History of Artificial Propagation of Coho Salmon,Oncorhynchus kisutch, in the Mid-Columbia River System

ROY J. WAHLE and ROGER E. PEARSON

Figure I. - Middle and upper portion of the Columbia River Basin.

Introduction

Since the beginning of the 20th cen­tury, fish managers in the mid- andupper Columbia River have turned tohatcheries for a supply of anadro­mous fish. Prior to its settlement, thearea was noted for its natural Pacificsalmon Oncorhynchus spp., re­sources; but, as these resources beganto decline, artificial propagation wasattempted.

The first hatcheries in the mid­Columbia section (Fig. 1) of theriver - the area formed by thetributaries and main stem of the Col­umbia above the mouth of the SnakeRiver, at river mile 325, to ChiefJoseph Dam at river mile 545 - were

ABSTRACT- The history of artificialpropagation of coho salmon, Oncorhyn­chus kisutch, in the mid-Columbia Riverregion began in 1899 with the constructionof salmon hatcheries on the Wenatcheeand Methow Rivers by the WashingtonDepartment ofFish and Game. These ear­ly attempts at artificial propagation endedin 1931. In the early 1940's, the FederalGovernment, in a program to resume pro­pagation activities in the region, builthatcheries on the Wenatchee, Entiat, andMethow Rivers. These hatcheries rearedseveral species ofsalmon, but ceased workon coho salmon after 30-35 years and con­centrated on other species. Meanwhile, inthe early 1960's, the Washington Depart­ment of Fisheries began to rear cohosalmon at new facilities along the mid­Columbia River. Coho salmon were firstreared at Ringold Salmon Pond nearPasco, and they were later reared at twoadditional facilities; one located at WellsDam and the other upstream of RockyReach Dam at Turtle Rock. Since 1899, atotal of over 65 million juvenile cohosalmon have been artificially propagated inthe mid-Columbia region and released intothe Columbia River system.

34

constructed on the Wenatchee andMethow Rivers in 1899. By 1914 bothhad ceased operation. A new hatcherywas constructed on the WenatcheeRiver in 1913 and one on the MethowRiver in 1915, both downstream from

CANADA

WASHINGTON

'---

Roy J. Wahle, now retired, was with the North­west Regional Office, National Marine FisheriesService, NOAA, 847 N.E. 19th Avenue, Suite#350, Portland, OR 97232. Current address: Rt.2, P.O. Box 21, Yamhill, OR 97148. Roger E.Pearson is with the NMFS Northwest andAlaska Fisheries Center, 2725 MontlakeBoulevard East, Seattle, WA 98112.

Marine Fisheries Review

Wenatchee Hatchery (left) near the Old Chiwaukum railroad station in about 190I. At right are the hatchery's fishracks which spanned the river and were erected each year following the spring-summer freshets.

the earlier locations. These early at­tempts at artificial propagation ceasedin 1931.

Grand Coulee Dam on the upperColumbia River was built in the late1930's, and the construction of thisdam, which did not have a fish way topass the anadromous stocks of theupper Columbia, gave rise to a majorartificial propagation program(Neuberger, 1941). Large Federalhatcheries were constructed nearLeavenworth, Entiat, and Winthrop,Wash., to provide runs of anadro­mous fish in the Columbia RiverBasin between Grand Coulee andRock Island Dams (Fig. 1). Onlylimited success was achieved in thepropagation efforts at the hatcheries.Part of the problem was that theknowledge and technology of rearingPacific salmon and steelhead, Sa/mogairdneri, was at an early stage ofdevelopment; other handicapscentered on hatchery facilities andwater supplies. In addition, the mix ofspecies reared has varied considerablyover the past 40 years, dependingmainly on trends in management andadvances in fish culture (Mullan I).

I MuUan, J. W. 1980. Ecological overview, cohosalmon (Oncorhynchus kisulch) propagation,Mid-Columbia River. Admin. Rep. I, 51 p.Fisheries Assistance Office, U. S. Fish andWildlife Service, Route I, P.O. Box 123-A,Leavenworth, WA 98826.

46(3)

Following the construction of theFederal hatcheries, other artificialpropagation facilities were built. Allare operated by the State ofWashington and most are funded bythe Public Utility District (PUD) ofthe local area.

This article presents a brief historyof the production of coho salmon,Oncorhynchus kisutch (also calledsilver or silverside), at mid-Columbiahatcheries. This article does not coverecological information that can beused to elucidate reasons for the suc­cess or failure of hatchery operations.Instead, the article concentrates ondates of hatchery operation andnumbers of fish released. Much ofthis information is only available inreports that have had limited distribu­tion, and some information has neverbeen published. This is rather surpris­ing because at one time the hatcheryoperation on the mid-Columbia wasNorth America's largest program ofartificial fish propagation (Neuberger,1941).

Of the five major river systems onthe mid-Columbia (the Entiat,Methow, Okanogan, Wenatchee, andYakima), all except the Okanogan atone time held native populations ofcoho salmon (Craig and Suomela2

,

Davidson3). Considering the locationof the spawning grounds utilized bythis species in the regions adjacent to

the northern North Pacific Ocean, theaforementioned rivers are moderatelydistant from the ocean. McPhail andLindsey (1970), on one hand, describecoho salmon spawning in the YukonRiver 1,152 miles from the ocean, andGribanov (1948) reports that on theKamchatka Peninsula, U.S.S.R.,their spawning grounds frequently ex­tend beyond the upstream limits ofsockeye, 0. nerka; pink, 0. gor­buscha; and chum, 0. keta, salmon.Yet Godfrey (1%5) finds it morecommon, at least in North America,for coho salmon to spawn within 150miles of the ocean.

Anadromous fish runs in the mid­Columbia were influenced byagricultural practices and exploitationof resources, such as mining ofmetals, as early as the last half of the19th century - as demonstrated by theneed for the hatcheries constructed in1899 on the Methow and Wenatchee

'Craig, J. A., and A. J. Suomela. 1941. Ap­pearance of the runs of salmon and steelheadtrout native to the Wenatchee, Entiat, Methow,and Okanogan Rivers. Unpubl. rep., 35 p. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department ofthe Interior, Seattle, Washington. (Availablefrom Northwest and Alaska Fisheries Center,National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 2725Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112.)'Davidson, F. A. 1965. The development of ir­rigation in the Yakima River basin and its effecton the migratory fish populations in the river.Unpubl. rep., 14 p. Grant County Public UtilityDistrict, P.O. Box 878, Ephrata, WA 98823.

35

Figure 2. -Commercial catch of coho salmon (by net) in the Columbia River,1891-1982.

Table 1.-Available information on spawning of coho salmon at Leavenworth and WinthropNational Fish Hatcheries (trom Mullan, text footnote 1).

Hatchery No. fish spawned Average no. of

and year Arrival dates Spawning dates Males Females eggslfemale

Leavenworth1940 4 2 3,7001941 10/24·11/7 4 6 2,6001944 9/30·11/7 10/10·11/8 57 66 3,0771945 3 1 2,9471947 10/28·11128 72 80 2,6351950 1217 2,4211966 49 51 3,0781967 7 11 2,7271968 9/13 10/2 375 689 3,0271970 10/20 11118 236 204 3,3171971 408 3,1261972 7 3,1431973 8/30·10/29 10/29' 28 39 3,017

Winthrop1947' 11113·1213 2,0921950 10/25·12/10 9 7 3,8061953 3 3 2,8241954 2 1 2,9541962' 10/9 10/10 64 119 2,926

'Peak of spawning.lFish reported in poor condition; some were spawned out.3Fish reported in excellent condition.

spawning units (Mullan, footnote 1).Mullan (footnote 1) has reported

that records of arrival and spawningdates for coho salmon returning tothe Leavenworth and Winthrop Na­tional Fish Hatcheries (NFH) of themid-Columbia are incomplete and in­consistent (Table 1); and there are no

900

19801970196019501940

records of adults returning to EntiatNFH. Indigenous (i.e., mid- and up­per Columbia River) coho salmonheld at Leavenworth NFH on theWenatchee River were known to havespawned in late October-earlyNovember in 1941 and 1944. Nonin­digenous stock returning to Winthrop

YEAR

1930

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Rivers. Furthermore, the runs hadbeen destroyed or almost destroyedby the construction of impassabledams, unscreened irrigation diver­sions, and overharvest prior to com­pletion of Grand Coulee Dam in 1941(Bryant and Parkhurst, 1950; Craigand Suomela, footnote 2; Davidson,footnote 3).

Abundance and Life History ofColumbia River Coho Salmon

Coho salmon are second tochinook salmon, O. tshawytscha, asthe most numerous salmon species inthe Columbia River Basin. ColumbiaRiver coho salmon support extensivecommercial and sport fisheries off thePacific Coast from northern Califor­nia to southern British Columbia aswell as a major river fishery (Landerand Henry, 1973; Wahle et al., 1974).

Over the years, the catch of cohosalmon in the Columbia River hasvaried extensively (Craig and Hacker,1940; Fulton, 1970). It is evident,however, that coho salmon were mostabundant in the early years of thefishery when annual catches reached700,000-900,000 fish, and that theydeclined rapidly in the late 1930's (Fig.2). Catches remained low until themid-1960's when hatchery productionincreased sharply.

Data do not exist on the early abun­dance of mid-Columbia coho salmon.The records of early settlers, however,indicate that virtually all of thestreams in this area supported rela­tively large runs of coho salmon(Bryant and Parkhurst, 1950; Craigand Suomela, footnote 2; Davidson,footnote 3).

At one time, the Columbia Riverwas the greatest salmon and steelheadriver in the world. The fish originatedin the thousands of miles of streams,migrated to the ocean, grew to adult­hood, and migrated back to theirnatal streams to spawn and die, com­pleting the life cycle. The populationdid not consist of one large mass offish that randomly distributed itselfthroughout the system, with freeinterbreeding occurring between allfish. Instead, a complex of subpopu­lations evolved with segregated

36 Marine Fisheries Review

NFH on the Methow River werespawned into December in someyears; the fish were reported to be inpoor condition and partially spawnedout. Likewise, fish counting in the1970's was extended into lateNovember or mid-December at RockIsland and Rocky Reach Dams tocount large numbers of coho salmonpassing during this period.

Adult coho salmon enter theirstreams of origin between July andFebruary and spawn from Septemberthrough March. The species is cate­gorized into seasonal runs dependingon the time of year that adult fish ar­rive in the river to spawn. Late sum­mer and fall runs are the stocks thatare usually used in hatcheries.

Coho salmon spawn in the fall orwinter, and the resultant fry emergefrom the gravel in early spring. Nearlyall Columbia River fry remain in freshwater for 1 year prior to migration tothe ocean in the spring of their secondyear of life. Some male coho salmonspend only about 6 months in theocean before returning to their natalstream to spawn. These fish, said tobe 2 years old, are called jacks. MostColumbia River fish, however, spendabout 18 months in the ocean and re­turn to spawn as 3-year-olds (Marr,1943).

Egg number varies with body size,geographical area, and year. In Wash­ington' this number ranges from1,440 to 5,700 for females 17.3-28.3inches in length. The numbers rangefrom 2,100 to 2,789 in British Colum­bia where the usual weight of com­mercially caught fish is 8 pounds, withmost ranging from 5 to 12 poundsand with 20-pound fish not uncom­mon (Scott and Crossman, 1973).

Mullan (footnote I) reported thatthe data on average number of eggsper female spawned at Leavenworthand Winthrop NFH are relativelycomplete, but that data on size of fishspawned are almost totally lacking(Table 1). Fulton (1970) reported thatcoho salmon returning to Leaven­worth NFH in 1968 weighed 12-15pounds compared with an averageweight of 9.9 pounds for ColumbiaRiver fish. Although none returned to

46(3)

Leavenworth NFH, progeny of LewisRiver coho salmon that were reared atLeavenworth NFH and then re­covered as adults during 1945 in thelower Columbia River commercialfisheries were smaller than the above;89 females averaged 9.6 pounds and27.0 inches, and 121 males averaged9.3 pounds and 26.3 inches (Fultonand Pearson, 1981). The averagenumber of eggs per female was about3,000 at Leavenworth and WinthropNFH (Table 1).

Artificial Propagation BeforeConstruction of Grand Coulee Dam

Although there are five major riversystems in the mid-Columbia, ar­tificial propagation was only carriedout in two, the Wenatchee andMethow, prior to construction ofGrand Coulee Dam. Both rivers flowsoutheasterly from the CascadeMountains and are primarily main­tained by melting snow and glaciers.There is about a 50-inch difference inprecipitation between the subalpineforests of the headwaters and thesemiarid region at the confluenceswith the Columbia River in north­central Washington. These are gravel­ly rivers, with wide fluctuation in flowassociated with the climatic and geo­logical characteristics of the region(Mullan, footnote 1).

Wenatchee River

The first hatchery on the Wen­atchee River was constructed in 1899about 40 miles upstream from theColumbia River near the (then) Chi­waukum railroad station above Tum­water Canyon (WDFG, 1902). In1904 the hatchery was closed.Reasons given for the closure were ex­treme cold weather, heavy snow, iso­lated location and consequent expenseof operation, freshets, and that it wastoo far up the river to secure the bestvariety of fish which was springchinook salmon. A quotation fromthe 14th and 15th annual reports ofthe State Fish Commissioners ofWashington states: "If it [thehatchery] had been below the Tum­water Canyon, the early chinookcould have been secured; as it is it

takes only an inferior run of silver­sides" (WDFG, 1903-04).

The next hatchery on the river be­gan to propagate fish in 1913. Thisstate facility was constructed fartherdownstream, about 25 miles upstreamfrom the Columbia at the town ofLeavenworth. An important reasonfor selecting this location was thepremise that large numbers of springchinook salmon could be taken.However, few eggs of spring chinooksalmon or any other species were ob­tained at this site, and the hatcherywas abandoned in 1931. Data, whichare probably incomplete, indicate thattwo lots of coho salmon eggs werecollected, 30,000 and 38,500, and onelot of 3.8 million fry planted (1903)that were progeny of lower ColumbiaRiver stocks (Craig and Suomela,footnote 2).

Methow River

The first hatchery on the MethowRiver was built in 1899 at the mouthof the Twisp River. It produced main­ly coho salmon. Almost 12 millioncoho salmon eggs were taken from1904 to 1914 (Craig and Suomela,footnote 2).

In 1915, at Pateros near the mouthof the Methow River, the WashingtonWater Power Company constructed adam which was not provided withfishways (Bryant and Parkhurst,1950). Since the dam was impassable,the hatchery was moved downstreamof the dam site. Coho salmon eggscontinued to be taken-about 3.5million from 1915 to 1920. The rundeclined following the move, and noeggs were taken after 1920, althoughthe hatchery continued to operate un­til 1931 with eggs and fry of steelheadand chinook and chum salmon fromother rivers.

Artificial Propagation AfterConstruction of Grand Coulee Dam

Federal- and Washington-operatedhatcheries other than the ones alreadydescribed have also reared cohosalmon on the mid-Columbia. Thesepropagation activities are related tothe development of hydroelectricpower on the Columbia River and

37

Table 2.-Releases and relums 01 coho salmon reared al Leavenworth Nalional Fish Halchery (NFH).

Brood Releases Returns

year Egg source' Area Number Date Fish/lb. Trapped Obs./est.

1940 Rock Island' Icicle Creek 5,470 1942 11.41941 Rock Island' Icicle Creek 11,050 1943 11.4 1281942 Lewis River Icicle Creek 40,370 1943 91.0 4

Lewis River Icicle Creek 69,627 1944 91.01943 Lewis River Icicle Creek 112,267 1944 91.0 11944 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 133,703 1945 47.0 166

Lewis River Icicle Creek 28,954 1945 248

1945 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 1,896 1946 2601946 0 11947 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 114,652 1948 60.2 221948 01949 Lewis River Wenatchee

River3 229,969 Oct. 1950 2761950 Lewis River Icicle Creek 98,786 1952 16.6

Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 16,850 1952 16.6

1951 Lewis River Icicle Creek 47,607 1953 23.2 31952 Lewis River Icicle Creek 93,909 1954 42.41953 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 2,419 1954 142.31954 Quilcene Icicle Creek 11,750 1955 50.0

Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 3,222 1956 25.4Quilcene Icicle Creek 12,499 1956 38.0

1955 01956 01957 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 2,884 Mar. 1959 27.71956 01959 01960 01961 0 15 150

1962 Eagle Creek Icicle Creek 455,713 Aug. 1963 118.01963 Eagle Creek Icicle Creek 871,000 Oct. 1964 62.0 1,0251964 Cascade Icicle Creek 769,000 Sept. 1965 41.0 461

Cascade Icicle Creek 656,000 March 1966 16.01965' Cascade Wenatchee River 4,170,000 July·Sept. 1966 54.0 2,286 2,350

Cascade Icicle Creek 536,000 March 1967 19.2Cascade Snake River 708,000 April 1967 16.0

1966 Little White Salmon Icicle Creek 125,000 March 1968 23.0 12Little White Salmon Icicle Creek 550,000 March 1968 18.0Little White Salmon Snake River 700,000 April 1968 20.0Little White Salmon Wenatchee River 3,701,000 April 1967 150.0

1967 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 26,000 April 1969 18.0 1,031 1,131'Little White Salmon Wenatchee River 4,397,000 July 1968 412.0Little White Salmon Icicle Creek 727,000 April 1969 18.0Little White Salmon Snake Creek 102,000 May 1969 18.0

1968 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 2,231,000 Sept. 1969 47.0 2,778Little White Salmon Icicle Creek 908,000 April 1970 16.0

1969' Willard & Icicle Icicle Creek 1,457,000 March 1971 15.0 71970 Unknown Icicle Creek 1,102,000 March 1972 15.0 4771971 Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 233,000 May 1972 3130 67

Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 341,000 May 1972 195.0Icicle Creek Icicle Creek 734,000 April 1973 18.0

1972 Willard Icicle Creek 156,000 April 1974 16.0Eagle Creek Snake River 645,000 April 1974 21.0

1973 Eagle Creek Icicle Creek 659,000 April 1975 5.0

Total 27,997,597

'Refers to either river of origin or halchery located on river of origin as listed in Wahle and Smith (1979).'From brood stock intercepted at Rock Island Dam.'Stocked in Wenatchee River below Dryden Dam.'5,000 jacks estimated.'About 1,734,000 fry, progeny of Little White Salmon NFH stock, were released in Icicle Creek in March 1966; little ifany survival was expected.'100 Additional jacks estimated.'About 2 million fry, progeny of Little White Salmon NFH stOCk, were released in Icicle Creek in March 1969; little ifany survival was expected.

started with the construction ofGrand Coulee Dam. Rock Island,Bonneville, and Grand Coulee Damsbegan operation in 1933, 1938, and1941, respectively, and were followedby additional dams (Fig. 1). All ofthese dams have had a detrimentaland cumulative effect on runs of wildfish and returns from hatchery re­leases in the upper and mid-ColumbiaRiver.

Federal Hatcheries

Federal hatcheries were constructednear Leavenworth on Icicle Creek, atributary of the Wenatchee River;near Entiat on the Entiat River; andnear Winthrop on the Methow River.At the time the three hatcheries weredesigned, their projected total pro­duction was estimated at over 100million salmon and steelhead juve­niles. There were limiting deficienciesin the original plans, however, andproduction never reached this level(Fish and Hanavan, 1948). Leaven­worth NFH was the center of the fish­culture operation. Following artificialspawning of the fish, eggs were incu­bated at Leavenworth NFH, and sub­sequently some of the eggs wereshipped to Entiat NFH and WinthropNFH for hatching, rearing, andrelease as fingerlings. Although therehave been many changes over theyears, Leavenworth NFH is still thelargest, with a production capacity ofabout 2.5 million juveniles, followedby Winthrop NFH (I million), andEntiat NFH (0.6 million). Currently,production at the hatcheries is almostexclusively devoted to spring chinooksalmon in keeping with the goals of acomprehensive management plan forthe mid-Columbia River (Mullan,footnote I).

Leavenworth NFH is located about500 miles from the ocean. Holdingponds for retaining adult fish prior tospawning were formed in a Y4-milesection of Icicle Creek bypassed by adiversion canal. Construction of fourdams created three separate river­holding areas. Retrieval of fish wascarried out by seining or various trap­ping schemes either in the holdingareas or the tailrace of the bypassdiversion canal dam.

38

Entiat NFH and Winthrop NFHare located about 490 and 570 milesfrom the ocean, respectively. No pro­visions for holding adult fish were inthe original plans for either hatchery.To remedy this deficiency, holdingponds connected to the rivers by short

fish ladders werre constructed duringWorld War II. In subsequent yearsthese facilities were upgraded on ayear-by-year basis, including con­struction of weirs to divert runs intothe holding ponds.

Propagation of coho salmon at the

Marine Fisheries Review

'Lower Columbia River hatcheries are given in the annual report as the source of eggs; thespecific source, however, is probably the same as the sources given for the same brood year atLeavenworth NFH (Table 2).'About 1,672,000 fry were released in the Entiat River during April 1969; little if any survival wasexpected.

IReters to either river of origin or hatchery located on river of origin as listed in Wahle andSmith (1979).'About 450,000 fry were released in the Methow River during 1965; little if any survival wasexpected.'About 382,000 fry were released in the Methow River during 1966; little if any survival wasexpected.'About 419,000 fry were released in the Methow River during 1967; little if any survival wasexpected.

Table 3.-Releases of coho salmon reared at Entiat National Fishery Hatchery.

Brood Releasesyear Egg source Area Number Date Fish/lb.

1943 Lewis River Entiat River 28,954 1944 91.01944 Lewis River Entiat River 99,485 Oct. 1945 30.01963 Lower Columbia' Entiat River 106,425 March 1965 29.01964 Lower Columbia Entiat River 367,457 Sept. 1965 31.01965 Lower Columbia Entiat River 275,000 June 1966 250.0

Lower Columbia Entiat River 299,855 Sept. 1966 52.01966 Lower Columbia Entiat River 703,146 Oct. 1967 22.01967' Lower Columbia Entiat River 430,564 April 1968 644.0

Lower Columbia Entiat River 452,929 Oct. 1968 32.01968 Little White Salmon Entiat River 588,745 July 1969 167.0

Total 3,352,560

Table 4.-Releases of coho salmon reared at Winthrop National Fishery Hatchery.

Brood Releasesyear Egg source' Area Number Date Fishllb.

1944 Carson Methow River 40,082 Nov. 1945 91.01947 Methow River Methow River 6,203 1949 24.01950 Methow River Methow River 21,255 1952 20.0

Lewis River Methow River 149,578 1952 20.01951 Lewis River Methow River 90,000 1953 15.01952 Lewis River Methow River 94,514 1954 20.01953 Methow River Methow River 6,840 1954 91.01954 Methow River Methow River 1,493 1956 20.01958 Quilcene Methow River 183,691 1959 19.01959 Eagle Creek Methow River 638,039 Sept. 1960 28.01961 Eagle Creek Methow River 327,653 1962 37.01962 Eagle Creek Methow River 1,448,447 1963 44.01963 Big Creek Methow River 824,045 1964 30.01964 Eagle Creek Methow River 1,306,901 1965 40.01965' Little White Salmon Methow River 1,623,178 1966 58.01966' Little White Salmon Methow River 600,284 1967 4801967' Little White Salmon Methow River 400,844 1968 2401968 Little White Salmon Methow River 113,778 1969 30.0

Total 7,876,825

fisheries were evident (Cleaver, 1969;Wahle and Smith, 1979).

This second phase of rearing cohosalmon lasted until 1969 at WinthropNFH and Entiat NFH, and until 1975at Leavenworth NFH, when thesehatcheries concentrated on rearingspring chinook salmon (Smith andWahle, 1981).

About 28 million juvenile cohosalmon, representing 26 brood years,were released from LeavenworthNFH from 1942 to 1975, primarily in­to the Wenatchee River system (Table2). Over 3 million juveniles, represent­ing 8 brood years, were released fromthe Entiat NFH into the Entiat Riverfrom 1944 to 1969 (Table 3). Slightlyless than 8 million juvenile cohosalmon, representing 17 brood years,were released from the WinthropNHF into the Methow River from1945 to 1969 (Table 4).

The coho salmon eggs used at thehatcheries were obtained from adultsfrom many different spawning areas(Tables 2-4). The majority ofjuveniles released were progeny oflower Columbia River stocks becausethe upper and mid-Columbia stockswere too depleted to supply the hatch­eries. Estimates of the abundance ofthese upper and mid-Columbia stockscan be obtained from examination ofthe number of adults migrating pastdams downstream from the hatcherieson the main stem Columbia. In years1933-39, for example, from 10 to 183adult coho salmon were recorded an­nually passing Rock Island Dam atriver mile 453 (Fig. 3). In 1940, 1941,and 1942, when the hatcheries becameoperational, coho salmon trapped atRock Island Dam were 12,29, and 1,respectively. Two females werespawned from the 12 taken in 1940;yielding a release of 5,740 juvenilesfrom Leavenworth NFH into IcicleCreek in spring 1942. Six femaleswere spawned from the 29 fish in­tercepted at Rock Island Dam in1941, and the resulting 11,050juveniles were released into IcicleCreek during the spring of 1943. Therun in 1942 consisted of one fish and,in 1943, the 22 fish collected all died;consequently no eggs were taken ineither year.

but, after a number of years it becameapparent at all Columbia River Basinhatcheries that the survival of ar­tificially propagated salmon and theircontribution to the fisheries were notas large as had been expected.

The second phase of rearing cohosalmon, which began in the early1960's, was related to advances in fishculture, particularly in the areas offish nutrition and feeding, and to achange in philosophy to raising fewerfish to a larger size (Wahle and Smith,1979). During this period, the produc­tion of coho salmon greatly increased,and increases in the survival of hatch­ery fish and their contribution to the

three Federal hatcheries developed intwo phases (Mullan, footnote 1). Thefirst phase began with the completionof the hatcheries in the early 1940's.These hatcheries were a major com­ponent of a program of natural andartificial propagation envisioned inthe Grand Coulee Fish-MaintenanceProject (Fish and Hanavan, 1948).During this period, hatchery opera­tions centered around sockeye andchinook salmon, and relatively fewcoho salmon were produced. In spiteof bottlenecks in the facilities andother unanticipated problems, largenumbers of fish were reared andreleased (Fish and Hanavan, 1948);

46(3) 39

Figure 3. -Comparison of coho salmon adults counted at Rock Island Damand juveniles released from mid-Columbia River hatcheries, brood years1940-81.

1940 1945 1950 1955 1960

ever increasing use of eggs fromnonindigenous stocks that were notadaptable to the mid-Columbia prob­ably led to lower rates of survival thanwere needed to develop viable runs ofcoho salmon.

The return of 125 adults in 1944from the 1941 brood year release(11,050 juveniles) of indigenousstock, discussed previously, was good(1.13 percent). However, the lack ofreturn from the smaller plant (5,740juveniles) of the 1940 brood yearcreated a problem in the establish­ment of a viable run. Low returnsbecame even more of a problem inlater years with increased releases ofnonindigenous stock. Nevertheless, atenuous relation does exist betweenannual coho salmon counts at RockIsland Dam, which rose from lessthan a few hundred fish in the 1940'sto the thousands beginning in themid-1960's, and the second phase ofmore numerous hatchery releases ofjuveniles beginning in the early 1960's(Fig. 3).

The number of adult coho salmonreturning to Icicle Creek and Leaven­worth NFH is shown in Table 2. Thisproduction has been reconstructed byMullan (footnote 1) as follows:

6,000

8,000

12.000

10,000

- 2,000

- 4.000

- 14,000

1980

..II

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I II I

Yi\ ;I I, .I I• I, I, ,, ,t\)l/

l": ,..,

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1965 1970 1975

~.'

BROOD YEAR

I VI. "• I I'• I ..It I •

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fI\. ~c

• ----. JUVENILE RELEASES

C>-+-+--<-+++o ADULT COUNTS

,0,, ,.....n'

t ,500,000

500,000

1,000,000

2,000.000

2,500,000

3,000.000

The point to be emphasized here inrelation to reestablishing the cohosalmon runs by artificial propagationis the different rates of survival of in­digenous and nonindigenous stocks,as documented by Ricker (1972).Coho salmon stocks, like most otheranadromous salmonid stocks, haveevolved over thousands of years todevelop discrete populations, eachwith subtle life history differences,each homing to specific areas. The

"The small lot of silver salmonfingerlings produced from eggs of twofemales spawned in the fall of 1940were liberated on April 28 and neverbecame affected with any disease.Likewise, the silver salmon fingerlingsproduced from the small lot of eggstaken in the fall of 1941 haveoutgrown any other fish on hand andhave never required a treatment ofany kind."

stitute for indigenous stock was ac­cepted with reluctance, Mullan (foot­note 1) noted that in the 1942 annualreport, District Supervisor Kemme­rick, concerned about disease prob­lems at the Leavenworth hatchery,wrote:

The first adult coho salmon fromthese efforts returned to Icicle Creekand Leavenworth NFH in 1944-1253-year-olds and 3 jacks out of the(then) record run of 186 passing RockIsland Dam (Fig. 3). Although the 1253-year-olds were not marked (the 3jacks were marked fish of Lewis Riverstock released earlier in 1944), thesefish were intuitively the adult returnsof the 11,050 juveniles released inspring 1943, which were in turn theprogeny of the 6 females spawned in1941. Sixty-six females were spawnedin 1944 yielding 203,093 eggs andultimately 133,703 fingerlings thatwere released into Icicle Creek in1945.

Subsequent returns to Leavenworthhatchery of later generations of mid­and upper Columbia River stockswere masked by coincidental releasesof progeny of lower Columbia Riverstocks. For example, 166 coho salmonreturned to Leavenworth in 1947,again out of a (then) record count of229 at Rock Island Dam. Thesereturnees are essentially attributableto 1945 releases of progeny of IcicleCreek and Lewis River stocks. Fromthis collection of mixed stockreturnees in 1947, 80 females werespawned, ultimately resulting in arelease of 114,652 fingerlings in 1948.

There are indications that duringthis period the value of using indige­nous stocks for reestablishing the runswas slowly being recognized (Mullan,footnote 1). The authors of theLeavenworth NFH annual reportsstate that coho salmon runs occurredevery third year and that attempts toestablish runs in the off years wereunsuccessful. The 22 adult cohosalmon noted as passing Rock IslandDam in 1943, after the initial intercep­tion and relocation phase of theGrand Coulee Fish-MaintenanceProject was completed, were trappedfor spawning purposes but died priorto use. Early run coho salmon passingBonneville Dam were collected andheld at the old Carson NFH forspawning, but these, too, died. TheWashington Department of Fisheries(WDF) Director's initial offer ofLewis River coho salmon as a sub-

40 Marine Fisheries Review

1966-1,025 adults trapped, withanother 5,000 jacks estimated;1967 -a good run estimated but only461 collected due to washout of thetrap; 1968-2,286 trapped out of anestimated total run of 2,350 fish;1969- run largely blocked because ofconstruction at John Day Dam in thelower Columbia River; 1970-1,031trapped with about 100 adults and 100jacks estimated remaining in IcicleCreek; 1971 - 2,778 trapped; 1972­some fish observed but only a fewentered the trap (this was attributed tohigher-than-normal stream flow);1973 -large number observed spawn­ing in Icicle Creek but only 477 col­lected; and 1974-observations of agood run but trapping abandonedwith only 67 fish collected incidentalto the recovery of chinook salmonspawners.

The survival of hatchery pro­pagated fish from the time of theirrelease to the time of their returnvaries between brood years. Some in­formation on the subject is availablefor Columbia River coho salmon inWahle et al. (1974). Here, juvenilecoho salmon of the 1965-66 broodswere marked at 20 hatcheries, andsurvival rates back to the hatcherieswere 0.9 percent for the 1965 broodand 0.7 percent for the 1966 brood.The rates at Leavenworth NFH were

lower than these averages. The returnof fish to the mid-Columbia hatch­eries, however, does not give the totalpicture of the success of their opera­tion. For example, Fulton and Pear­son (1981) reported good catches ofmarked coho salmon in the riverfishery but no returns to LeavenworthNFH.

Entiat NFH released juvenile cohosalmon in 1944-45 and 1965-69 (Table3). There is no record of a return fromthese releases. The Entiat River,however, did not have a weir near thehatchery to trap and collect adultsalmon during this period, and thereis a possibility that adults did returnto the river but migrated upstreampast the hatchery.

Winthrop NFH released juvenilecoho salmon in 1945, 1949, 1952-54,1956, 1959-60, and 1962-69 (Table 4).The number of returning adults takenat the hatchery was by year: 1947, 41;1950,23; 1953,6; 1954,3; 1962,250.The 250 adults taken in 1962 were apart of the record run at Rock IslandDam (Fig. 3); the 737 fish counted atthe dam was the highest number ofcoho salmon observed in any previousyear since the dam was completed in1933. The years 1947, 1950, 1953,1954, and 1962 were noteworthy atWinthrop NFH because a weir wasused to trap and collect adult fish.

There are no records of coho salmonbeing taken in other years, but weirswere not used in those years and thereis a possibility that adults did returnto the river but migrated past thehatchery.

State Hatcheries

The WDF, in cooperation with theU.S. National Marine Fisheries Serv­ice (NMFS), started to rear salmon inthe early 1960's near Pasco at RingoldSalmon Pond. The facility is a rearingpond, and, during the years 1963-72and 1977-78, juvenile coho salmonwere obtained from hatcheries ontributaries of the lower ColumbiaRiver and reared for release into theriver above McNary Dam (Table 5).In later years, the facility concen­trated on other species.

Propagation of salmon on the mainstem of the mid-Columbia River wasbegun by the WDF and the PUD's ofChelan and Douglas Counties in thelate 1960's to early 1970's (Table 6).Facilities were constructed 1 mileupstream of Rocky Reach Dam atTurtle Rock, adjacent to PriestRapids Dam, and adjacent to WellsDam. The three facilities were de­signed as spawning channels ratherthan conventional hatcheries. Cohosalmon were only reared at TurtleRock and Wells Dam. Initially, eggs

Table 5.-Releases of coho salmon reared atRingold Salmon Pond. Table 5.-Number of coho salmon counted at Rocky Reach and Wells Dams and

Broodnumber of juveniles released from Rocky Reach (Turtle Rock) and Wells rearing

Releases facilities 1970·1983.year Number Date Fish/lb.

Dam counts Brood1962 35,000 Sept. 1963 31 Year Rocky Reach Wells year Number Fish/lb. Facility1963 86,000 Dec. 1964 491964 161,000 Oct. 1965 141 1970 207 54 1967 190,000 26 Wells1965 128,000 Oct. 1966 124 1971 0 154 1968 54,000 25 Rocky Reach1966 None 1972 3,312 584 1969 100,000 25 Rocky Reach1967 322,000 Jan. 1969 15 1973 745 322 1970 736,000 9 Rocky Reach1968 221,000 Mar. 1970 17 1974 10,786 110 1971' 393,000 13 Wells1969 264,000 Jan. 1971 13 1971 388,000 15 Rocky Reach1970 132,000 Feb. 1972 20 1975 6,979 26 1972 276,000 15 Wells1971 None 1972 572,000 14 Rocky Reach1972 None 1976 5,685 97 1973' 420,000 18 Wells1973 None 1973 548,000 13 Rocky Reach1974 None 1977 927 70 1974 402,000 14 Rocky Reach1975 None 1978 1,438 73 1975 584,000 13 Rocky Reach1976 1,029,000' Oct. 1977 31 1979 244 63 1976 512,000 12 Rocky Reach1976 1,102,000 Mar. 1978 9 1980 713 77 1977 640,000 27 Rocky Reach1977 None 1981 522 19 1978 353,000 13 Rocky Reach1978 None 1982 882 337 1979 296,000 12 Rocky Reach1979 None 1980 429,000 13 Rocky Reach1980 None 1981 515,000 16 Rocky Reach1981 None ---

Total 7,408,000Total 3,480,000

lReleased into the upper Yakima River system.'83,000 submigrants (104/1b.) released September 1972 into the Wenatchee River.'504,000 submigrants (525/lb.) released July 1974 into Icicle Creek (Wenatchee River).

46(3) 41

Logging dam at Leavenworth, Wash., in about \908. Cai1 Fishway is on theright; this type of fishway was not always an efficient passageway for salmon.

were hatched at Leavenworth NFHand transferred to the Wells Dam andTurtle Rock facilities for rearing, butin later years eggs or fry were ob­tained from hatcheries on the lowerColumbia River. After some ad­justments in rearing and release ofrelatively large juveniles, success wasreflected in fish counts at dams, par­ticularly the run of 10,788 tallied overRocky Reach Dam in 1974 (Fig. 3).

Compared with the earlier Federalpropagation activities using colderwater, releases of large juveniles(Table 6) were made possible by thewarmer Columbia River water atWells Dam and Turtle Rock rearingfacilities and may account for thesubsequent higher number of adultsat Rock Island Dam. Also, many ofthe small juveniles released from theFederal hatcheries were not regularproduction fish; they were rearedfrom surplus eggs taken at lower Co­lumbia River hatcheries and releasedat submigrant size. The release oflarge juveniles may also have in­fluenced the age composition of re­turning adults. Although the age com­position was never determined, PUDpersonnel observed that the runs wereheavily weighted towards jacks,especially the large escapement of10,788 passing Rocky Reach Dam in1974 (Mullan, footnote 1).

SummaryThere are five major river systems

in the mid-Columbia region: The En­tiat, Methow, Okanogan, Wenatchee,and Yakima. Prior to development ofthe region, all systems except theOkanogan River were known to haverelatively large runs of coho salmon.These runs had probably been in­fluenced by environmental abuses asearly as the last half of the 19th cen­tury - as demonstrated in 1899 by theconstruction of salmon hatcheries toenhance the natural production oflocal stocks.

From 1899 to the time of the con­struction of the Grand Coulee Dam in1941, the only hatcheries in the mid­Columbia were operated by the Stateof Washington and were on theWenatchee and Methow Rivers. Onthe Wenatchee River, the first hatch-

42

ery was constructed in 1899 upstreamof Tumwater Canyon. This hatcherywas closed in 1904 because of the lackof spring chinook salmon, which wasconsidered the most valuable fish forpropagation, and because of prob­lems related to the harsh climate andisolated location of the facility.Reports indicate that some cohosalmon were reared at the hatchery,but they do not give the extent of theproduction. The next, and last, hat­chery on the Wenatchee during thisperiod was built in the town ofLeavenworth in 1913. This hatcheryalso had difficulty obtaining eggs ofspring chinook salmon and was aban­doned in 1931. Records, which areprobably incomplete, show that 2 lotsof coho salmon eggs were collected,30,000 and 38,500, and 1 lot of 3.8million fry was planted that was pro­geny of lower Columbia River stocks.

The first hatchery on the MethowRiver was constructed in 1899 at theconfluence of the Methow and TwispRivers, producing mainly cohosalmon. Its records of production arealso incomplete, but we do know thatfrom 1904 to 1914 almost 12 millioncoho salmon eggs were taken. Thehatchery operation was moved in1915, at which time a dam that didnot have a fishway was constructed atPateros near the mouth of theMethow River. The location of thishatchery was downstream of the dam,

and a total of 3.5 million coho salmoneggs were taken at the site from 1915to 1920. The run of coho salmondeclined, however, and no eggs weretaken after 1920, although the hatch­ery continued to operate until 1931with eggs and fry of other species.

In the 1930's the main stem of theColumbia began to be changed froma free flowing river to a chain of largereservoirs formed by hydroelectricdams. These dams and reservoirs hada detrimental effect on stocks ofanadromous salmon and steelheadthat had already been diminishedthrough other environmental abusesand overfishing, and fish managersturned to artificial propagation tocompensate for the loss of thesevaluable fish.

The next hatcheries were built bythe Federal Government during theearly 1940's after the construction ofthe Grand Coulee Dam which did nothave a fishway. They were operatedby the Interior Department's U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, and werelocated near Leavenworth on IcicleCreek, a tributary of the WenatcheeRiver; near Entiat on the Entiat River;and near Winthrop on the MethowRiver. Leavenworth NFH was thelargest facility, and from 1942 to 1975it released, mainly into the WenatcheeRiver system, about 28.0 millionjuvenile coho salmon. A total ofabout 3.4 million juvenile coho

Marine Fisheries Review

salmon were released from EntiatNFH into the Entiat River from 1944to 1969, and about 7.9 millionjuveniles were released from Win­throp NFH into the Methow Riverfrom 1945 to 1969. Most of these fishwere progeny of lower ColumbiaRiver stocks.

From the early 1940's to the early1960's, the major emphasis at theFederal hatcheries was on rearing ofsockeye and chinook salmon and noton coho salmon. In the early 1960's,however, the propagation of cohosalmon greatly increased because ofimprovements in fish culture and theavailability of large number of eggsfrom the lower Columbia region.Production of the species continueduntil 1969 at Winthrop NFH and En­tiat NFH and until 1975 at Leaven­worth NFH, at which times thesehatcheries concentrated on the rearingof spring chinook salmon.

In the early 1960's, the State ofWashington began to raise salmonand steelhead at a number of newfacilities along the mid-ColumbiaRiver. The first facility to rear cohosalmon was Ringold Salmon Pondnear Pasco. Here, the WDF, incooperation with the NMFS, releaseda total of about 3.5 million juvenilecoho salmon into the river during theyears 1963-72 and 1977-78. The stocksfor the pond were obtained fromhatcheries on tributaries of the lowerColumbia.

In the late 1960's and early 1970's,the WDF, in cooperation with PUD'sof Chelan and Douglas Counties,began to rear fish at three otherfacilities on the main stem of the mid­Columbia River. These facilities weredesigned as spawning channels ratherthan conventional hatcheries and werelocated at Turtle Rock, upstream ofRocky Reach Dam; at Priest RapidsDam; and at Wells Dam. Cohosalmon were only reared at WellsDam and Turtle Rock facilities. Atotal of about 1.3 million juvenilecoho salmon were released from theWells Dam facility into the ColumbiaRiver from 1970 to 1976, and about6.1 million that were reared at TurtleRock were released from 1971 to1983. Initially, eggs were hatched at

46(3)

Leavenworth NFH and then transfer­red to the facilities for rearing; but inlater years, eggs and fry were obtainedfrom hatcheries on the lower Colum­bia River.

In summary, fishery agencies haveoperated salmon hatcheries in themid-Columbia region for nearly acentury; and, although their emphasishas been on the rearing of chinookand sockeye salmon, the total releaseof coho salmon has been tremendous.From 1899 to 1983, for example,hatchery records, which are in­complete, show that about 65.6million juvenile coho salmon werereleased into the Columbia. The suc­cess of this hatchery operation is dif­ficult to evaluate accurately. There isno doubt, however, that over theyears many hundreds of thousandsand perhaps millions of the adultcoho salmon taken by fishermen offthe Washington and Oregon coastsand in the Columbia River originatedin the mid-Columbia hatcheries.

Acknowledgment

We would like to thank James W.Mullan, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv­ice, Leavenworth, Wash., for his rolein the preparation of this article.Mullan's research on the salmonstocks of the mid-Columbia providedus with the impetus to complete thisstudy, and his report, "Ecologicaloverview, coho salmon (Oncorhyn­chus kisutch) propagation, Mid­Columbia River" (footnote 1), pro­vided much of the data and served asthe necessary precursor for our subse­quent paper. Any inaccuracy in thecompilation of hatchery data or in theinterpretation of historical events issolely the responsibility of theauthors.

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Craig, J. A., and R. L. Hacker. 1940. Thehistory and development of the fisheries ofthe Columbia River. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish.49: 133-216.

Fish, F. F., and M. G. Hanavan. 1948. Areport upon the Grand Coulee fish-

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Wahle, R. J., and R. Z. Smith. 1979. Ahistorical and descriptive account of Pacificcoast anadromous salmonid rearing facilitiesand a summary of their releases by region,1%0-76, U.S. Dep. Commer. , NOAA, Natl.Mar. Fish. Servo Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 736, 40p.

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43