

Nader Shah and his Afsharid Persian army arrived in thetown of Kandahar in 1738 and defeated Hussain Ho-taki, subsequently absorbing all of Afghanistan in his em-pire. Here, the young imprisoned teenager Ahmad Khanjoined his service in his invasion of India.

The greatest extent of the Durrani Empire in 1747 A.D.

Shah Shuja, the last Durrani King, sitting at his court inside theBala Hissar before it was destroyed by the British Army.

Nadir Shah was assassinated on June 19, 1747, by sev-eral of his Persian officers, and the Asharid kingdomfell to pieces. At the same time the 25-year-old Ah-mad Khan was busy in Afghanistan calling for a loya jirga(“grand assembly”) to select a leader among his people.The Afghans gathered near Kandahar in October 1747and chose Ahmad Shah among the challengers, makinghim their new head of state. After the inauguration orcoronation, he became known as Ahmad Shah Durrani.He adopted the title padshah durr-i dawran ('King, “pearlof the age”) and the Abdali tribe became known as theDurrani tribe after this.[82] Ahmad Shah not only rep-resented the Durranis but he also united all the Pashtuntribes. By 1751, Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghanarmy conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pak-istan, and for a short time, the Khorasan and Kohistanprovinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.[83] He de-feated the Maratha Empire in 1761 at the Battle of Pani-pat.In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home inKandahar where he died peacefully and was buried ata site that is now adjacent to the Shrine of the Cloak.He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, whotransferred the capital of their Afghan Empire from Kan-dahar to Kabul. Timur died in 1793 and his son ZamanShah Durrani took over the reign.Zaman Shah and his brothers had a weak hold on thelegacy left to them by their famous ancestor. They sortedout their differences through a “round robin of expul-sions, blindings and executions,” which resulted in thedeterioration of the Afghan hold over far-flung territo-ries, such as Attock and Kashmir. Durrani’s other grand-son, Shuja Shah Durrani, fled the wrath of his brother andsought refuge with the Sikhs. Not only had Durrani in-vaded the Punjab region many times, but had destroyedthe holiest shrine of the Sikhs – the Harmandir Sahib inAmritsar, defiling its sarowar with the blood of cows anddecapitating Baba Deep Singh in 1757. The Sikhs, un-der Ranjit Singh, eventually wrested a large part of theKingdom of Kabul (present day Pakistan, but not includ-ing Sindh) from the Afghans.[84] In 1837, the Afghanarmy descended through the Khyber Pass on Sikh forcesat Jamrud.[85] The Sikhs were supported by the East In-dia Company until they were defeated later by the Britishforces during the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars .

4.4 Barakzai dynasty and British influence

Further information: European influence in Afghanistanand Barakzai dynastyDost Mohammed Khan gained control in Kabul. Colli-

sion between the expanding British and Russian Empiressignificantly influenced Afghanistan during the 19th cen-tury in what was termed "The Great Game". British con-cern over Russian advances in Central Asia and grow-ing influence in West Asia and Persia in particular cul-minated in two Anglo-Afghan wars and “The Siege of

4.5 Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war 11

King Yaqub Khan with Britain’s Sir Pierre Louis Napoleon Cav-agnari on May 26, 1879, when the Treaty of Gandamak wassigned.

Herat” 1837–1838, in which the Persians, trying to re-take Afghanistan and throw out the British, sent armiesinto the country and fought the British mostly around andin the city of Herat. The first Anglo-Afghan War (1839–1842) resulted in the destruction of a British army; it is re-membered by first-hand account as an example of the fe-rocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule.[86] The SecondAnglo-Afghan War (1878–1880) was sparked by AmirShir Ali's refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul.This conflict brought Amir Abdur Rahman, known bysome as the “Iron Amir”, to the Afghan throne. Duringhis reign (1880–1901), the British and Russians officiallyestablished the boundaries of what would become mod-ern Afghanistan. The British retained effective controlover Kabul's foreign affairs. Abdur Rahman’s reforms ofthe army, legal system and structure of government wereable to give Afghanistan a degree of unity and stabilitywhich it had not before known. This, however, came atthe cost of strong centralisation, harsh punishments forcrime and corruption, and a certain degree of interna-tional isolation.[11]

Afghanistan remained neutral during World War I, de-spite German encouragement of anti-British feelings andAfghan rebellion along the borders of British India. TheAfghan king’s policy of neutrality was not universallypopular within the country, however, and Habibullah,Abdur Rahman’s son and successor, in 1919 was assas-sinated, possibly by family members opposed to Britishinfluence. His third son, Amanullah, regained controlof Afghanistan’s foreign policy after launching the ThirdAnglo-Afghan War with an attack on India in the sameyear. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary Britishrelinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs bysigning the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1920. In com-memoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 20 astheir Independence Day.

4.5 Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civilwar

Main article: Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil warKing Amanullah Khan moved to end his country’s tradi-

King Amanullah Khan

tional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations withmost major countries and, following a 1927 tour of Eu-rope and Turkey (during which he noted the moderniza-tion and secularization advanced by Atatürk), introducedseveral reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Akey force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi,Amanullah Khan’s Foreign Minister and father-in-law —and an ardent supporter of the education of women. Hefought for Article 68 of Afghanistan’s first constitution(declared through a Loya Jirga), which made elementaryeducation compulsory.[87] Some of the reforms that wereactually put in place, such as the abolition of the tradi-tional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a num-ber of co-educational schools, quickly alienated manytribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelmingarmed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate inJanuary 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by HabibullahKalakani.

4.6 Reigns of Nadir Khan and Zahir Khan

Main article: Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir ShahPrince Mohammed Nadir Khan, cousin of Amanullah

Khan, in turn defeated and executed Habibullah Kalakani

12 5 CONTEMPORARY ERA (1973–PRESENT)

Mohammad Zahir Shah in 1963

in early November 1929. He was soon declared KingNadir Khan. He began consolidating power and regener-ating the country. He abandoned the reforms of Aman-ullah Khan in favour of a more gradual approach to mod-ernisation. In 1933, however, he was assassinated in arevenge killing by a student from Kabul.Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan’s 19-year-old son,succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973.Until 1946 Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of hisuncle Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan, who held thepost of Prime Minister and continued the policies ofNadir Khan. In 1946, another of Zahir Shah’s uncles,Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister andbegan an experiment allowing greater political freedom,but reversed the policy when it went further than he ex-pected. In 1953, he was replaced as Prime Minister byMohammed Daoud Khan, the king’s cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud looked for a closer relationship with theSoviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan.However, disputes with Pakistan led to an economic cri-sis and he was asked to resign in 1963. From 1963 until1973, Zahir Shah took a more active role.In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal consti-tution providing for a bicameral legislature to which theking appointed one-third of the deputies. The peopleelected another third, and the remainder were selected in-directly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir’s “ex-periment in democracy” produced few lasting reforms, itpermitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties onboth the left and the right. This included the commu-nist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),

which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: theKhalq (Masses) was headed by Nur Muhammad Tarakiand Hafizullah Amin who were supported by elementswithin the military, and the Parcham (Banner) led byBabrak Karmal.

5 Contemporary era (1973–present)

1973 film about contemporary events in Afghanistan

5.1 Republic ofAfghanistan and the end ofmonarchy

Main article: Republic of Afghanistan

Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance againstthe royal family and poor economic conditions createdby the severe 1971–72 drought, former Prime MinisterMohammad Sardar Daoud Khan seized power in a non-violent coup on July 17, 1973, while Zahir Shah was re-ceiving treatment for eye problems and therapy for lum-bago in Italy.[88] Daoud abolished the monarchy, abro-gated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan arepublic with himself as its first President and Prime Min-ister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economicand social reforms met with little success, and the newconstitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quellchronic political instability.As disillusionment set in, in 1978 a prominent member ofthe People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA),Mir Akbar Khyber (or “Kaibar”), was killed by the gov-ernment. The leaders of PDPA apparently feared thatDaoud was planning to exterminate them all, especiallysince most of them were arrested by the governmentshortly after. Nonetheless, Hafizullah Amin and a num-ber of military wing officers of the PDPA’s Khalq factionmanaged to remain at large and organize a military coup.

5.2 Democratic Republic and Soviet war 13

5.2 Democratic Republic and Soviet war

Main articles: History of Afghanistan (1978–1992),Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, People’s Demo-cratic Party of Afghanistan, Saur Revolution and Sovietwar in AfghanistanOn 27 April 1978, the PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad

Outside the Presidential Palace in Kabul, a day after the Marxistrevolution on April 28, 1978.

The day after the Marxist revolution on April 28, 1978.

Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin Taha overthrew thegovernment of Mohammad Daoud, who was assassinatedalong with all his family members in a bloody militarycoup. The coup became known as the Saur Revolution.On 1 May, Taraki became President, Prime Minister andGeneral Secretary of the PDPA. The country was then re-named the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA),and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form or another,until April 1992.In March 1979, Hafizullah Amin took over as primeminister, retaining the position of field marshal and be-coming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Coun-cil. Taraki remained President and in control of theArmy. On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, whowas killed. Amin stated that “the Afghans recognize onlycrude force.”[89] Afghanistan expert Amin Saikal writes:“As his powers grew, so apparently did his craving forpersonal dictatorship ... and his vision of the revolution-ary process based on terror.”[89]

Once in power, the PDPA implemented a liberal andMarxist–Leninist agenda. It moved to replace religiousand traditional laws with secular and Marxist–Leninistones. Men were obliged to cut their beards, women couldnot wear a chador, and mosques were placed off lim-its. The PDPA made a number of reforms on women’srights, banning forced marriages, giving state recognitionof women’s right to vote, and introducing women to po-litical life. A prominent example was Anahita Ratebzad,who was a major Marxist leader and a member of theRevolutionary Council. Ratebzad wrote the famous NewKabul Times editorial (May 28, 1978) which declared:“Privileges which women, by right, must have are equaleducation, job security, health services, and free time torear a healthy generation for building the future of thecountry ... Educating and enlightening women is nowthe subject of close government attention.” The PDPAalso carried out socialist land reforms and moved to pro-mote state atheism.[90] They also prohibited usury.[91]

The PDPA invited the Soviet Union to assist in modern-izing its economic infrastructure (predominantly its ex-ploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas).The USSR also sent contractors to build roads, hospi-tals and schools and to drill water wells; they also trainedand equipped the Afghan army. Upon the PDPA’s ascen-sion to power, and the establishment of the DRA, the So-viet Union promised monetary aid amounting to at least$1.262 billion.At the same time, the PDPA imprisoned, tortured ormurdered thousands of members of the traditional elite,the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia. Thegovernment launched a campaign of violent repression,killing some 10,000 to 27,000 people and imprison-ing 14,000 to 20,000 more, mostly at Pul-e-Charkhiprison.[92][93][94] In December 1978 the PDPA leadershipsigned an agreement with the Soviet Union which wouldallow military support for the PDPA in Afghanistan ifneeded. The majority of people in the cities includingKabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these poli-cies. However, the Marxist–Leninist and secular natureof the government as well as its heavy dependence on theSoviet Union made it unpopular with a majority of theAfghan population. Repressions plunged large parts ofthe country, especially the rural areas, into open revoltagainst the new Marxist–Leninist government. By spring1979 unrests had reached 24 out of 28 Afghan provincesincluding major urban areas. Over half of the Afghanarmy would either desert or join the insurrection. Mostof the government’s new policies clashed directly with thetraditional Afghan understanding of Islam, making reli-gion one of the only forces capable of unifying the triballyand ethnically divided population against the unpopularnew government, and ushering in the advent of Islamistparticipation in Afghan politics.[95]

In the wake of the Iranian Revolution, the US soughtrapprochement with the Afghan government—a prospectthat the USSR found unacceptable due to weakening

14 5 CONTEMPORARY ERA (1973–PRESENT)

Soviet troops (in right row) withdrawing from Afghanistan in1988. Afghan government BTR on the left.

Soviet leverage over the regime.[96] In February 1979,U.S. Ambassador Adolph “Spike” Dubs was murderedin Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kid-nappers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance andterminated a small military training program.To bolster the Parcham faction, the Soviet Union de-cided to intervene on December 24, 1979, when the RedArmy invaded its southern neighbor. Over 100,000 So-viet troops took part in the invasion, which was backed byanother 100,000 Afghan military men and supporters ofthe Parcham faction. In the meantime, Hafizullah Aminwas killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal.All remaining US assistance agreements were ended afterthe Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Following the Sovietinvasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts toachieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S.contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played amajor part in efforts to assist Afghan refugees.In response to the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, theCarter administration and Reagan administration in theU.S. began arming the Mujahideen, thanks in large partto the efforts of Charlie Wilson and CIA officer GustAvrakotos. Early reports estimated that $6–20 billionhad been spent by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia[97] but morerecent reports state that the U.S. and Saudi Arabia pro-vided as much as up to $40 billion[98][99][100] in cashand weapons, which included over two thousand FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, for building up Islamicgroups against the Soviet Union. The U.S. handled mostof its support through Pakistan’s ISI. Saudi Arabia wasalso providing financial support.The 10-year Soviet occupation resulted in thedeaths of between 850,000 and 1,500,000 Afghancivilians.[101][102] About 6 million fled as Afghanrefugees to Pakistan and Iran, and from there over38,000 made it to the United States[103] and many moreto the European Union. Faced with mounting interna-tional pressure and great number of casualties on bothsides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989. Their withdrawalfrom Afghanistan was seen as an ideological victory in

the United States, which had backed some Mujahideenfactions through three U.S. presidential administrationsto counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-richPersian Gulf. The USSR continued to support PresidentMohammad Najibullah (former head of the Afghansecret service, KHAD) until 1992.[104]

5.3 Foreign interference and civil war

Main articles: Civil war in Afghanistan (1989-1992) andCivil war in Afghanistan (1992-1996)

1992-1996After the fall of the communist Najibullah-regime in1992, the Afghan political parties agreed on a peaceand power-sharing agreement (the Peshawar Accords).The Peshawar Accords created the Islamic State ofAfghanistan and appointed an interim government for atransitional period. According to Human Rights Watch:

The sovereignty of Afghanistan was vestedformally in the Islamic State of Afghanistan, angovernment created in April 1992, after thefall of the Soviet-backed Najibullah govern-ment. [...] With the exception of GulbuddinHekmatyar's Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties[...] were ostensibly unified under this gov-ernment in April 1992 headed by SubghatullahMujadady. [...] Hekmatyar’s Hezb-e Islami,for its part, refused to recognize the govern-ment for most of the period discussed in this re-port and launched attacks against governmentforces and Kabul generally. [...] Shells androckets fell everywhere.[105]

Subghatullah Mujadady was elected as Afghanistan’selected interim president for two months and then pro-fessor Burhanuddin Rabani a well known Kabul univer-sity professor and the leader of Jamiat - e - Islami party ofMujahiddin who fought against Russians during the occu-pation was chosen by all of the Jahadi leaders except Gol-buddin Hikmat Yar. Professor Rabani reigned as the of-ficial and elected president of Afghanistan by Shurai Mu-jahiddin Peshawer (Peshawer Mujahiddin Council) from1992 until 2001 when he officially handed over the pres-idency post to Hamid Karzai the next US appointed in-terim president. During Rabbani’s presidency some partsof the country including few provinces in the north such asMazar e - Sharif, Jawzjan, Faryab, Shuburghan and someparts of Baghlan provinces were ruled by general AbdulRashid Dostom. During Rabbani’s first five years beforethe emergence of Taliban, the eastern and the westernprovinces and the some of the northern provinces suchBadakhshan, Takhar, Kunduz, main parts of BaghlanProvince, and some parts of Kandahar and other southernprovinces were under the control of central government

5.4 Taliban and the United Front 15

while the other parts of southern provinces did not obeyhim because of his ethnicity of Tajik. During the 9 yearspresidency of Burhanuddin Rabani Gulbuddin Hekmat-yar was directed, funded and supplied by the Pakistaniarmy.[106] Afghanistan analyst Amin Saikal concludes inhis book Modern Afghanistan: A History of Struggle andSurvival:

Pakistan was keen to gear up for a break-through in Central Asia. [...] Islamabad couldnot possibly expect the new Islamic govern-ment leaders [...] to subordinate their own na-tionalist objectives in order to help Pakistan re-alize its regional ambitions. [...] Had it notbeen for the ISI’s logistic support and supply ofa large number of rockets, Hekmatyar’s forceswould not have been able to target and destroyhalf of Kabul.[107]

There was no time for the interim government to createworking government departments, police units or a sys-tem of justice and accountability. Saudi Arabia and Iranalso armed and directed Afghan militias.[89] A publica-tion by the George Washington University describes:

[O]utside forces saw instability inAfghanistan as an opportunity to presstheir own security and political agendas.[108]

According to Human Rights Watch, numerous Iranianagents were assisting the Shia Hezb-i Wahdat forces ofAbdul Ali Mazari, as Iran was attempting to maximizeWahdat’s military power and influence.[89][105][109] SaudiArabia was trying to strengthen the Wahhabite Abdul Ra-sul Sayyaf and his Ittihad-i Islami faction.[89][105] Atroc-ities were committed by individuals of the different fac-tions while Kabul descended into lawlessness and chaosas described in reports by Human Rights Watch andthe Afghanistan Justice Project.[105][110] Again, HumanRights Watch writes:

Rare ceasefires, usually negotiated byrepresentatives of Ahmad Shah Massoud,Sibghatullah Mojaddedi or Burhanuddin Rab-bani (the interim government), or officialsfrom the International Committee of the RedCross (ICRC), commonly collapsed withindays.[105]

The main forces involved during that period in Kabul,northern, central and eastern Afghanistan were the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar directed by Pakistan,the Hezb-i Wahdat of Abdul Ali Mazari directed by Iran,the Ittehad-i Islami of Abdul Rasul Sayyaf supported bySaudi Arabia, the Junbish-i Milli of Abdul Rashid Dos-tum backed by Uzbekisten, the Harakat-i Islami of Hus-sain Anwari and the Shura-i Nazar operating as the reg-ular Islamic State forces (as agreed upon in the Peshawar

Accords) under the defense ministry of Ahmad ShahMassoud.Meanwhile, southern Afghanistan was The city ofKandahar was a centre of lawlessness, crime and atroc-ities fuelled by complex Pashtun tribal rivalries.[111] In1994, the Taliban (a movement originating from JamiatUlema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan refugeesin Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a politico-religious force, reportedly in opposition to the tyranny ofthe local governor.[111] Mullah Omar started his move-ment with fewer than 50 armed madrassah students inhis hometown of Kandahar.[111] As Gulbuddin Hekmat-yar remained unsuccessful in conquering Kabul, Pakistanstarted its support to the Taliban.[89][112] Many analystslike Amin Saikal describe the Taliban as developing intoa proxy force for Pakistan’s regional interests which theTaliban decline.[89] In 1994 the Taliban took power inseveral provinces in southern and central Afghanistan.In 1995 the Hezb-i Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, theIranian-backed Hezb-i Wahdat as well as Rashid Dos-tum’s Junbish forces were defeated militarily in the cap-ital Kabul by forces of the interim government underMassoud who subsequently tried to initiate a nationwidepolitical process with the goal of national consolidationand democratic elections, also inviting the Taliban to jointhe process.[113] The Taliban declined.[113] SubghatullahMujadady the first interim president after the fallof Dr najibbullah’s government. despite the chaosand autonomy in different part of the country the agreedpresident after two months of subghatullah mujadady’sinterim presidency professor Burhanudin Rabani and inthe country

5.4 Taliban and the United Front

1996-2001Main articles: Taliban, Afghan Northern Alliance,Afghan training camp and Civil war in Afghanistan(1996-2001)

The Taliban started shelling Kabul in early 1995 butwere defeated by forces of the Islamic State governmentunder Ahmad Shah Massoud.[114] Amnesty International,referring to the Taliban offensive, wrote in a 1995 report:

This is the first time in several monthsthat Kabul civilians have become the targets ofrocket attacks and shelling aimed at residentialareas in the city.[114]

On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban, with mili-tary support by Pakistan and financial support by SaudiArabia, prepared for another major offensive, Mas-soud ordered a full retreat from Kabul.[115] The Talibanseized Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan. They imposed on theparts of Afghanistan under their control their political

16 5 CONTEMPORARY ERA (1973–PRESENT)

Former Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf sent more troopsagainst the United Front of Ahmad Shah Massoud than theAfghan Taliban.

Map of the situation in Afghanistan in late 1996; Massoud (red),Dostum (green) and Taliban (yellow) territories.

Map of the situation in Afghanistan in August 2001 until October2001

and judicial interpretation of Islam, issuing edicts forbid-ding women from working outside the home, attendingschool or leaving their homes unless accompanied by amale relative.[116] Physicians for Human Rights (PHR)said:

To PHR’s knowledge, no other regimein the world has methodically and violentlyforced half of its population into virtual housearrest, prohibiting them on pain of physicalpunishment.[116]

After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban on Septem-ber 27, 1996,[117] Ahmad Shah Massoud and AbdulRashid Dostum, two former nemesis, created the UnitedFront (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban, who werepreparing offensives against the remaining areas underthe control of Massoud and Dostum.[118] The UnitedFront included beside the dominantly Tajik forces ofMassoud and the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara fac-tions and Pashtun forces under the leadership of comman-ders such as Abdul Haq, Haji Abdul Qadir, Qari Babaor diplomat Abdul Rahim Ghafoorzai. From the Tal-iban conquest in 1996 until November 2001 the UnitedFront controlled roughly 30% of Afghanistan’s popula-tion in provinces such as Badakhshan, Kapisa, Takhar andparts of Parwan, Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan,Kunduz, Ghōr and Bamyan.According to a 55-page report by the United Nations,the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control overnorthern and western Afghanistan, committed systematicmassacres against civilians.[119][120] UN officials statedthat there had been “15 massacres” between 1996 and2001.[119][120] They also said, that "[t]hese have beenhighly systematic and they all lead back to the [Taliban]Ministry of Defense or to Mullah Omar himself.”[119][120]

The Taliban especially targeted people of Shia reli-gious or Hazara ethnic background.[119][120] Upon tak-ing Mazar-i-Sharif in 1998, about 4,000 civilians wereexecuted by the Taliban and many more reportedtortured.[121][122] Among those killed in Mazari Sharifwere several Iranian diplomats. Others were kidnappedby the Taliban, touching off a hostage crisis that nearly es-calated to a full-scale war, with 150,000 Iranian soldiersmassed on the Afghan border at one time.[123] It was lateradmitted that the diplomats were killed by the Taliban,and their bodies were returned to Iran.[124]

The documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistanisupport troops in these killings.[119][120] Bin Laden’s so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for mass-killings ofAfghan civilians.[125] The report by the United Nationsquotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arabfighters carrying long knives used for slitting throats andskinning people.[119][120]

Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf - then as Chief ofArmy Staff - was responsible for sending thousands ofPakistanis to fight alongside the Taliban and Bin Ladenagainst the forces of Massoud.[112][113][126][127] In totalthere were believed to be 28,000 Pakistani nationals fight-ing inside Afghanistan.[113] 20,000 were regular Pakistanisoldiers either from the Frontier Corps or army and anestimated 8,000 were militants recruited in madrassasfilling regular Taliban ranks.[125] The estimated 25,000

5.5 NATO presence and the Karzai administration 17

Taliban regular force thus comprised more than 8,000Pakistani nationals.[125] A 1998 document by the U.S.State Department confirms that “20-40 percent of [reg-ular] Taliban soldiers are Pakistani.”[112] The documentfurther states that the parents of those Pakistani nation-als “know nothing regarding their child’s military involve-ment with the Taliban until their bodies are brought backto Pakistan.”[112] A further 3,000 fighter of the regularTaliban army were Arab and Central Asian militants.[125]

From 1996 to 2001 the Al Qaeda of Osama Bin Ladenand Ayman al-Zawahiri became a state within the Tal-iban state.[128] Bin Laden sent Arab recruits to join thefight against the United Front.[128][129] Of roughly 45,000Pakistani, Taliban and Al Qaeda soldiers fighting againstthe forces of Massoud only 14,000 were Afghan.[113][125]

According to Human Rights Watch in 1997 Taliban sol-diers were summarily executed in and around Mazar-iSharif by Dostum’s Junbish forces.[130] Dostum was de-feated by the Taliban in 1998 with the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif. Massoud remained the only leader of the UnitedFront in Afghanistan.In the areas under his control Ahmad Shah Massoud setup democratic institutions and signed the Women’s RightsCharter.[131] Human Rights Watch cites no human rightscrimes for the forces under direct control of Massoudfor the period from October 1996 until the assassina-tion of Massoud in September 2001.[130] As a conse-quence many civilians fled to the area of Ahmad ShahMassoud.[126][132] National Geographic concluded in itsdocumentary “Inside the Taliban” :

The only thing standing in the way of fu-ture Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah Mas-soud.”[126]

The Taliban repeatedly offered Massoud a position ofpower to make him stop his resistance. Massoud declinedfor he did not fight to obtain a position of power. He ex-plained in one interview:

“The Taliban say: “Come and accept the postof prime minister and be with us”, and theywould keep the highest office in the coun-try, the presidentship. But for what price?!The difference between us concerns mainlyour way of thinking about the very princi-ples of the society and the state. We cannot accept their conditions of compromise, orelse we would have to give up the principlesof modern democracy. We are fundamen-tally against the system called “the Emirate ofAfghanistan”."[133]

“There should be an Afghanistan where everyAfghan finds himself or herself happy. And Ithink that can only be assured by democracybased on consensus.”[134]

Massoud wanted to convince the Taliban to join a po-litical process leading towards democratic elections in aforeseeable future.[133] His proposals for peace can beseen here: Proposal for Peace, promoted by CommanderMassoud. Massoud also stated:

“The Taliban are not a force to be consideredinvincible. They are distanced from the peo-ple now. They are weaker than in the past.There is only the assistance given by Pakistan,Osama bin Laden and other extremist groupsthat keep the Taliban on their feet. With ahalt to that assistance, it is extremely difficultto survive.”[134] In early 2001 Massoud em-ployed a new strategy of local military pressureand global political appeals.[135] Resentmentwas increasingly gathering against Taliban rulefrom the bottom of Afghan society includ-ing the Pashtun areas.[135] Massoud publicizedtheir cause “popular consensus, general elec-tions and democracy” worldwide. At the sametime he was very wary not to revive the failedKabul government of the early 1990s.[135] Al-ready in 1999 he started the training of policeforces which he trained specifically to keep or-der and protect the civilian population in casethe United Front would be successful.[113]

In early 2001 Massoud addressed the European Par-liament in Brussels asking the international commu-nity to provide humanitarian help to the people ofAfghanistan.[136] He stated that the Taliban and Al Qaedahad introduced “a very wrong perception of Islam” andthat without the support of Pakistan the Taliban wouldnot be able to sustain their military campaign for up to ayear.[136] On this visit to Europe he also warned that hisintelligence had gathered information about a large-scaleattack on U.S. soil being imminent.[137][note: this refer-ence does not support claim made by article].

5.5 NATOpresence and theKarzai admin-istration

Further information: Presidency of Hamid Karzai,Taliban insurgency, Operation Enduring Freedom andWar in Afghanistan (2001–present)On 9 September 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud was assas-sinated by two Arab suicide attackers inside Afghanistan.Two days later about 3,000 people became victims ofthe September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States,when Afghan-based Al-Qaeda suicide bombers hijackedplanes and flew them into New York City skyscrapers.Then US President George W. Bush accused Osama binLaden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed as the faces behindthe attacks. When the Taliban refused to hand over binLaden to US authorities and to disband al-Qaeda bases inAfghanistan, Operation Enduring Freedom was launched

18 5 CONTEMPORARY ERA (1973–PRESENT)

Afghan President Hamid Karzai speaking before U.S. Congressin June 2004

in which teams of American and British special forcesworked with commanders of the United Front (North-ern Alliance) against the Taliban.[138] At the same timethe US-led forces were bombing Taliban and al-Qaedatargets everywhere inside Afghanistan with cruise mis-siles. These actions led to the fall of Mazar-i-Sharif inthe north followed by all the other cities, as the Talibanand al-Qaeda crossed over the porous Durand Line bor-der into Pakistan. In December 2001, after the Talibangovernment was toppled and the new Afghan governmentunder Hamid Karzai was formed, the International Secu-rity Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UNSecurity Council to help assist the Karzai administrationand provide basic security to the Afghan people.[139][140]

While the Taliban began regrouping inside Pakistan,more coalition troops entered the escalating US-ledwar. Meanwhile, the rebuilding of war-torn Afghanistankicked off in 2002.[141][142] The Afghan nation was ableto build democratic structures over the years, and someprogress was made in key areas such as governance,economy, health, education, transport, and agriculture.NATO is training the Afghan armed forces as well itsnational police. ISAF and Afghan troops led many offen-sives against the Taliban but failed to fully defeat them.By 2009, a Taliban-led shadow government began toform in many parts of the country complete with theirown version of mediation court.[143] After U.S. PresidentBarack Obama announced the deployment of another

Soldiers of the Afghan National Army in 2010, including theANA Commando Battalion standing in the front.

30,000 soldiers in 2010 for a period of two years, DerSpiegel published images of the US soldiers who killedunarmed Afghan civilians.[144]

In FY 2009, the United States resettled just 328 refugeesfrom Afghanistan.[145] By contrast, the U.S. admittedmore than 100,000 Vietnamese refugees for resettle-ment during the Vietnam War.[146] On the other hand,over five million Afghan refugees were repatriated inthe last decade, including many who were forcefullydeported from NATO countries.[147][148] This large returnof Afghans may have helped the nation’s economy but thecountry still remains one of the poorest in the world dueto the decades of war, lack of foreign investment, ongoinggovernment corruption and the Pakistani-backed Talibaninsurgency.[149][150] The United States also accuses neigh-boring Iran of providing small level of support to the Tal-iban insurgents.[151][152][153] According to a report by theUnited Nations, the Taliban and other militants were re-sponsible for 76% of civilian casualties in 2009,[154] 75%in 2010[155] and 80% in 2011.[156]

NATO's military terminal at Kabul International Airport

In October 2008 U.S. Defense Secretary Gates had as-serted that a political settlement with the Taliban wasthe endgame for the Afghanistan war. “There has tobe ultimately – and I'll underscore ultimately – recon-

5.5 NATO presence and the Karzai administration 19

ciliation as part of a political outcome to this,” Gatesstated.[157] By 2010 peace efforts began. In early Jan-uary, Taliban commanders held secret exploratory talkswith a United Nations special envoy to discuss peaceterms. Regional commanders on the Taliban’s leader-ship council, the Quetta Shura, sought a meeting withthe UN special representative in Afghanistan, Kai Eide,and it took place in Dubai on January 8. It was the firstsuch meeting between the UN and senior members of theTaliban.[158] On 26 January 2010, at a major conferencein London which brought together some 70 countries andorganizations,[159] Afghan President Hamid Karzai saidhe intends to reach out to the Taliban leadership (includ-ing Mullah Omar, Sirajuddin Haqqani and GulbuddinHekmatyar). Supported by NATO, Karzai called on thegroup’s leadership to take part in a loya jirga meeting toinitiate peace talks. These steps have resulted in an inten-sification of bombings, assassinations and ambushes.[160]

Some Afghan groups (including the former intelligencechief Amrullah Saleh and opposition leader Dr. AbdullahAbdullah) believe that Karzai plans to appease the insur-gents’ senior leadership at the cost of the democratic con-stitution, the democratic process and progress in the fieldof human rights especially women’s rights.[161] Dr. Ab-dullah stated:

I should say that Taliban are not fighting inorder to be accommodated. They are fightingin order to bring the state down. So it’s a futileexercise, and it’s just misleading. ... There aregroups that will fight to the death. Whether welike to talk to them or we don't like to talk tothem, they will continue to fight. So, for them,I don't think that we have a way forward withtalks or negotiations or contacts or anything assuch. Then we have to be prepared to tackleand deal with them militarily. In terms of theTaliban on the ground, there are lots of possi-bilities and opportunities that with the help ofthe people in different parts of the country, wecan attract them to the peace process; provided,we create a favorable environment on this sideof the line. At the moment, the people are leav-ing support for the government because of cor-ruption. So that expectation is also not realisticat this stage.[162]

Afghan President Hamid Karzai told world leaders dur-ing the London conference that he intends to reach out tothe top echelons of the Taliban within a few weeks witha peace initiative.[163] Karzai set the framework for dia-logue with Taliban leaders when he called on the group’sleadership to take part in a “loya jirga" – or large as-sembly of elders – to initiate peace talks.[164] Karzai alsoasked for creation of a new peacemaking organization,to be called the National Council for Peace, Reconcili-ation and Reintegration.[163] Karzai’s top adviser on thereconciliation process with the insurgents said that the

From left to right: Abdullah Abdullah, John Kerry and AshrafGhani during the 2014 Afghan presidential election

country must learn to forgive the Taliban.[165] In March2010, the Karzai government held preliminary talks withHezb-i-Islami, who presented a plan which included thewithdrawal of all foreign troops by the end of 2010. TheTaliban declined to participate, saying “The Islamic Emi-rate has a clear position. We have said this many, manytimes. There will be no talks when there are foreigntroops on Afghanistan’s soil killing innocent Afghans ondaily basis.”[166] In June 2010 the Afghan Peace Jirga2010 took place. In September 2010 General David Pe-traeus commented on the progress of peace talks to date,stating, “The prospect for reconciliation with senior Tal-iban leaders certainly looms out there...and there havebeen approaches at (a) very senior level that hold somepromise.”[167]

After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pak-istan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assas-sinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad WaliKarzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi,Burhanuddin Rabbani and others.[168] Also in the sameyear, the Pakistani-Afghan border skirmishes intensi-fied and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-basedHaqqani network took place across Afghanistan. This ledto the United States warning Pakistan of a possible mili-tary action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Admin-istered Tribal Areas.[169] The U.S. blamed Pakistan’s gov-ernment, mainly Pakistani Army and its ISI spy networkas the masterminds behind all of this.[170]

In choosing to use violent extremism as aninstrument of policy, the government of Pak-istan, and most especially the Pakistani armyand ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect ofour strategic partnership but Pakistan’s oppor-tunity to be a respected nation with legitimateregional influence. They may believe that byusing these proxies, they are hedging their betsor redressing what they feel is an imbalancein regional power. But in reality, they havealready lost that bet.[171]

— Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of theJoint Chiefs of Staff

20 7 REFERENCES

U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Ra-dio Pakistan that “The attack that took place in Kabula few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani net-work. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Networkto the Pakistan government. This is something that muststop.”[172] Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clintonand Leon Panetta made similar statements.[170][173] OnOctober 16, 2011, “Operation Knife Edge” was launchedby NATO and Afghan forces against the Haqqani networkin south-eastern Afghanistan. Afghan Defense Minister,Abdul Rahim Wardak, explained that the operation will“help eliminate the insurgents before they struck in ar-eas along the troubled frontier”.[174] In November 2011,NATO forces killed 24 Pakistani Army soldiers aroundthe border region with Pakistan.

6 See also• Invasions of Afghanistan

• List of Pashtun empires and dynasties

• List of monarchs of Afghanistan

• List of presidents of Afghanistan

• Politics of Afghanistan

• Timeline of Kabul

• Timeline of Herat

7 References[1] “Country Profile: Afghanistan” (PDF). United States:

Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. Au-gust 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-16.

[2] “Afghanistan: The Pre-Islamic Period”. United States.1997. Retrieved 2010-08-16.

[3] Dupree, Nancy Hatch (1977). An Historical Guide ToAfghanistan (Chapter 3: Sites in Perspective) (2 ed.).United States: Afghan Air Authority, Afghan Tourist Or-ganization. p. 492. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

[4] Shroder, John Ford (2006). “Afghanistan Archived”. Re-gents Professor of Ge\Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2009-10-31.

[5] The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society.pp.1

[6] “Alexander and Macedonian Rule, 330-ca. 150 B.C”.United States: Library of Congress Country Studies onAfghanistan. 1997. Retrieved 2010-10-31.

[7] “Kingdoms of South Asia – Afghanistan (Southern Kho-rasan / Arachosia)". The History Files. Retrieved 2010-08-16.

[8] Banting, Erinn (2003). Afghanistan: The land. CrabtreePublishing Company. p. 4. ISBN 0-7787-9335-4. Re-trieved 2010-08-22.

[9] Adamec, Ludwig W. (2011). Historical Dictionary ofAfghanistan. Scarecrow Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8108-7957-3. Retrieved 2012-06-28.

[10] Afghanistan Beyond the Fog of Nation Building:Giving Economic Strategy a Chance. S. Freder-ick Starr http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/silkroadpapers/1101Afghanistan-Starr.pdf

[11] "Afghanistan and the Search for Unity" Omrani, Bijan,published in Asian Affairs, Volume 38, Issue 2, 2007, pp.145–157.

[12] “Last Afghan empire”. Louis Dupree, Nancy HatchDupree, and others. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Ver-sion. Retrieved 2010-08-16.

[13] “Last Afghan Empire”. Afghanpedia. Sabawoon.com.Retrieved 2010-08-16.

[14] D. Balland. “AFGHANISTAN x. Political History”.Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2010-08-22.

[15] Romano, Amy (2003). A Historical Atlas of Afghanistan.The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 64. ISBN 0-8239-3863-8. Retrieved 2010-10-17.

[16] Langer, William L., ed. (1972). An Encyclopedia ofWorld History (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton MifflinCompany. p. 9. ISBN 0-395-13592-3.

[17] Baxter, Craig (1995) “Historical Setting” pp. 90–120,page 91, In Gladstone, Cary (2001) Afghanistan revisitedNova Science Publications, New York, ISBN 1-59033-421-3

[18] Gandara...Link

[19] W. Vogelsang, “Gandahar”, in The Circle Of Ancient Ira-nian Studies

[20] E. Herzfeld, “The Persian Empire: Studies on Geographyand Ethnography of the Ancient Near East”, ed. G. Walser,Wiesbaden 1968, pp. 279, 293–94, 336–38, 345

[21] Mallory, J. P. (1997). “BMAC”. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-884964-98-2.

[22] Francfort, H.-P. (2005) “La civilisation de l'Oxus et lesIndo-iraniens et les Indo-aryens en Asie centrale” In Fuss-man, G.; et al. (2005). Aryas, Aryens et Iraniens en AsieCentrale. Paris: de Boccard. pp. 276–285. ISBN 2-86803-072-6.

[23] Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the In-dus Valley Civilisation. pp.96

[24] Parpola, Asko (1998). “Aryan Languages, Archaeolog-ical Cultures, and Sinkiang: Where Did Proto-IranianCome into Being and How Did It Spread?". In Mair. TheBronze Age and Early Iron Age Peoples of Eastern andCentral Asia. Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Studyof Man. ISBN 0-941694-63-1