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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario
Final Report
Carol Kauppi, Ph.D., DirectorHenri Pallard, Doctorate, LL.B., Associate Director
Emily Faries, Ph.D., Associate Director
withStéphanie St-Pierre, M.A., Research Associate
Roger Gervais, Ph.D., Coordinator and Research AssociateMandy Scott, Indigenous Communications Coordinator
30 June 2015
Poverty, Homelessness and MigrationCentre for Research in Social Justice and Policy
Laurentian UniversitySudbury, Ontario
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario
Final Report
Carol Kauppi, Ph.D., DirectorHenri Pallard, Doctorate, LL.B., Associate Director
Emily Faries, Ph.D., Associate Director
withStéphanie St-Pierre, M.A., Research Associate
Roger Gervais, Ph.D., Coordinator and Senior Research AssociateMandy Scott, Indigenous Communications Coordinator
30 June 2015
Poverty, Homelessness and MigrationCentre for Research in Social Justice and Policy
Laurentian UniversitySudbury, Ontario
How to cite this document:Carol KAUPPI, Henri PALLARD and Emily FAIRIES (2015). Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario. FinalReport. Report prepared for the Cochrane District Social Services Administration Board. Centre forResearch in Social Justice and Policy, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario.
This study was funded in part bythe Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Cochrane District Social Services Administration Board.
Poverty, Homelessness and MigrationPauvreté, sans-abrisme et migration
Centre for Researchin Social Justice and Policy
Laurentian University935 Ramsey Lake RoadSudbury ON P3E 2C6
Tel. 705-675-1151, ext. 5156Fax 705-671-3832
[email protected]/homeless
Centre de rechercheen justice et politique socialesUniversité Laurentienne935, chemin du lac RamseySudbury (Ontario), P3E 2C6
Tél. 705-675-1151, poste 5156Télec. 705-671-3832
[email protected]/sansabri
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people contributed to the success of this project. First and foremost, those who assisted us
included homeless people, service providers and agency personnel and members of the community
in Cochrane. The project was conducted by faculty members and students from the School of Social
Work, the Department of Law and Justice and the Department of Indigenous Human Relations at
Laurentian University and the Department of Indigenous Studies at the University of Sudbury, in
conjunction with key members, staff or volunteers of the Poverty, Homelessness and Migration
Community Advisory Committee in Cochrane, most notably Jack Soloman, Ininew Friendship
Centre, Michael Robin, Ga Beh Shoo In Men’s Shelter and Dave Landers, Cochrane District Social
Services Administration Board. We thank the Ininew Friendship Centre and the Ga Beh Shoo In
Men’s Shelter for providing our project team members with access to space and equipment.
The essential contribution of homeless people in northern communities must be well recognized.
We could not conduct Poverty, Homelessness and Migration without their participation and
willingness to share personal information. The service providers in our communities comprise
another group that has made this study possible. They have assisted in many ways, such as providing
feedback on methodology, facilitating access to service users, collecting information for the study,
and discussing implications and recommendations. The commitment shown by Cochrane service
providers and the town of Cochrane in helping with the project, despite ongoing service pressures,
has been truly remarkable. A comprehensive enumeration of the homeless population could not be
accomplished without their help.
In particular, we gratefully acknowledge the helpful suggestions, comments and assistance of the
following people in various phases of this study:
C Stephanie St. Pierre, PHM Research Associate and Cochrane Study Coordinator;
C Roger Gervais, PHM Coordinator and Senior Research Associate;
C Tyler Horton, PHM Research Assistant;
C Joseph Menzies, PHM Research Assistant;
C Judy Jewell, PHM Research Assistant;
C Graduate and undergraduate students taking courses at Laurentian University and
Université de Hearst, as well as Northern College, and working for Poverty, Homelessness
and Migration in 2013;
C Local residents of Cochrane hired to work as research staff.
iii
HOMELESSNESS IN COCHRANE, ONTARIO
FINAL REPORT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Defining Homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Absolutely homeless. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
At-risk of homelessness (relative homelessness).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Migration or transience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Hidden Homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Estimating Homeless Populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Approach to the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Period Prevalence “Count” or Census of the Homeless Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
The Service-Based Count.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Door-to-Survey—Sampling Strategy.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Unduplicated Count of Homeless People. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Socio-demographic and Health Profile of Homeless Persons in Cochrane:
Characteristics of the Total Homeless Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Receipt of social support/welfare benefits and sources of income. . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Marital/family status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Reasons for homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Reasons for homelessness by gender and cultural group background. . . . . . . . . . 16
Referrals to Other Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Absolute Homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Reasons for absolute homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Referrals to other services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
CONCLUSIONS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
RECOMMENDATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Characteristics of homeless people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 2: Age of homeless people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Table 3: Sources of income for homeless people.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Table 4: Marital status for homeless people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 5: Main reasons for homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 6: Characteristics of absolutely homeless people.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Table 7: Sources of income for absolutely homeless people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 8: Main reasons for absolute homelessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Table 9: Results of the community forum—20 February 2015. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Number of homeless people: at-risk and absolutely homeless. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 2: Referrals reported by homeless persons.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 3: Family status of absolutely homeless people. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Figure 4: Referrals reported by absolutely homeless persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
LIST OF BOXES
Box 1: Main reasons for homelessness by gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Box 2: Main reasons for homelessness among Anglophones,
Francophones and Aboriginals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
vi
HOMELESSNESS IN COCHRANE, ONTARIO
FINAL REPORT
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
An agency survey and an extended door-to-door survey were conducted from 16 July to 2 August
2013. A service-based survey at local agencies began on 27 July. This report provides a detailed
portrait of the homeless population in Cochrane, Ontario by providing information on the following
points:
• the numbers of people who, during that period of time, were at risk of becoming
homeless or were absolutely homeless in Cochrane;
• the background characteristics including children, youth, women, men, subgroups in the
homeless population (i.e. those of Anglo/European origins, Indigenous people, and
Francophones) in Cochrane;
• the sources of income of homeless people in Cochrane;
• reasons for homelessness; and
• trends in referral of homeless people.
Defining Homelessness
The current project adopted an inclusive definition of homelessness by taking into account people
who were vulnerable to becoming homeless in addition to those who were absolutely homeless at
the time of the study. This definition views homeless people as those who are absolutely,
periodically, or temporarily without shelter, as well as those who are at substantial risk of losing
their housing in the immediate future. The broader definition of homelessness enables the
development of strategies to address the problems that go beyond emergency response to deal with
the fundamental causes of homelessness thereby preventing homelessness.
Research Methodology
• A period prevalence count was conducted of the homeless population using emergency
shelters, social service agencies, and other services supporting this population in
Cochrane.
• Research assistants knocked on the door of every fourth home. Low income
neighbourhoods were over-sampled (every door) because of the higher risk of
homelessness in these areas.
vii
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
• The study identified individuals who were absolutely homeless and those who were at
risk of becoming homeless.
• A structured questionnaire was used to obtain information about background
characteristics, types of income support, the main reasons for homelessness, physical and
mental health problems and referral patterns.
• The data collection instrument provided for the identification of unduplicated cases.
Key Findings
• Six hundred and forty-nine (649) individuals participated in the study. More than
two-thirds (69%, n=450) of the participants were in the door-to-door survey while close
to a third (31%, n=199) completed the questionnaire as part of the agency period
prevalence count.
Total homeless population
• The total homeless population was composed of 313 individuals: 174 adults and 139
children.
• The homeless persons who participated in the study included 47 absolutely
homeless—including 30 children—and 266 persons at high risk of becoming homeless.
• Most of the homeless participants were experiencing extreme poverty and were at high
risk of homelessness.
• Women and girls comprised a slight majority of the homeless persons (53% females
versus 47% males).
• The average age of adolescents or women using services (over 15) was 47—the same as
the average age for the men.
• Indigenous people are greatly over-represented amongst homeless people; they made up
well over a third (41.2%) of the homeless population but constitute only 19% of the
population in Cochrane according to Statistics Canada (2011).
• French-speaking people were greatly under-represented amongst homeless people
(13.5%) compared to their proportion in the general population of Cochrane (37.5%)
according to the 2011 Census (Statistics Canada, 2012).
• A substantial proportion of homeless people were adults between 20 and 59 years of age
(44.1%) but close to half were infants, children or adolescents (46.9%). When infants,
children, adolescents and women are combined, they comprised over three-quarters of
the total homeless population (77.2%).
viii
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
• A quarter of the participants reported that their main source of financial support was the
Canada Pension Plan and Old Age Security, a fifth received income support from the
Ontario Disabilities Support Program (ODSP).
• The overall proportion of homeless people not reporting the receipt of any income was
approximately 12 percent.
• The majority of homeless people are single/unattached or divorced/widowed.
• The most cited reason for homelessness was physical or mental illness.
• The central reasons for homelessness stem from the structural/systemic problems of
unemployment, problems with social assistance, and the lack of affordable housing
(58%).
Absolute homelessness
• Most absolutely homeless people (53%) completed questionnaires through the door-to-
door survey.
• There were significantly more men than women among those who were absolutely
homeless (60.9% men versus 39.1% women).
• Anglophones and Francophones of European origins were under-represented, while
Indigenous people were greatly over-represented (nearly two-thirds of those absolutely
without housing).
• The age range amongst the participants who were absolutely homeless was 17 to 67 and
the dependents ranged in age from 0 to 19. The absolutely homeless included 30
children.
• The absolutely homeless group included 17 children under age 12 (37.7% of absolutely
homeless persons). In addition, 11 adolescents aged 13 to 19 were absolutely homeless
(24% of this subsample). Children and youth up to the age of 19 constitute
approximately 64% of the absolutely homeless population in Cochrane.
• Women, children and youth represent over three-quarters (77.7%) of the absolutely
homeless population.
• Over one-third (35.6%) of the absolutely homeless people were adults aged 20 and over.
• Nearly three-quarters (70.6%) of those who were absolutely homeless were
single/unattached individuals.
• Well over a third of absolutely homeless participants indicated that they had no source
of income. Over a third (35.2%) indicated that their main sources of income were
Ontario Works or Ontario Disabilities Support Program.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
• Participants (67.2%) cited structural problems such as unemployment (n=17, 34.6%),
lack of affordable housing (n=10, 20.4%) and lack of access to social assistance and
poverty (n=6, 12.2%) as the primary causes of absolute homelessness.
• Only a third (35%) of absolutely homeless persons were reportedly referred to other
service providers to assist with the problems they were experiencing.
Recommendations
Twenty-eight recommendations were identified on the basis of the findings of the Cochrane study
and prior research on homelessness in Sudbury. These recommendations were reviewed and
prioritized by18 participants at a Community Forum in Cochrane on 19 February 2015. The
participants collectively identified 28 recommendations as relevant for Cochrane. The top five
recommendations focus on remedying the lack of affordable housing, addressing food security,
providing assistance to shelters, and developing long-term strategies for addressing housing.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
INTRODUCTION
On a per capita basis, poverty, housing need and homelessness are as acute in northern communities
as in the southern regions of Canada and they have been persistent problems through times of
economic boom and bust. While little information is available about homelessness in many
communities within northeastern Ontario, we know that the extent and nature of the homelessness
problem in Sudbury remained largely unchanged between 2000 and 2009 (Kauppi, Gasparini,
Pallard, Garg, Montgomery & Webster, 2009). However, the quality of housing available to low
income people has deteriorated since 2000 given low rental vacancy rates, strong rental demand and
increases in rents (CMHC, 2011).
Knowledge about the size of homeless populations, characteristics of homeless people and living
circumstances within small towns in northern regions of Canada is limited and superficial. Those
who have not experienced homelessness, including service providers who support this population,
often have difficulty in comprehending the nature of the challenging life experiences and
circumstances and their varied impacts on homeless persons. Given the human and systemic costs,
it is vital to acquire a better understanding of homelessness within cities in northern regions of
Ontario in order to ensure that people’s needs are met. In addition, research on issues of deep
poverty and homelessness can support local initiatives to make positive changes, including advocacy
for policies that can prevent and eliminate homelessness.
One objective of Poverty, Homelessness and Migration (PHM) is to examine the extent and nature
of homelessness in northeastern Ontario communities in order to gain a better understanding of the
issues related to forms of homelessness including absolute homelessness and near homelessness and
patterns of migration and transience. A second major objective is to develop recommendations for
change. This report addresses the findings from the period prevalence count conducted in the
community of Cochrane in January 2013.
Defining Homelessness
Within the literature on homelessness, varied terms are used to describe differing housing and
shelter situations. The Canadian Homelessness Research Network (CHRN, 2012) developed a
comprehensive typology of homelessness that includes four major categories; homeless persons may
be i) unsheltered, ii) emergency sheltered, iii) provisionally accommodated, and iv) at risk of
homelessness. The first two categories refer to circumstances for those who are often absolutely
without housing. The third and fourth categories describe the varied circumstances for persons
whose shelter arrangements lack permanence and those who are at risk of becoming homeless.
1
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Terms used to refer to persons in the latter two categories include technically homeless, near
homeless, precariously housed, provisionally or temporarily accommodated, inadequately housed,
at risk or at imminent risk. Those at risk of being homeless are also described as relatively homeless
(Peressini, McDonald and Hulchanski, 2010). These categories correspond to the definition of
homelessness developed in Europe by the Federation européenne d’associations nationales
travaillant avec les sans-abri or FEANTSA1 (2005).
In the current study, the terms at risk, high risk, near homeless and relatively homeless are used
synonymously. Like the earlier studies on homelessness in Sudbury (Kauppi, Gasparini & Pallard,
2009), the current project adopted an inclusive definition of homelessness by taking into account
people who were precariously housed and vulnerable to becoming homeless in addition to those who
were absolutely homeless at the time of the study. As Peressini, McDonald and Hulchanski (2010,
p. 2) have noted, the use of “relative definitions”, which are broad and inclusive, can ensure that the
study includes a “representative sample of all the constituent groups”. The broader definition of
homelessness enables the development of strategies to address the problems that go beyond
emergency response to deal with the fundamental causes of homelessness thereby preventing
homelessness.
Absolutely homeless
We defined absolute homelessness as situations in which a homeless person does not have a place
that he/she considers to be home or a place where he/she sleeps regularly. The questionnaire
included the following examples of absolute homelessness:
C no place to call home;
C home is neither a room, an apartment, nor a house;
C residing in a room, apartment or house that is not one's own;
C staying there four times a week or less;
C having no arrangement to sleep there regularly.
At-risk for homelessness (relative homelessness)
Due to particular circumstances, a person is at an elevated risk for homelessness (i.e. pending
eviction, extremely low income, familial abuse, inability to pay rent, existing medical condition with
no benefits, etc.). As Peressini et al. (2010) observed, studies employing relative definitions must
1 The English name of the organization is Federation of European National AssociationsWorking with the Homeless.
2
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
sample from a wide range of locations to cover the greatest number of sites where persons at risk
of homeless may be found.
Migration or transience
Transience was described by Pollio (1997) as comprising four dimensions based on the concepts of
migration, duration, intention and involvement. We adopted this definition in our 2009 survey of
homeless people in Sudbury (Kauppi et al., 2009), but we also drew on the earlier work of Rahimian
et al. (1992) who argued that definitions of migration used for domiciled populations may not be
helpful in understanding migration among homeless persons. Building on a study by Rahimian et
al. (1992), our definition of migration includes three groups: individuals who have been in the
community less than one year are viewed as recent migrants, those who have been in the community
between one to five years are considered to be intermediate-term migrants and stayers have been in
the community more than five years.
Hidden Homelessness
It is difficult to identify the hidden homeless population. This subgroup of the homeless may include
people who “double up” by permitting a homeless person to live with them. Some consider doubling
up or “double bunking” to be a type of homelessness since it can create housing situations involving
overcrowding. A key factor that may create a challenge in counting the “hidden homeless” is the
reluctance of low income residents in subsidized housing units to reveal how they are “doubling up”
because of fear that they will be penalized if the housing authority were to find out that someone was
staying with them. “Double bunking” is often not permitted by public housing authorities. The study
of homelessness in Cochrane included the hidden homeless who accessed services during the week
of the period prevalence count. In addition, conducting the door-to-door survey enabled people to
include information about individuals who were among the hidden homeless residing temporarily
with others. Therefore, those who did not use services had an opportunity to participate in the study.
Estimating Homeless Populations
Numerous challenges have been described in the literature on defining homelessness, counting or
estimating the size of the homeless population, and determining an appropriate methodology for
studying homeless people (Cronley, 2010; Lee et al., 2010; Toro, 2007). Research in this area
continues to be somewhat problematic (Counting Homelessness, 2010). A key problem is that
particular subgroups in the population are not captured in “homeless counts” that use particular types
3
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
of methodologies, such as 24-hour counts and studies that focus on homeless persons who live on
the streets (i.e., rough sleepers).
Some researchers, such as those conducting research on homelessness in Canadian cities such as
Edmonton (2010), Prince George (2010) and Vancouver (2011), have opted to conduct their count
of homeless people by collecting data on a single day (17 to 24 hours). A recent count in Calgary
(2012) was conducted over five hours in shelters and on the streets, with a focus on a subgroup of
absolutely homeless people. While this approach reduces the time and effort required to collect the
data, it produces a more conservative estimate of the number of homeless people, since individuals
who are not visible on the streets or using services on the day of the count will be excluded.
The work of Peressini et al. (2010) is useful in that it reviewed methods for counting homeless
people and reported that “service-based methods produce the most accurate and reliable results”.
Indeed, they state such service-based methods reportedly produce more accurate population
estimates than the Canadian Census. Moreover, collecting data at varied services such as shelters,
health and social services, soup kitchens, thrift stores and drop-in centres captures nearly all of the
urban homeless population (90% to 95%). Peressini et al. (1996) noted that, since the late 1980s,
there has been a tendency to utilize a variation of the service-based methodology in most studies
involving counts of homeless people.
The study in Cochrane sought to include all agencies and programs in the city that provide services
to people experiencing forms of homelessness because it has the potential to capture most of the
population. The current study draws on the same methodology used in nine studies conducted on
homelessness in Sudbury (2000-2009), in the one in Timmins (2011) and the one in North Bay
(2011). In Cochrane, service providers were asked to provide the information on homeless people
using their services during a one-week period of the study in July 2013. They collected this
information from clients who consented to provide it.
In addition, in Hearst (2011), Moosonee (2012) and Cochrane (2013), a door-to-door community
survey was conducted simultaneously with the agency period prevalence count. The use of the same
methodology allows for the examination of basic trends in homelessness.
The data collection instrument used in conducting the unduplicated count was designed to gather
the same information as in the prior studies in Northern Ontario, but was refined to improve
recording procedures and to gather some additional data. The data collection instrument
differentiated between people who were absolutely homeless and those who were at high risk of
homelessness and collected information on background characteristics, receipt of income support,
4
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
and the main reasons for homelessness. In addition, the questionnaire gathered information about
the physical and mental health problems experienced by homeless people, as well as migration
patterns. The project was approved by Laurentian University's Research Ethics Board.
Overview
This report describes the following:
• the number of people who were homeless in Cochrane, including those who were
absolutely homeless;
• breakdowns on background characteristics including children, youth, women, men,
subgroups in the population (i.e. those of Anglo/European origins, Indigenous people,
and Francophones);
• sources of income;
• reasons for homelessness; and
• trends in referral of homeless people.
METHODOLOGY
Approach to the Study
In order to provide accurate data and estimates that reflect the extent of homelessness in the
community, our methodology consequently utilized a service-based method, extended to a full week
of data collection in order to maximize the number of people included in the study. The agency
survey and extended door-to-door survey was conducted from 16 July to 2 August 2013. The
service-based survey at local agencies began on 27 July. The study focussed on obtaining a count
of the homeless population using agencies such as emergency shelter, health and social service
agencies, and other services supporting this population in Cochrane as well as gathering information
on their characteristics, reasons for homelessness and migration patterns.
Period Prevalence “Count” or Census of the Homeless Population
A preliminary list of providers was developed and then expanded through consultations with local
organizations in order to ensure that organizations serving this population would be invited to
participate. Searches were conducted to identify and locate additional services such as food banks.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Using the internet, telephone directories and the network of identified service providers, a list of 11
services was generated. A letter explaining the objectives of the study and the need for participation
from all providers was delivered to the agencies along with a copy of the data collection instrument
to be used for the count. Every provider was subsequently contacted by telephone in order to set a
date and time for a meeting to review the information to be collected in the study and to determine
how the data could be collected from each agency.
We worked with local service providers in order to obtain an accurate snapshot of the homeless
population during a one-week period. Given the inherent difficulties in studying homeless people,
as noted above, it must be recognized that any count will produce an under-estimate of the total
homeless population. Nevertheless, by securing the participation of a majority of the service
providers in Cochrane, combined with a door-to-door community survey, a reasonable estimate was
obtained.
The data collection instrument consisted of a questionnaire for collecting information from each
homeless person (see explanation in the following section).
The Service-Based Count
By gathering detailed information about each individual accessing services in the shelter and allied
services for seven consecutive days, we were able to identify the number of repeat service users and
unique cases. Continuing the data collection for a one-week period captures a more accurate “snap-
shot” of the homeless population. Including the service providers in the study reduced the
intrusiveness for some who preferred to complete the survey with a service provider.
However, due to limited staff resources available to perform this task and service pressures for some
agencies, PHM research assistants collected data at some agency locations. The research staff
received training in all aspects of data collection, with an emphasis on ethical issues such as
confidentiality; the research assistants were closely supervised to ensure that the study protocols
were followed. The research team included Francophone, Anglophone and Indigenous people. An
Indigenous staff person spoke Cree fluently and he provided translation services for two participants.
The team of research assistants collected data both within agency settings and within the
community-based door-to-door survey.
The methodology used in this study was designed to obtain an unduplicated count of the homeless
population in Cochrane. The data collection was operationalized by using a questionnaire that
allowed us to gather information about each one of the homeless people using the service. Some
6
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
individuals did not want to provide information about themselves, however, the PHM staff person
who supervised the data collection observed that the majority of people using services were willing
to participate. The following excerpts from field notes indicate some of the reasons why the count
may underestimate the extent of homelessness; they also show why some people opted not to
participate in the study while others were pleased to have an opportunity to share their experiences
and views.
One of the participating organizations is a multi-service agency. Some services are
accessed directly at the agency while others are accessed in locations away from the
agency. Some employees did not bring copies of the survey instruments when they
met clients outside of the office.
The staff noticed many refusals throughout the day at one service location, mostly
due to the fact that people were in a rush.
One of the research assistants is also a volunteer at a local service organization and
was well known by both staff and people who accessed services. Her presence
greatly benefited the project, making everyone more at ease.
Hence, while the method is appropriate and captures most of the homeless population, it is likely
that the results provide a conservative estimate of the extent of homelessness in Cochrane. In
addition, some agencies did not participate in the study which may impact on the results. For
example, a key agency was closed for vacation during the week of the study. However it is also
possible that, for example, some of the same people utilize the services of non-participating agencies
and participating agencies, thereby enabling them to be included in the study.
Questionnaire
The data collection tool was designed to obtain information providing a valid, unduplicated count
of the homeless population without raising concerns about violating the privacy rights of individuals
using services. The data collection tool utilized was originally adapted from the Automated National
Client-specific Homeless services Recording System (ANCHoR). The ANCHoR recording system
is an information system designed to support the coordination of services to the homeless. It was
designed to collect basic socio-demographic information about the consumers using the services,
including the first, middle, and last initials, date of birth, gender, ethnicity/race or cultural group,
linguistic orientation, marital status, date of entry or use of services and referral (Peressini,
McDonald and Hulchanski; 1996). We also gathered information on employment, education, welfare
7
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
status and income, reasons for homelessness, physical and mental health, history of homelessness
and migration patterns.
Door-to-Door Survey— Sampling Strategy
Maps of the town were provided by the Town of Cochrane; regions within each of these maps were
numerically sectioned and assigned to the teams working on the community survey. In our studies
of homelessness in Sudbury, low income neighbourhoods were over-sampled in order to better
ensure that data were collected from people who were among the hidden homeless. Many of
Cochrane’s neighbourhoods contain a mix of older and newer homes. It was not always possible to
identify low income areas. However, two trailer parks outside the town were included. Social
housing units and the downtown area were over-sampled.
In order to obtain a systematic sample, research assistants knocked on the door of every fourth
home. A tracking system was used to return to any address up to three times in instances where no
one answered the door. Low income neighbourhoods were over-sampled (every door) because of
the higher risk of homelessness in these areas.
Sixteen research assistants were trained to gather data and the door-to-door survey was conducted
between July 16th to August 2nd. When sampling a section, the researchers were paired together to
form teams of two. The teams selected every third street and knocked at every fourth door on the
street. All areas of Cochrane were included in the study and a systematic sample of households was
obtained.
RESULTS
Unduplicated Count of Homeless People
The data collection instrument provides for the identification of unduplicated cases. An unduplicated
count was obtained by examining the first, middle, and last initials as well as the date of birth and
gender; individuals with identical information were considered to be the same person and the
duplicated information was eliminated from further analysis. Most individuals provided all of the
information required to identify duplicate cases.
8
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
The raw numbers (duplicated and unduplicated cases) from the count of homeless people, conducted
by service providers and the door-to-door survey, indicated that there were 653 participants. This
number included 4 duplicate cases which were removed from the analysis. The number of different
individuals participating in the study was 649. More than two-thirds (69%, n=450) of the
participants were in the door-to-door survey while close to a third (31%, n=199) completed the
questionnaire as part of the agency period prevalence count.
The homeless population of 313 individuals included 174 adults and 139 children. In addition, it
should be noted that parents using services identified three dependent children who were over the
age of 20. In the current study; we used the age of 20 as the cut-off to define dependent children.
Thus, the analysis of the background information indicated that there were 313 different individuals
who were homeless during the week of the study and used the services of an agency or participated
in the study through the door-to-door survey. The homeless persons who participated in the study
included 47 absolutely homeless—including 30 children—and 266 persons at high risk of becoming
homeless. Those absolutely without housing constituted a sixth (15%) of the homeless people
identified by the participating agencies or in the door-to-door survey. Most of the homeless
participants were in the category of people experiencing extreme poverty and high risk of
homelessness (see Figure 1).
9
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Socio-Demographic and Health Profile of Homeless Persons in Cochrane:
Characteristics of the Total Homeless Population
Table 1 provides a socio-demographic profile of the homeless persons in the sample and shows that
women and girls comprised a slight majority of the homeless persons (53% females versus 47%
males). One participant had a transgender child and another did not know the gender of the child she
was expecting.
Table 1: Characteristics of homeless people
N %
Gender
Female 157 53
Male 144 47
Groups:
Anglophone/European 76 44.7
Francophone/European 23 13.5
Indigenous/First Nations 70 41.2
When taking into account the age groups of men and women, several studies in Sudbury have shown
that there was a gender difference in homelessness among adults. An examination of the average
(mean) age of homeless men and women had indicated that there was a significant gender difference
in the age of homeless people in Sudbury, wherein the average age of women was consistently lower
compared to men. This was not the case in the Cochrane study. The average age of adolescents or
women using services (over 15) was 47—the same as the average age for the men. At 47, the
average age of the men and women experiencing homelessness in Cochrane was higher than was
found in our study in Timmins in 2011, where the average age was 43. It is worth noting that two
young people under the age of majority (18 in Ontario) were accessing services and participated in
the study.
With regard to the self identification of Indigenous heritage or linguistic/cultural backgrounds
(Anglophone or Francophone), most homeless people reported that they were Anglophones or
Francophones of European origins, compared with visible minorities or Indigenous (see Table 1).
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
However, it is important to note that Indigenous people are greatly over-represented amongst
homeless people; they made up well over a third (41.2%) of the homeless population. According to
Statistics Canada (2011), the 2011 census data have indicated that the Indigenous people, including
North American Indigenous and Metis, made up 19% of the population in Cochrane. Indigenous
people were over-represented in the homeless population by a factor greater than two (2.42).
In contrast to Indigenous people, while French-speaking people were also a minority in the
population, they were greatly under-represented amongst homeless people (13.5%) compared to
their proportion in the general population of Cochrane. Francophones comprised 37.5% of the total
population, according to the 2011 Census (Statistics Canada, 2012). The number of homeless people
who were members of visible minority groups was extremely small (not shown). This finding
reflects the small proportion of people from visible/racialized minorities in the local population (.4%
according to the 2011 Census).
The overall age distribution2 of homeless people showed that the range was from early infancy to
age 91 (Table 2). There were many children under 10 years old among the homeless population
(22.7% of the homeless). Moreover, young people aged 10 to 19 also represented a substantial
proportion of the homeless, at 24.3%. Relatively few people aged 60 and older were identified
among the homeless population (12.9%), but this proportion was higher than we found in Timmins
(8.5%). Thus, a substantial proportion of homeless people were adults between 20 and 59 years of
age (44.1%) but close to half were infants, children or adolescents (46.9%). When infants, children,
adolescents and women are combined, they comprised over three-quarters of the total homeless
population (77.2%).
2 Numbers and percentages are based on available data for gender (n=301), age ofparticipants and their children (n=309) and cultural group of participants (n=170) ; missing data arewithin accepted parameters.
11
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Table 2: Age of homeless people
Age N %
0 - 4 41 17.6
5 - 9 29 9.1
10 - 14 37 9.8
15 - 19 38 7.9
20 - 24 12 5.7
25 - 29 9 5.5
30 - 34 15 6.8
35 - 39 16 5.4
40 - 44 12 5.8
45 - 49 24 6.1
50 - 54 20 6.7
55 - 59 16 5.1
60 + 40 2.2
Receipt of social support/welfare benefits and sources of income
The main source of financial support received from government sources was the Canada Pension
Plan and Old Age Security as reported by a quarter of the participants (see Table 3). Secondly, over
a fifth (21.9%) of the participants stated that they were receiving income support from the Ontario
Disabilities Support Program (ODSP). The third largest source of income was employment, cited
by 11% of homeless people. Employment income included sources such as part-time, seasonal,
temporary or self-employment. The next main source of financial support was Ontario Works
(9.7%) followed by employment Insurance (EI) or WSIB as reported by 7.5%. Other sources of
income came from a variety of non governmental support such as private pension plans or financial
support from family members as well as some types of government programs such as funding for
war veterans or the child tax credit.
Further analysis of the sources of income indicates that the overall proportion of homeless people
not reporting the receipt of any income was approximately 12 percent. Those reporting that they had
12
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
no income were between the ages of 17 and 77. However, a larger proportion of young people (17
to 24) indicated that they were not receiving any type of income support (30%) compared to other
age groups (e.g. 15% for 25 to34 year olds and 22% for 35 to 44 year olds).
Table 3: Sources of income for homeless people
Sources of Income N %
Canada Pension Plan or Old Age Security 55 24.1
Ontario Disabilities Support Program 50 21.9
No income 29 12.7
Employment including part time and seasonal 26 11.5
Ontario Works 22 9.7
Employment Insurance or WSIB 16 7.0
Other (private pension, War Veterans
Allowance, support from family, sale of
personal assets)
30 13.1
Results are based on multiple responses as some participants reported more
than one source of income. Percentages may not sum to 100 due to rounding
error.
Marital/family status
The findings of the study reinforce those of our previous studies on homelessness in northeastern
Ontario indicating that the majority of homeless people are single/unattached or divorced/widowed
(see Table 4). Less than a third of those in the study reported that they were married or in a common
law relationship.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Table 4: Marital status for homeless people
Marital status N %
Single 80 46.0
Married/common law 56 32.2
Divorced/Widowed 38 21.8
Reasons for homelessness
Table 5 summarizes the main reasons for homelessness in Cochrane.The participants were asked
to identify all relevant reasons for homelessness; thus, the number of responses is larger than the
number of participants. The single reason for homelessness that was cited most oftern was physical
or mental illness. Physical illness was mentioned most often (59 individuals), while fewer stated that
the reason for homelessness was mental illness (11).
Taken together, the central reasons stem from the structural/systemic problems of unemployment,
problems with social assistance, and the lack of affordable housing (58%). These issues accounted
for the largest proportion of homelessness from the perspectives of the participants. In providing
reasons for homelessness, the largest number of people indicated that they could not find work or
an adequate level of employment. Thus unemployment, underemployment, lay-off or seasonal work
(n=29), as well as low wages or lack of money (n=29) were identified as among the central reasons
for homelessness.
Secondly, a substantial proportion of homeless people cited problems with social assistance. They
mentioned that social assistance payments were inadequate to live on (n=15), that they did not
qualify for benefits (n=7), that their benefits had been cut (n=7) or that their payments from social
assistance were late (n=2).
With regard to the third set of reasons for homelessness, housing problems, 27 individuals reported
that they were unable to pay their rent (or in a few cases, a mortgage, maintenance or utilities) while
another 13 people had been evicted from their homes and a few others were staying temporarily with
others. Participants stated that they were having problems with the landlord, family members,
neighbours, former partners, or that they could not obtain suitable or affordable housing.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Table 5: Main reasons for homelessness
Reasons for homelessnessa N %
Illness or mental illness 69 29.9
Problems with work
• Unemployment
• Seeking work
• Low wages
• No money
58 25.1
Problems with housing
• Unable to pay rent or mortgage
• Evicted or kicked out
• Housing not adequate
45 19.5
Problems with social assistance
• Welfare not adequate/late
• Social assistance cut
• Waiting for disability pension
• Does not qualify for OW
31 13.4
Domestic violence and family issues (including divorce) 14 6.1
Substance use 6 2.5
Out of jail 3 1.3
Travelling/transient/relocated, transferred or moving 2 0.9
Other 3 1.3
Total responses 231 100
a Results are based on multiple responses. Percentages may not sum to
100 due to rounding error.
Family problems, including domestic violence and divorce, were reasons cited by 6 percent of the
participants. In most cases a general response indicating “family issues” was given. Divorce or
separation was reported by 6 individuals as being directly linked to their homelessness.
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Substance use was reported as a cause of homelessness by a few individuals (6) in the study. Finally,
the number of people citing release from jail (n=3) or transience, relocation, or moving (n=2) was
relatively small (about 7%). The reasons included in “other” were not unimportant even though they
were not mentioned by many people. They pertained to stereotyping and racism against Indigenous
people, being in temporary care (i.e., child welfare), and housing rules and regulations that were
barriers to obtaining housing.
Reasons for homelessness by gender and cultural group background
Boxes 1 and 2 list, in order of importance, the main reasons for homelessness among subgroups
based on gender and background (Anglophone, Francophone or Indigenous). The results reinforce
the view that there are more commonalities than differences in the main reasons for homelessness
among the various subgroups.
Structural problems were cited as the main reason for homelessness by all subgroups of homeless
people. Without exception, all of these subgroups reported unemployment, problems with social
assistance and problems with housing as being among the main reasons for homelessness. The order
of reasons given, based on the number of participants citing each reason, was identical for men and
women. However, illness and problems with social assistance were cited by larger proportions of
women than men.
Problems with obtaining, retaining or paying for housing were identified more often by Indigenous
people than by Anglophones and Francophones. Some individuals specifically mentioned that
stereotyping and discrimination against Indigenous people was an issue when seeking housing or
employment. The relative importance of physical or mental illness compared to other reasons listed
in the top five was more prominent amongst Anglophones. Illness was the second issue cited by
Francophones and the third issue mentioned by Indigenous people. Men and women as well as all
three cultural groups cited unemployment as a key issue and it was within the top two reasons given
for homelessness.
Problems with social assistance were mentioned as a slightly more prominent issue amongst
Francophphones compared with the other groups shown in Boxes 1 and 2. However, all groups
mentioned this as an issue.
16
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Box 1: Main reasons for homelessness by gender
Men
(adults)
Women
(adults)
Physical or mental illness
Unemployment/seeking work
Housing issues/inability to pay
rent/mortgage
Problems with social assistance
Unemployment/seeking work
Physical or mental illness
Unemployment/seeking work
Housing issues/inability to pay rent/mortgage
Problems with social assistance
Unemployment/seeking work
Box 2: Main reasons for homelessness
among Anglophones, Francophones and Indigenous People
Anglophones Francophones Indigenous
Physical or mental illness
Unemployment/seeking work
Housing issues/inability to
pay rent/mortgage
Problems with social
assistance
Family issues/domestic
violence/divorce
Unemployment/seeking work
Physical or mental illness
Problems with social
assistance
Housing issues/inability to
pay rent/mortgage
Family issues/domestic
violence/divorce
Housing issues/inability to
pay rent/mortgage
Unemployment/seeking work
Physical or mental illness
Problems with social
assistance
Family issues/domestic
violence/divorce
Referrals to Other Services
Most of the study participants stated that they had not been referred to services to assist with their
living circumstances (see Figure 2). Less than a third reported that they had been referred (31%).
Among those who were referred, the largest number were directed to government income support
programs such as Ontario Works, Ontario Disabilities Support Program, Employment Insurance,
Canada Pension Plan or student loans (n=20, 38%). Participants had also been referred to area food
17
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
banks (17%) or to health services (17%). A small number (n=6) stated that they were given
information about services for Indigenous people. Only two individuals were referred to shelter or
housing services. Other participants were directed to child welfare, counselling or employment
training.
Absolute Homelessness
Four of the agencies/services that participated in the survey identified one or more absolutely
homeless people. The agencies included the food bank, services for housing or shelter, Aboriginal
people, and social services. However, most absolutely homeless people (53%) completed
questionnaires through the door-to-door survey.
Table 6 compares the characteristics of the adult homeless (i.e. over age 17) who were absolutely
without housing in the study. The age groups for dependent children/adolescents are also shown.
The analysis indicated that there were significantly more men than women among those who were
absolutely homeless (60.9% men versus 39.1% women). Comparing the proportions of
Anglophones, Francophones and Indigenous people within the general population and in the study,
the results indicate that Anglophones and Francophones of European origins were under-
represented, while Indigenous people were greatly over-represented (nearly two-thirds of those
absolutely without housing). Absolutely homeless Indigenous people included those who self-
identified as First Nations, Cree or Ojibway.
18
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Table 6: Characteristics of absolutely homeless people
N %
Gender:
Female 18 39.1
Male 28 60.9
Groups
Indigenous 11 68.8
Anglophone 4 25.0
Francophone 1 6.3
Age (including dependent children)
0 - 4 4 8.9
5 - 9 9 20.0
10 - 14 8 17.8
15 - 19 8 17.8
20 - 24 1 2.2
25 - 29 2 4.4
30 - 34 2 2.2
35 - 39 3 6.6
40 - 44 1 2.2
45 - 49 4 8.9
50 - 54 1 2.2
55 - 59 0 0
60 + 2 4.4
Missing data are within accepted parameters. May not
sum to 100 due to rounding error.
The analysis of age includes children in order to provide for an overview of the full age range of this
population. The range amongst the participants was 17 to 67 and the dependents ranged in age from
19
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
0 to 19. The absolutely homeless included 30 children (the age was missing for one child and one
adult participant).
The absolutely homeless group included 17 children under age 12 (37.7% of absolutely homeless
persons). In addition, 11 adolescents aged 13 to 19 were absolutely homeless (24% of this
subsample). It is remarkable that children and youth up to the age of 19 constitute approximately
64% of the absolutely homeless population in Cochrane. Furthermore, women, children and youth
represent over three-quarters (77.7%) of the absolutely homeless population.
Along with the large proportion of homeless children and youth, over one-third (35.6%) of the
absolutely homeless people were adults aged 20 and over. Two older adults, above age 60, were
among those absolutely without housing.
With regard to family status, nearly three-quarters (70.6%) of those who were absolutely homeless
were single/unattached individuals while, additionally, 17.6% were divorced, separated or widowed
(see Figure 2). Only two individuals among those who were absolutely homeless were in marital or
cohabiting relationships.
Table 7 shows the sources of income for those who were absolutely homeless. Well over a third
indicated that they had no source of income. The main sources of income were Ontario Works or
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Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Ontario Disabilities Support Program; these types of government support were received by over a
third (35.2%). Only two individuals were receiving employment income and two were receiving
retirement benefits from CPP or from a private pension.
Table 7 : Sources of income for absolutely homeless people
Sources of Income N %
No income 7 41.2
Ontario Works 3 17.6
ODSP 3 17.6
Employment 2 11.8
CPP 1 5.9
OAS – –
Other (private pension) 1 5.9
Reasons for absolute homelessness
As noted above, the questionnaire allowed participants to indicate multiple reasons for
homelessness. Therefore, the number of responses is greater than the number of participants
(dependent children are not included in this analysis). The main reasons for absolute homelessness
were based on the perceptions of the homeless individuals, which are listed in Table 8.
21
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Table 8: Main reasons for absolute homelessness
Reasons for homelessnessa N %
Problems with work
• Unemployment
• Seeking work
• Low wages
• No money
17 34.6
Problems with housing
• Unable to pay rent or mortgage
• Evicted or kicked out
• Housing not adequate
10 20.4
Illness or mental illness 7 14.3
Problems with social assistance
• Welfare not adequate/late
• Social assistance cut
• Waiting for disability pension
• Does not qualify for OW
6 12.2
Domestic violence and family issues (including divorce) 3 6.1
Substance use 3 6.1
Out of jail 1 2.0
Travelling/transient, relocated, transferred or moving 1 2.0
Other 1 2.0
Total responses 49 100
a Results are based on multiple responses. Percentages may not sum to
100 due to rounding error.
As was noted above with regard to the total homeless sample, when viewed as a whole, structural
problems such as unemployment, lack of access to social assistance, poverty and lack of affordable
22
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
housing were the primary causes of absolute homelessness in Cochrane. These structural or systemic
issues accounted for 67.2% of the reasons given by people who were absolutely homeless.
Most absolutely homeless people indicated that the main explanation for their circumstances was
because they were unemployed and could not obtain employment (n=17).The inability to pay rent
was the second issue, accounting for a fifth of the reasons given (20.4%). This issue is also
interrelated with poverty, low wages and the lack of availability of affordable housing. Three people
had become homeless because of eviction.
Close to a sixth of the responses indicated physical or mental illness as reasons for homelessness.
Five individuals cited physical illness or disability and two reported mental illness. It was reported
in Table 5 above that three participants were receiving financial support from ODSP. The data
indicate that some people who self-reported illnesses as reasons for absolute homelessness were not
receiving income from this program. This is consistent with the reports of problems with income
security programs, notably Ontario Works (OW) and Ontario Disabilities Support Program (ODSP);
these programs were linked to homelessness as indicated in 12.2% of the responses. These people
reported that they were absolutely homeless because they were deemed to be ineligible for social
assistance benefits, their benefits were late or cut, or were they were simply inadequate to live on.
Domestic violence and other family issues, including divorce or separation were also cited as causes
of homelessness. These categories accounted for six percent of the responses regarding reasons for
absolute homelessness. A few of the participants in the study reported other issues as reasons for
absolute homelessness. Substance use, release from jail or moving were cited. The issue of
stereotyping and discrimination against Indigenous people was also mentioned.
Referrals to Other Services
Most absolutely homeless people stated that they had not been referred to other services in
Cochrane. Just over a third (35%) were reportedly referred to other service providers to assist them
with the problems they were experiencing. The types of referrals mentioned were for housing or
shelter, food bank or employment training. However, the vast majority indicated that they had not
been referred to other services (65%).
23
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
CONCLUSIONS
Most studies of homelessness have been conducted in urban centres (Goering, Velduizen, Watson,
Adair, Kopp, Latimer, Nelson, MacNaughton, Streiner & Aubrey, 2014). Within Ontario,
considerable research has originated within cities such as Toronto, Ottawa or London. The current
study of homelessness in Cochrane provides new information about this issue within a samller
northern town. The results show that, in many ways, the phenomenon of the new homelessness (Lee,
Tyler, & Wright, 2010) is present in northeastern Ontario. The face of the new homelessness reflects
the strong presence of women and children among homeless populations. The old stereotype of the
single homeless male offers an inaccurate perspective on the nature of homelessness in the present.
The current study of homelessness in Cochrane has shown that a large majority of homeless people
in the town are infants, children, adolescents or women, with less than a quarter being men. The
primary reasons for their living circumstances centre on matters over which they had little control
such as becoming ill and experiencing problems with work, housing or social assistance. Cronley
(2010) has argued that, within the American context, a central barrier to addressing the underlying
structural problems has been a lack of political will to implement public policies that can tackle the
serious systemic issues of low wages, limited employment opportunties for people living with
poverty and low educational attainment and the lack of decent, affordable housing. Canadian
research has also pointed towards the need to make policy changes that will reverse the trend toward
rising poverty and homelessness (Forchuk, Csiernik & Jensen, 2011).
24
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
The current study has also revealed the strong presence of Indigenous people amongst those who
are homeless in Cochrane. At 41percent of the total homeless population, the proportion is high;
however, the indication that they comprise 69 percent of those who were absolutely homeless is
startling and stands out as an area that must be addressed. The location of Cochrane as the rail link
to the James Bay may be a factor contributing to the presence of Indigenous people amongst those
who are homeless in Cochrane. There is an urgent need for culturally appropriate approaches to
mitigate against factors that lead to adverse outcomes for Indigenous people who migrate to towns
and cities in search of employment, housing, education and services. It is also possible that this
study has underestimated the number of homeless Indigenous people in Cochrane, as Thurston,
Oelke & Turner (2013) have recently asserted that under-counting is a troubling issue in research
on urban Indigenous homelessness.
An issue for further research pertains to the average age of the homeless population in Cochrane.
The findings of this study revealed the presence of older adults amongst homeless people in larger
numbers than may have been expected. This is an area for further research as it may indicate the
increasing vulnerability of older people to extreme poverty and homelessness within the current
context of rising costs of living.
25
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations shown in Table 9 are based on the research conducted in Cochrane. They also
draw upon best practices set out in numerous publications and upon the recommendations developed
in period prevalence counts that we have previously conducted in Sudbury, Moosonee, North Bay,
Timmins and Hearst. A community forum was held in Cochrane on 19 February 2015 and the
results of the report were presented along with the recommendations. The 18 participants of the
forum were invited to review the recommendations, revise them or put forward additional
recommendations. The participants were then invited to vote on their top five recommendations.
Each participant was provided with a list of the recommendations and asked to list his or her
priorities by ranking them from one to five. The recommendation ranked in first place received five
points and the last place recommendation one point. The intervening recommendations received
points according to their ranking. The individual sheets were collected from the participants and the
total points for each recommendation were summed. In Table 9, the recommendations have been
rank ordered by score.
The participants collectively endorsed 28 recommendations as relevant for Cochrane. The top five
recommendations focus on addressing the lack of affordable housing, addressing food security,
assisting shelters and developing long-term strategies for addressing housing. Local action on these
recommendations can help to ensure that the pressing needs of poor and homeless people are met
and that they are supported effectively in obtaining and retaining housing. A goal of this research
is to facilitate the implementation of the top priorities identified by the community of Cochrane.
Table 9: Results of the community forum—20 February 2015
Rank Recommendation Score
1Remedy the Lack of Affordable Housing—Develop new public housing
initiatives (i.e. the creation of subsidized housing units). 58
2
Address Food Security—Develop standards around food security to ensure that
near homeless and absolutely homeless people have access to nutritious food
supplies. For example, the needs for food security are not met when clients can
only access food banks once per month and when homeless people are not
permitted to use food banks due to the requirement to produce proof of
residence.
31
26
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Rank Recommendation Score
3Assist Shelters—Provide sustainable funding for shelters and beds for homeless
people to ensure that there are adequate numbers of shelter beds available.21
4
Assist Shelters—Redesign the system of emergency services to reflect the
characteristics of the homeless populations using them (e.g., more women,
children, Indigenous people, etc.).
17
4
Develop Long-Term Strategies for Addressing Housing—Conduct a series of
community forums to ensure that service providers and other community
partners have opportunities to meet, exchange information about needs and local
services, and resolve conflicting program requirements. For example, Ontario
Works and Children's Aid Society have conflicting policies for women who are
attempting to regain custody of their children) i.e. OW benefits are often
provided for a single person while the CAS may require women to demonstrate
that they can provide adequate food and shelter for their children
17
6
Address Cultural Issues, Racism and Social Exclusion—Take steps to address
racism as a cause of homelessness to ensure that Indigenous people can obtain
rental housing and gain access to services.
13
6
Develop Long-Term Strategies for Addressing Housing—Develop local,
provincial, and national initiatives to address the structural problems of lack of
access to education, unemployment, lack of jobs, and low wages for vulnerable
groups.
13
8
Enhance Services—Provide resources to shelters and soup kitchens to enable
the provision of comprehensive services and to work with individual clients in
order to coordinate services. Taylor Gaubatz (2001) has outlined the
requirements of comprehensive housing and service programs for homeless
people. These include the provision of clean, safe housing, professional
counselling, housing support services, medical care and mental health services,
income support, literacy and job skills training, job placement, education, day
care and respite care, and drug and alcohol treatment.Take steps to address
racism as a cause of homelessness to ensure that Aboriginal people can obtain
rental housing.
12
9Enhance Services—Provide sufficient funding to agencies serving homeless
people to ensure that adequate staffing is available to meet the needs of clients.10
9 Enhance Services—Enhance services in the areas of greatest need such as 10
27
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Rank Recommendation Score
housing and income security, counselling, healthcare, mental health services and
dental care, employment services, transportation and addictions.
11
Address the Lack of Affordable Housing—Educate landlords in order to reduce
discrimination against key groups (e.g., people with mental illness, battered
women, and Indigenous persons).
8
12
Enhance Services—Develop training materials documenting effective strategies
for working with the most marginalized groups of people (e.g., people with
addictions and serious mental illness) and ensure that these groups are not
barred from access to services.
7
12
Support People with Mental Illness—Provide more community-based services
to people with mental illness in order to prevent periodic or chronic
homelessness.
7
14
Assist Shelters—Establish standards for emergency shelters (e.g., in an
evaluation tool) to ensure that homeless people are not exposed to further stress
from over-crowding in shelters, or overly rigid shelter regulations.
5
14Address the Lack of Affordable Housing—Develop affordable housing with
supports.5
16
Assist Shelters—Extend the length of time that clients may stay in shelters to
provide sufficient time for homeless people to become connected to services and
housing support systems.
4
16
Address Violence and Abuse—Increase funding for outreach and prevention
programs to address domestic violence and abuse among all age groups,
including seniors.
4
16
Address Public Education—Develop materials to educate service providers and
the general public about the complex individual and structural causes of
homelessness, including the high prevalence of victimization and trauma among
homeless persons.
4
16Address the Lack of Affordable Housing—Provide or enhance moving
allowances.4
20
Address Violence and Abuse—Given the primacy of domestic violence and
other family issues as causes of homelessness, especially for women, provide
more funding support for services to address trauma.
3
28
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
Rank Recommendation Score
21
Address Cultural Issues, Racism and Social Exclusion—Work with
Indigenous communities to develop strategies for supporting Indigenouss who
move from their First Nations communities into urban centres. Culturally
appropriate services must be developed to assist with basic needs, education,
and employment.
3
22Address Violence and Abuse—Develop programs so that they address trauma
and reduce further exposure to abuse and violence on the streets.2
22Address the Geared-to-Income Waitlist—Redefine the criteria for homelessness
in order to be prioritised on the geared-to-income waitlist.2
24
Collect Local Information on Homelessness on an Ongoing Basis—Sustain
local working relationships between the university, local planning bodies, and
local agencies to ensure that there is an ongoing process for the collection of
data on people who are homeless.
1
24Address Ontario Works Criteria—Provide more supports to enable individuals
to meet the Ontario Works requirements and criteria.1
–
Address Migration—Work with various levels of government to recognize the
medium-sized urban centres that are destination points for people leaving small,
rural, and remote communities in search of work or services. Enhance the
emergency service systems to deal with the needs of those who become
homeless as a result of relocation.
–
–Address Cultural Issues, Racism and Social Exclusion—Develop linguistically
and culturally appropriate emergency services for Indigenous people.–
–
Address Cultural Issues, Racism and Social Exclusion—Develop strategies for
ensuring that Indigenous people moving to urban communities can be connected
to varied services.
–
29
Homelessness in Cochrane, Ontario—Final Report
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33
Poverty, Homelessness and MigrationPauvreté, sans-abrisme et migration
Centre for Research in Social Justice and PolicyCentre de recherche en justice et politique sociales
Laurentian University | Université Laurentienne935 Ramsey Lake Road | 935 chemin du lac Ramsey Sudbury ON P3E 2C6
Tel. (705) 675-1151, ext. 5156Fax (705) 671-3832
[email protected] | [email protected]/homeless | www.lul.ca/sansabri