Homesteading

BacktoBasicsGuidetoGrowingYourOwnFood,Canning,KeepingChickens,GeneratingYourOwnEnergy,

Crafting,HerbalMedicine,andMore

AbigailR.Gehring

TableofContents

CoverTitlePageCopyrightPageAcknowledgmentsIntroductionPartOne-TheHomeGardenPlanningaGardenImprovingYourSoilConservingWaterMulchinginYourGardenandYardOrganicGardeningStartYourOwnVegetableGardenStartYourOwnFlowerGardenPlantingTreesContainerGardeningRooftopGardensTerracingRaisedBedsGrowingPlantswithoutSoilPestandDiseaseManagementAttractingBirds,Butterflies,andBeestoYourGardenHarvestingYourGardenCommunityGardensFarmers’Markets

PartTwo-PantryEatingWellFoodCo-opsCanningDryingandFreezingEdibleWildPlantsandMushrooms

MakeYourOwnFoodsSharingYourBounty

PartThree-TheBackyardFarmChickensDucksTurkeysBeekeepingGoatsSheepLlamas

PartFour-SimpleStructuresforYourLandDoghousesBirdhousesSimpleStablesPoultryHousesFences,Gates,andPensBasicBridgesToolShedsandWorkshopsSmokehousesRootCellarsTreehousesandBrushHousesTrellisesWeathervanes

PartFive-EnergySolarEnergyWindEnergyHydropowerGeothermalEnergyCompostingToiletsGreywater

PartSix-CraftsHandmadeCandlesMakingYourOwnSoapPotpourriFromYourGardenPotteryBasics

HandmadeJewelryHandcraftedPaperKnittingBookbindingTyingKnotsKitesBoomerangsToboggansPreservingFlowersCornhuskDollsBasketweavingMarketingYourSkills

PartSeven-Well-BeingHerbalMedicineNaturalDisastersFirstAidManagingandReducingStressMassageInteriorDesignStencilingWallpaperingLightingFengshuiIntentionalCommunities

SourcesResourcesIndex

Acknowledgments

“Iwouldmaintainthatthanksarethehighestformofthought,andthatgratitudeishappinessdoubledbywonder.”

—G.K.Chesterton

This bookwas a team effort and it is something of an injustice that only onenameappearsonthecover.Iamhugelygratefulforallthepeoplewhousedtheirtime,skills,andcreativitytobringittogether.

Thanks to Tony Lyons for entrusting me with another exciting andchallengingproject,andforallhissupportalongtheway,andtoAnnTreistmanfor her encouragement, ideas, and editorial guidance. JulieMatysik, this bookwouldn’t have gotten done if it weren’t for the hours and hours you spentresearching, compiling information, organizing, and writing—thank you. BillWolfsthal,KathleenGo,andAdamBozarth—Icontinuetobegratefulforyourmarketing,editing,anddesigningskills,andforhelpingtomakethisworkwedoso fulfilling. Jessie Shiers, thanks for your close copyeditor’s eye and usefulcomments. Thanks also to Janike Ruginis, Heather Chapman, Loren Yandoc,ErikaMeller,andMattMessmerforyourwillingnesstojumpinandhelpatanymoment. To the many people who offered their thoughts, experiences, andexpertise,Iamtrulygrateful.

Finally,thankstomyfamilyforbeingsupportiveevenasIspentportionsofsomanyevenings,weekends,andholidayswithmyeyesgluedtothecomputerscreen. Tim Lawrence, I am more and more amazed by your many talents.Thank you for not only encouraging me but for willingly doing so manyexcellentdrawingstoillustratethewordsinthesepages.Wemakeagoodteam.

Introduction

“Thereissomethingineveryoneofyouthatwaitsandlistensforthesoundofthegenuineinyourself.Itistheonlytrueguideyouwilleverhave.Andifyoucannothearit,youwillallofyourlifespendyourdaysontheendsofstringsthatsomebodyelsepulls.”

—HowardThurman

Homesteadingisaboutcreatingalifestylethat isfirstofallgenuine.It’saboutlearningtorecognizeyourneeds—includingenergy,food,financial,andhealthneeds—andfindingouthowtheycanbemetcreativelyandresponsibly.Inordertoharnessyourownenergyforheatorelectricity,youfirsthavetofacethefactsabouthowmuchenergyyouuseversushowmuchyouactuallyneed,andthenassessyourenvironmentandresourcestodeterminethebestmethodformeetingthoseneeds.Beforebuyingchicksoranyotheranimal toraise,behonestwithyourself about the time you have to invest in caring for them. If you want agarden,there’snoreasonnottohaveone—butthinkabouthowlargeaplotyoucanmanagebeforeyoustartdiggingupdirt.Homesteadingisdifferentforeveryindividual or family. Sometimes being genuine means letting go—at leasttemporarily—ofgrandioseschemesforacresofland,ahomethatiscompletelyoff the grid, and a barn full of animals. It couldmean simply shopping at thelocal farmers’ market for your produce, or making candles to light in theevenings toconserveelectricity. Ifyou live inanurbanapartment,maybeyoucanplantvegetablesonyourroof,orstartacommunitygardeninaparkorataschool.This book ismeant for everyonewhohas a desire to be a responsiblestewardofournaturalresources,whetherlivingintheheartofthecityoronahundredacresoffarmlandinruralVermont.It’smeanttogiveyouinspiration,information, and the basic directions you need to take a few steps closer to ahealthier, happier, and more responsible lifestyle. From sprouting seeds tomakingasolarwaterheatertohandcraftingpapertobrewingherbalteas,you’llfindmoreideasthanyou’lleverbeabletoputintopracticeinonelifetime.Butevenifyouonlytryoneoftheprojectshere,you’llhavelearnedsomethingnewandexperiencedadifferentwayofbeing,whichhopefullyyou’llfindenriching.Most importantly, you’ll have had an opportunity to learn something aboutyourselfandwhathomesteadingmeanstoyou.

PartOneTheHomeGarden

“MygreenthumbcameonlyasaresultofthemistakesImadewhilelearningtoseethingsfromtheplant’spointofview.”

—H.FredAle

Creating a garden—whether it’s a single tomato plant in a pot on yourwindowsillorafullacrechock-fullofflowersandveggies—takesimagination,hardwork,abitofplanning,patience,andawillingnesstotakerisks.Therearesomefactorsyoucancontrol,liketheconditionofthesoilyouburyyourseedsin,thetimeofyearyoustartplanting,andwhatplantsyouputwhere.Buttherewillalwaysbesituationsyoucan’tpredict;youmightgetafrostinJune,anolddiscardedpumpkinseedmightsproutupinthemiddleofyourmagnolias,orthecat could knock your basil plant off the counter to its demise on the kitchenfloor.Thiselementofsurpriseisoneofthejoysandchallengesofgardening.Ifyou can learn to skillfully navigate the factors in your control and accept theunpredictable circumstances with patience and a sense of humor, you’ll havemasteredagreatlifelesson.Thefollowingpagesaremeanttohelpyouwiththatfirstpart:gaining theknowledgeand insightyouneed togiveyourgarden thebest chanceof thriving.Fromunderstanding a plant’s basic needs, to properlypreparing soil, to protecting against weeds and harmful insects, this sectioncoversallthegardeningbasics.Beyondthat,you’llfindinformationongrowingplants without soil, tips for keeping your garden organic, and inspiration forgardeninginurbanenvironments.Thereislittleinlifeasrewardingasenjoyingasaladcomposedentirelyof thingsyou’vepicked fromyourowngarden.Butgardeningisalsoabouttheprocess:Ifyoucanlearntolovethefeelofthedirt

betweenyourfingers, theburninyourmusclesasyoudig,andthequiet,slowwayinwhichsproutsreachtowardthesun,nomomentofyourlaborwillhavebeenawaste,regardlessoftheendresults.

PlanningaGarden

BasicPlantRequirementsBeforeyoustartagarden,it’shelpfultounderstandwhatplantsneedtothrive.Someplants,likedandelions,aretolerantofawidevarietyofconditions,whileothers, such as orchids, have very specific requirements in order to growsuccessfully.Beforespendingtime,effort,andmoneyattemptingtogrowanewplantinagarden,dosomeresearchtolearnabouttheconditionsthataparticularplantneedstogrowproperly.

Environmentalfactorsplayakeyroleinthepropergrowthofplants.Someoftheessentialfactorsthatinfluencethisnaturalprocessareasfollows:

1.LengthofDay

The amount of time between sunrise and sunset is the most critical factor inregulatingvegetativegrowth,blooming, flowerdevelopment, and the initiationof dormancy. Plants utilize increasing day length as a cue to promote theirgrowthinspring,whiledecreasingdaylengthinfallpromptsthemtopreparefortheimpendingcoldweather.Manyplantsrequirespecificdaylengthconditionsinordertobloomandflower.

2.Light

Lightistheenergysourceforallplants.Cloudy,rainydaysoranyshadecastbynearby plants and structures can significantly reduce the amount of lightavailabletotheplant.Inaddition,plantsadaptedtothriveinshadyspacescannottolerate full sunlight. In general, plants will only survive where adequatesunlightreachesthematlevelstheyareabletotolerate.

Some gardens require more planning than others. Flower gardens can becarefullyarrangedtocreatepatternsortocontainaspecificrangeofcolors,orthey can bemore casual, as this garden is. However, always keep in mind aplant’sspecificenvironmentalneedsbeforechoosingaplaceforit.

3.Temperature

Plants grow best within an optimal range of temperatures. This temperaturerangemayvarydrasticallydependingontheplantspecies.Someplantsthriveinenvironmentswherethetemperaturerangeisquitewide;otherscanonlysurvivewithin a very narrow temperature variance. Plants can only survive wheretemperaturesallowthemtocarryonlife-sustainingchemicalreactions.

4.Cold

Plants differ by species in their ability to survive cold temperatures.Temperaturesbelow60°Finjuresometropicalplants.Conversely,arcticspeciescantoleratetemperatureswellbelowzero.

Theabilityofaplanttowithstandcoldisafunctionofthedegreeofdormancypresent in theplant, itswater status, and its general health.Exposure towind,brightsunlight,orrapidlychangingtemperaturescanalsocompromiseaplant’stolerancetothecold.

Someplants,likecacti,thriveinhot,dryconditions.

5.Heat

Aplant’sabilitytotolerateheatalsovarieswidelyfromspeciestospecies.Manyplants that evolved to grow in arid, tropical regions are naturally very heattolerant,whilesub-arcticandalpineplantsshowverylittletoleranceforheat.

6.Water

Different types of plants have differentwater needs. Some plants can toleratedroughtduringthesummerbutneedwinterrainstoflourish.Otherplantsneedaconsistent supplyofmoisture togrowwell.Careful attention toaplant’sneedfor supplementalwater can help you to select plants that need aminimum ofirrigationtoperformwellinyourgarden.Ifyouhavepoorlydrained,chronicallywetsoil,youcanselectgardenplants thatnaturallygrow inbogs,marshlands,andotherwetplaces.

7.SoilpH

Aplantroot’sabilitytotakeupcertainnutrientsdependsonthepH—ameasureoftheacidityoralkalinity—ofyoursoil.Mostplantsgrowbestinsoilsthathavea pHbetween 6.0 and 7.0.Ericaceous plants, such as azaleas and blueberries,needacidicsoilswithapHbelow6.0togrowwell.Limecanbeusedtoraisethesoil’spH,andmaterialscontainingsulfates,suchasaluminumsulfateandironsulfate, canbeused to lower thepH.The solubilityofmany traceelements iscontrolledbypH,andplantscanonlyusethesolubleformsof theseimportantmicronutrients.

Feelingthesoilcangiveyouasenseofhownutrient-richit is.Dark,crumbly,softsoilisusuallyfullofnutrients.However,determiningthepHrequiresasoiltest(seepage14).

Thismapshowstheaveragenumberofdayseachyearthatanareaexperiencestemperaturesover86degrees(“heatdays”).Zone1haslessthanoneheatdayandZone12hasmorethan210heatdays.Mostplantsbegintosufferwhenitgetsanyhotterthan86degrees,thoughdifferentplantshavedifferentlevelsoftolerance.

ABasicPlantGlossary

Hereissometerminologycommonlyusedinreferencetoplantsandgardening:

annual—aplantthatcompletesitslifecycleinoneyearorseason.

arboretum—a landscaped space where trees, shrubs, andherbaceous plants are cultivated for scientific study or educationalpurposes,andtofosterappreciationofplants.

axil—the area between a leaf and the stem fromwhich the leafarises.

bract—aleaflikestructurethatgrowsbelowaflowerorclusterofflowersandisoftencolorful.Coloredbractsattractpollinators,andareoftenmistakenforpetals.Poinsettiaandfloweringdogwoodareexamplesofplantswithprominentbracts.

coldhardy—capableofwithstandingcoldweatherconditions.

conifers—plants that predate true, flowering plants in evolution;conifers lack true flowers and produce separate male and femalestrobili,orcones.Someconifers,suchasyews,havefruitsenclosed

inafleshyseedcovering.

cultivar—acultivatedvarietyofaplantselectedforafeaturethatdistinguishesitfromthespeciesfromwhichitwasselected.

deciduous—having leaves that fall off or are shed seasonally toavoidadverseweatherconditions,suchascoldordrought.

herbaceous—havinglittleornowoodytissue.Mostperennialsorannualsareherbaceous.

hybrid—a plant, or group of plants, that results from theinterbreedingoftwodistinctcultivars,varieties,species,orgenera.

inflorescence—afloralaxisthatcontainsmanyindividualflowersinaspecificarrangement;alsoknownasaflowercluster.

nativeplant—aplant that livesorgrowsnaturally inaparticularregionwithoutdirectorindirecthumanintervention.

panicle—apyramidal, looselybranched flowercluster; apanicleisatypeofinflorescence.

perennial—a plant that persists for several years, usually dyingback to a perennial crown during the winter and initiating newgrowtheachspring

shrub—alow-growing,woodyplant,usuallylessthan15feettall,thatoftenhasmultiplestemsandmayhaveasuckeringgrowthhabit(thetendencytosproutfromtherootsystem).

taxonomy—the study of the general principles of scientificclassification, especially the orderly classification of plants andanimalsaccordingtotheirpresumednaturalrelationships.

tree—awoodyperennialplanthavingasingle,usuallyelongatedmainstem,ortrunk,withfewornobranchesonitslowerpart.

wildflower—aherbaceousplantthatisnativetoagivenareaandisrepresentativeofunselectedformsofitsspecies.

woodyplant—aplantwithpersistentwoodypartsthatdonotdiebackinadverseconditions.Mostwoodyplantsaretreesorshrubs.

SelectingaSiteforYourGardenSelectingasiteforyourgardenisthefirststepingrowingthevegetables,fruits,andherbs that youwant.Youdonot need a large space to growa significantamount.Creatingagardenthatisabout25feetsquaredshouldbesufficientforafamily.Itisimportantthatyoudon’tstartoffwithaspacethatistoolarge—itisbetter to start small and thenwork yourway up if you find that gardening issomethingthatyoutrulyenjoy.

FiveFactorstoConsiderWhenChoosingaGardenSite

1.Sunlight

Sunlightiscrucialforthegrowthofvegetablesandotherplants.Foryourgardentogrow,yourplantswillneedat least sixhoursofdirect sunlightperday.To

make sure your garden receives an ample amount of sunlight, don’t select agardensitethatwillbeintheshadeoftrees,shrubs,houses,orotherstructures.Certainvegetables,suchasbroccoliandspinach,growjustfineinshadierspots,soifyourgardendoesreceivesomeshade,plantthosetypesofvegetablesintheshadierareas.However,onawhole,ifyourgardendoesnotreceiveatleastsixhoursofintensesunlightperday,itwillnotgrowasefficientlyorsuccessfully.

A garden of about 25 feet squared should be adequate to produce enoughvegetablesforafamilyoffourtosixtoenjoy.

2.Proximity

Anotherconsiderationishowcloseyouplaceyourgardentoyourhome.Ifyourgardenisclosertoyourhouseandeasytoreach,youwillmostlikelyuseitmoreoften—andtoitsfullestpotential.Havingagardenclosetoyourhomewillhelpyoutopickyourvegetablesandfruitattheirpeakripeness,allowingyouaccessto an abundance of fresh produce on a regular basis.Weeding, watering, andcontrollingpestsareallmorelikelytobeattendedtoifyourgardenissituatednearyourhome.Overall, gardensplacedcloser to thehomewill receivemoreattentionandthusbehealthierandmoreproductive.

3.SoilQuality

Contrary to some beliefs, you do not need perfect soil to start and grow aproductivegarden.However,itisbesttohavesoilthatisfertile,fulloforganicmaterialsthatprovidenutrientstotheplantroots,andeasytodigandtill.Loose,well-drainedsoilisidealforgrowingagoodgarden.Ifthereisasectionofyouryardwherewaterdoesnoteasilydrainafteragood,soakingrain,itisbestnottoplantyourgardeninthatarea,astheexcesswaterwillmostlikelydrownyourgardenplants.Furthermore,soilsthatareofaclayorsandyconsistencyarenotaseffective ingrowingplants.Tomake these typesof soilsmorenutrient-richand fertile, add in organicmaterials (such as compost ormanure) to improvetheirquality.

4.WaterAvailability

Water is vital to keeping your garden green, healthy, and productive. Asuccessful garden needs around 1 inch ofwater perweek to thrive. Rain andirrigation systems are effective in maintaining this 1-inch-per-week quota.Situatingyourgardennearaspigotorhoseisideal,allowingyoutokeepthesoilmoistandyourplantshappy.

5.Elevation

Makesureyourgardenisnot locatedinanareawhereaircannotcirculateandwhere frostquickly forms.Placingyourgarden ina low-lyingarea, suchasatthe base of a slope, should be avoided, as these lower areas do not warm asquicklyinthespring,andfrostformsquicklyduringthespringandfallbecausethe cold air collects in these areas. Your garden should, if at all possible, beelevatedslightly,ongroundthatishigherup.Thisway,yourgardenplantswillbe less likely to be affected by frost and you’ll be able to start your garden

growingearlierinthespringandharvestwellintothefall.

SomeOtherThingstoConsider

When planning out your garden, it is useful to sketch a diagram ofwhat youwantyourgardentolooklike.Whatsortsofplantstoyouwanttogrow?Doyouwant a garden purely for growing vegetables or do youwant tomix in somefruits,herbs,andwildflowers?Choosingtheappropriateplants togrownext toeach otherwill help your garden growwell andwill provide youwith ampleproducethroughoutthegrowingseason(seethechartsonpage10).

Gloves, a trowel, and a watering can are some of the most basic tools youshouldhaveonhandforgardening.

Whenplantingagarden,besuretohaveaccesstomanytypesoftools.You’llneedaspadeordiggingforkfordiggingholesforseedsorseedlings(or,ifthesoil is loose enough, you can just use your hands).You’ll also need a trowel,rake, or hoe to smooth over the garden surface. Ameasuring stick is helpfulwhenspacingyourplantsorseeds(ifyoudon’thaveameasuringstick,youcanuse a precut string to measure). If you are planting seedlings or establishedplants,youmayneedstakesandstringtotiethemup(sotheydon’tfalloverininclementweatherorwhen theystartproducingfruitorvegetables).Finally, ifyou are interested in installing an irrigation system for your garden, youwillneedtobuytheappropriatematerialsforthispurpose.

Ifyoudon’thaveenoughspaceforafullgarden,youcanplantinflowerpotsorothercontainers.Pottedplantsareespeciallyconvenientbecauseyoucanmovethemaroundtogetmorelightortomakewateringeasier.

CompanionPlantingPlants have natural substances built into their structures that repel or attractcertaininsectsandcanhaveaneffectonthegrowthrateandeventheflavoroftheotherplantsaround them.Thus, someplantsaideachother’sgrowthwhenplanted in close proximity and others inhibit each other. Smart companionplantingwillhelpyourgardenremainhealthy,beautiful,andinharmony,whiledeterring certain insect pests and other factors that could be potentiallydetrimentaltoyourgardenplants.

These charts list various typesof gardenvegetables, herbs, and flowers andtheirrespectivecompanionand“enemy”plants.

Vegetables

Type Companionplant(s) Avoid

Asparagus Tomatoes,parsley,basil Onion,garlic,potatoes

Beans Eggplant Tomatoes,onion,kales

Beets Mint Runnerbeans

Beets Mint Runnerbeans

Broccoli Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,mustard

Cabbage Onion,garlic,leeks Tomatoes,peppers,beans

Carrot Leeks,beans Radish

Celery Daisies,snapdragons Corn,asterflower

Corn Legumes,squash,cucumber Tomatoes,celery

Cucumber Radishes,beets,carrots Tomatoes

Eggplant Marigolds,mint Runnerbeans

Leeks Carrots Legumes

Lettuce Radish,carrots Celery,cabbage,parsley

Melon Pumpkin,squash None

Peppers Tomatoes Beans,cabbage,kales

Onion Carrots Peas,beans

Peas Beans,corn Onion,garlic

Potato Horseradish Tomatoes,cucumber

Tomatoes Carrots,celery,parsley Corn,peas,potato,kales

Herbs

Type CompanionPlant(s) Avoid

Basil Chamomile,anise Sage

Basil Chamomile,anise Sage

Chamomile Basil,cabbage Otherherbs(itwillbecomeoily)

Cilantro Beans,peas None

Chives Carrots Peas,beans

Dill Cabbage,cucumber Tomatoes,carrots

Fennel Dill Everythingelse

Garlic Cucumber,peas,lettuce None

Oregano Basil,peppers None

Peppermint Broccoli,cabbage None

Rosemary Sage,beans,carrots None

Sage Rosemary,beans None

Summersavory

Onion,greenbeans None

Flowers

Types CompanionPlant(s) Avoid

Geraniums Roses,tomatoes None

Marigolds Tomatoes,peppers,mostplants None

Petunias Squash,asparagus None

Sunflowers Corn,tomatoes None

Tansies Roses,cucumber,squash None

PlantsfortheShadeItisbesttosituateyourgardeninanareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday—especiallyifyouwanttogrowvegetablesorfruits.However,if theonlypartofyouryardsuitableforgardeningisblockedbypartialorfullshade(orpartofyoursunlitgardenreceivespartialshadeduringtheday),youcanstillgrowplentyofthingsintheseareas—youjustneedtoselectplantsthatgrowbestinthesetypesofenvironments.Itisagoodidea,eitherwhenbuyingseedlings from your local nursery or planting your own seeds, to read theaccompanyinglabelorpacketordoalittleresearchbeforeplantingtomakesureyourplantswillthriveinashadierenvironment.

Beetslikecoolweatheranddowellinshadyareaswithrichsoil.Plantbeetsatleast 1 inch deep and 2 inches part. Weed regularly to ensure strong rootdevelopment.

Floweringplantsthatdowellinpartialandfullshade:BeebalmBellflowerBleedingheartCardinalflowerColeusColumbineDaylilyDichondraFernForget-me-notGlobedaisyGoldenbleedingheartImpatiensLeopardbaneLilyofthevalleyMeadowruePansyPeriwinklePersianvioletPrimroseRueanemoneSnapdragonSweetalyssumThyme

Beebalmdoeswell inpartial shade. Its bright colorand sweet nectarhaveatendencytoattractbeesandhummingbirds.

Vegetableplantsthatcangrowinpartialshade:ArugulaBeansBeetsBroccoliBrusselssproutsCauliflowerEndiveKaleLeaflettucePeasRadishSpinachSwisschard

Spinachandothergreen,leafyvegetablestendtodowellinshadyareas.Justbesure theygetenoughwater; treesorother shade-producingcanopiescanalsoblockrainfall.

ImprovingYourSoil

Whengardening,itisessentialtohavenutrient-rich,fertilesoilinordertogrowthe best and healthiest plants—plants that will supply youwith quality fruits,vegetables, and flowers. Sometimes, soil loses its fertility (or has minimumfertilitybasedontheregioninwhichyoulive),andsomeasuresmustbetakentoimproveyoursoiland,subsequently,yourgarden.

SoilQualityIndicatorsSoilqualityisanassessmentofhowwellsoilperformsallofitsfunctionsnowandhowthosefunctionsarebeingpreservedforfutureuse.Thequalityofsoilcannot justbedeterminedbymeasuring roworgardenyield,waterquality,oranyothersingleoutcome,norcanitbemeasureddirectly.Thus,itisimportantto look at specific indicators to better understand the properties of soil. Plantscan provide us with clues about how well the soil is functioning—whether aplant isgrowingandproducingquality fruitsandvegetablesor failing toyieldsuchthingsisagoodindicatorofthequalityofthesoilit’sgrowingin.

Indicatorsaremeasurablepropertiesofsoilorplantsthatprovidecluesabouthow well the soil can function. Indicators can be physical, chemical, andbiological properties, processes, or characteristics of soils. They can also bevisualfeaturesofplants.

Usefulindicatorsofsoilquality:areeasytomeasuremeasurechangesinsoilfunctionsencompasschemical,biological,andphysicalpropertiesareaccessibletomanyusersaresensitivetovariationsinclimateandmanagement

Indicators can be assessed by qualitative or quantitative techniques, such assoiltests.Aftermeasurementsarecollected,theycanbeevaluatedbylookingfor

patternsandcomparingresultstomeasurementstakenatadifferenttime.

Examplesofsoilqualityindicators:

1.SoilOrganicMatter

Promotessoilfertility,structure,stability,nutrientretention,andhelpscombatsoilerosion.

2.PhysicalIndicators

These include soil structure, depth, infiltration and bulk density, and waterhold capacity. Quality soil will retain and transport water and nutrientseffectively;itwillprovidehabitatformicrobes;itwillpromotecompactionandwatermovement;and,itwillbeporousandeasytoworkwith.

3.ChemicalIndicators

These include pH, electrical conductivity, and extractable nutrients. Qualitysoilwillbeatitsthresholdforplant,microbial,biological,andchemicalactivity;itwillalsohaveplantnutrientsthatarereadilyavailable.

4.BiologicalIndicator

Theseincludemicrobialbiomass,mineralizablenitrogen,andsoilrespiration.Quality soil is a good repository for nitrogen and other basic nutrients forprosperousplantgrowth;ithasahighsoilproductivityandnitrogensupply;andthereisagoodamountofmicrobialactivity.

Goodsoilisusuallydark,moist,anddense.

SoilandPlantNutrients

NutrientManagement

Thereare20nutrientsthatallplantsrequire.Sixofthemostimportantnutrients,called macronutrients, are: calcium, magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorous,potassium, and sulfur. Of these, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium areessentialtohealthyplantgrowthandsoarerequiredinrelativelylargeamounts.Nitrogen is associatedwith lushvegetative growth, phosphorus is required forflowering and fruiting, and potassium is necessary for durability and diseaseresistance.Calcium, sulfur, andmagnesiumare also required in comparativelylargequantitiesandaidintheoverallhealthofplants.

Theothernutrients, referred toasmicronutrients, are required invery smallamounts.These include such elements as copper, zinc, iron, and boron.Whileboth macro-and micronutrients are required for good plant growth, over-application of these nutrients can be as detrimental to the plant as a nutrientdeficiency.Over-applicationofplantnutrientsmaynotonlyimpairplantgrowth,butmay also contaminate groundwater bypenetrating through the soil ormaypollutesurfacewaters.

SoilTesting

Testing your soil for nutrients and pH is important in order to provide yourplantswiththeproperbalanceofnutrients(whileavoidingover-application).Ifyouareestablishinganewlawnorgarden,asoiltestisstronglyrecommended.Thecostofsoiltestingisminorincomparisontothecostofplantmaterialsandlabor.Correcting a problembefore planting ismuch simpler and cheaper than

afterwards.

This electronic soil tester runs ononeAAbattery andgives pH, nutrient, andmoisturelevelreadingswithinminutes.

Onceyourgardenisestablished,continuetotakeperiodicsoilsamples.Whilemanypeopleroutinelylimetheirsoil,thiscanraisethepHofthesoiltoohigh.Likewise,sincemanyfertilizerstendtolowerthesoil’spH,itmaydropbelowdesirable levels after several years, depending on fertilization and other soilfactors,sooccasionaltestingisstronglyencouraged.

Home tests for pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are available frommostgardencenters.Whilethesemaygiveyouageneralideaofthenutrientsinyour soil, they are not as reliable as tests performed by the CooperativeExtension Service at land grant universities. University and other commercialtesting serviceswill providemore detail, and you can request special tests formicronutrientsifyoususpectaproblem.Inadditiontotheanalysisofnutrientsinyoursoil,theseservicesoftenproviderecommendationsfortheapplicationofnutrientsorhowbesttoadjustthepHofyoursoil.

ThetestforsoilpHisverysimple.pHisameasureofhowacidicoralkalineyoursoil is.ApHof7 isconsideredneutral.Below7isacidicandabove7 isalkaline. Because pH greatly influences plant nutrients, adjusting the pH willoften correct a nutrient problem. At a high pH, several of the micronutrientsbecome less available for plant uptake. Iron deficiency is a commonproblem,evenataneutralpH,forsuchplantsasrhododendronsandblueberries.AtaverylowsoilpH,othermicronutrientsmaybetooavailabletotheplant,resultingin

toxicity.

Phosphorus and potassium are tested regularly by commercial testing labs.While there are soil tests for nitrogen, thesemay be less reliable.Nitrogen ispresentinthesoilinseveralformsthatcanchangerapidly.Therefore,apreciseanalysisofnitrogenismoredifficulttoobtain.Mostuniversitysoiltestlabsdonotroutinelytestfornitrogen.Hometestingkitsoftencontainatestfornitrogenthatmaygiveyouageneral,thoughnotnecessarilycompletelyaccurate,ideaofthepresenceofnitrogeninyourgardensoil.

Organicmatterisoftenpartofasoiltest.Organicmatterhasalargeinfluenceon soil structure and so is highly desirable for your garden soil. Good soilstructure improves aeration, water movement, and retention. This encouragesincreased microbial activity and root growth, both of which influence theavailability of nutrients for plant growth. Soils high in organicmatter tend tohaveagreatersupplyofplantnutrientscomparedtomanysoilslowinorganicmatter. Organic matter tends to bind up some soil pesticides, reducing theireffectiveness,andsothisshouldbetakenintoconsiderationifyouareplanningtoapplypesticidestoyourgarden.

Todeterminethevarious layersofyoursoil,calledyour“soilprofile,”acoresamplecanbetaken.Thisrequiresaboringmachine,whichwillinsertahollowcorerod,or“probe”liketheseshownheredeepintothegroundtoextractsoil.The layers will be distinguishable by the change in soil color. Several coresamplescanbemixedtogetherforamoreaccuratesoiltest.

Tests formicronutrients are usually not performed unless there is reason tosuspect a problem. Certain plants have greater requirements for specificmicronutrients and may show deficiency symptoms if those nutrients are notreadilyavailable.(Seechartsonpages17and65.)

StepsforTakingaSoilTest

1. Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletothelandgrantuniversityinyourstate,contactthelocalCooperativeExtensionServiceforinformationandsamplebags.Ifyouintendtosendyoursampletoaprivate testing lab,contact themforspecificdetailsaboutsubmittingasample.

2. Followthedirectionscarefullyforsubmitting thesample.Thefollowingaregeneralguidelinesfortakingasoilsample:

Samplewhenthesoilismoistbutnotwet.Obtainacleanpailorsimilarcontainer.Clearawaythesurfacelitterorgrass.Withaspadeorsoilauger,digasmallamountofsoiltoadepthof6inches.Placethesoilinthecleanpail.Repeat until the required number of samples has beencollected.Mixthesamplestogetherthoroughly.From the mixture, take the sample that will be sent foranalysis.Sendimmediately.Donotdrybeforesending.

3. Ifyouareusingahomesoiltestingkit,followtheabovestepsfor taking your sample. Follow the directions in the test kitcarefullysoyoureceivethemostaccuratereadingpossible.

EnrichingYourSoil

Organic and Commercial Fertilizers and ReturningNutrientstoYourSoil

Once you have the results of the soil test, you can add nutrients or soilamendments as needed to alter thepH. If youneed to raise the soil’s pH, uselime.Limeismosteffectivewhenitismixedintothesoil;therefore,itisbesttoapply before planting (if you apply lime in the fall, it has a better chance ofcorrecting any soil acidity problems for the next growing season). For largeareas,rototillingismosteffective.Forsmallareasoraroundplants,workingthelimeintothesoilwithaspadeorcultivatorispreferable.Whenworkingaround

plants, be careful not to dig too deeply or roughly so that you damage plantroots.Dependingontheformoflimeandthesoilconditions,thechangeinpHmaybegradual.Itmaytakeseveralmonthsbeforeasignificantchangeisnoted.Soils high in organic matter and clay tend to take larger amounts of lime tochangethepHthandosandysoils.

If you need to lower the pH significantly, especially for plants such asrhododendrons,youcanusealuminumsulfate.Inallcases,followthesoiltestormanufacturer’s recommended rates of application.Again,mixingwell into thesoilisrecommended.

There are numerous choices for providing nitrogen, phosphorus, andpotassium, thenutrientsyourplantsneed to thrive.Nitrogen (N) isneeded forhealthy, green growth and regulation of other nutrients. Phosphorus (P) helpsroots and seeds properly develop and resist disease. Potassium (K) is alsoimportantinrootdevelopmentanddiseaseresistance.Ifyoursoilisofadequatefertility, applying compost may be the best method of introducing additionalnutrients.Whilecompostisrelativelylowinnutrientscomparedtocommercialfertilizers,itisespeciallybeneficialinimprovingtheconditionofthesoilandisnontoxic. By keeping the soil loose, compost allows plant roots to growwellthroughoutthesoil,helpingthemtoextractnutrientsfromalargerarea.Aloosesoilenrichedwithcompostisalsoanexcellenthabitatforearthwormsandotherbeneficialsoilmicroorganismsthatareessentialforreleasingnutrientsforplantuse.Thenutrientsfromcompostarealsoreleasedslowly,sothereisnoconcernabout“burning”theplantwithanover-applicationofsyntheticfertilizer.

Afterrototillingormixinginthefertilizerwithaspade,youmaywishtorakeoutthesoiltomakeitsmoothandwell-aerated.

Manureisalsoanexcellentsourceofplantnutrientsandisanorganicmatter.

Manure should be composted before applying, as fresh manure may be toostrongandcaninjureplants.Becarefulwhencompostingmanure.Ifleftintheopen,exposedtorain,nutrientsmayleachoutofthemanureandtherunoffcancontaminate nearby waterways. Store the manure away from wells and anywaterwaysandmakesure thatanyrunoff isconfinedorslowlyreleased intoavegetatedarea.Improperlyappliedmanurealsocanbeasourceofpollution.Ifyouarenotcompostingyourownmanure,youcanpurchasesomeatyourlocalgardenstore.Forbest results,workcompostedmanure into thesoilaroundtheplantsorinyourgardenbeforeplanting.

Ifpreparingabedbeforeplanting,compostandmanuremaybeworkedintothesoiltoadepthof8to12inches.Ifaddingtoexistingplants,workcarefullyaroundtheplantssoasnottoharmtheexistingroots.

Greenmanuresareanothersourceoforganicmatterandplantnutrients.Greenmanures are crops that are grown and then tilled into the soil. As they breakdown,nitrogenandotherplantnutrientsbecomeavailable.Thesemanuresmayalsoprovideadditionalbenefitsofreducingsoilerosion.Greenmanures,suchasryeandoats,areoftenplantedinthefallafterthecropshavebeenharvested.Inthespring,thesearetilledunderbeforeplanting.

Withallorganicsourcesofnitrogen,whethercompostormanure,thenitrogenmustbechangedtoaninorganicformbeforetheplantscanuseit.Therefore,itisimportanttohavewell-drained,aeratedsoilsthatprovidethefavorablehabitatforthesoilmicroorganismsresponsiblefortheseconversions.

There are also numerous sources of commercial fertilizers that supplynitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, though it is preferable to use organicfertilizers, such as compost and manures. However, if you choose to use acommercial fertilizer, it is important to know how to read the amount ofnutrientscontainedineachbag.Thefirstnumberonthefertilizeranalysisisthepercentageofnitrogen;thesecondnumberisphosphorus;andthethirdnumberisthepotassiumcontent.Afertilizerthathasa10-20-10analysiscontainstwiceasmuchof eachof thenutrients as a 5-10-5.Howmuchof eachnutrient youneeddependsonyoursoiltestresultsandtheplantsyouarefertilizing.

As was mentioned before, nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth whilephosphorusstimulates flowering.Toomuchnitrogencan inhibit floweringandfruit production. For many flowers and vegetables, a fertilizer higher inphosphorus thannitrogen ispreferred, suchasa5-10-5.For lawns,nitrogen isusually required in greater amounts, so a fertilizer with a greater amount of

nitrogenismorebeneficial.

FertilizerApplication

Commercialfertilizersarenormallyappliedasadry,granularmaterialormixedwithwaterandpouredontothegarden.Ifusinggranularmaterials,avoidspillingonsidewalksanddrivewaysbecause thesematerialsarewater solubleandcancausepollutionproblems if rinsed into stormsewers.Granular fertilizers are atypeofsalt,and ifapplied tooheavily, theyhave thecapabilityofburning theplants. If using a liquid fertilizer, applydirectly to or around thebaseof eachplantandtrytocontainitwithinthegardenonly.

Todecreasethepotentialforpollutionandtogainthegreatestbenefitsfromfertilizer,whetherit’sacommercialvariety,compost,orotherorganicmaterials,applyitwhentheplantshavethegreatestneedforthenutrients.Plantsthatarenotactivelygrowingdonothaveahighrequirementfornutrients;thus,nutrientsappliedtodormantplants,orplantsgrowingslowlyduetocooltemperatures,aremore likely to be wasted. While light applications of nitrogen may berecommendedfor lawnsinthefall,generally,nitrogenfertilizersshouldnotbeappliedtomostplants inthefall inregionsof thecountrythatexperiencecoldwinters.Sincenitrogenencouragesvegetativegrowth,ifitisappliedinthefallitmayreducetheplant’sabilitytohardenproperlyforwinter.

Soi l TestReading What to Do

HighpH Yoursoilisalkaline.TolowerpH,addelementalsulfur,gypsum,orcottonseedmeal.Sulfurcantakeseveralmonthstoloweryoursoil’spH,asitmustfirstconverttosulfuricacidwiththehelpofthesoil’sbacteria.

LowpH Yoursoilistooacidic.Addlimeorwoodashes.

Lownitrogen

Addmanure,hornorhoofmeal,cottonseedmeal,fishmeal,ordriedblood.

Highnitrogen

Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Waterthesoilfrequentlyanddon’taddanyfertilizer.

Low Addcottonseedmeal,bonemeal,fishmeal,rockphosphate,

Lowphosphorus

Addcottonseedmeal,bonemeal,fishmeal,rockphosphate,driedblood,orwoodashes.

Highphosphorous

Yoursoilmaybeover-fertilized.Avoidaddingphosphorous-richmaterialsandgrowlotsofplantstouseuptheexcess.

Lowpotassium

Addpotash,woodashes,manure,driedseaweed,fishmeal,orcottonseedmeal.

Highpotassium

Continuetofertilizewithnitrogenandphosphorous-richsoiladditions,butavoidpotassium-richfertilizersforatleasttwoyears.

Poordrainageortoomuchdrainage

Ifyoursoilisaheavy,clay-likeconsistency,itwon’tdrainwell.Ifit’stoosandy,itwon’tabsorbnutrientsasitshould.Mixinpeatmossorcomposttoachieveabettertexture.

Forpottedplants,youcanapplyfertilizeraroundtheedgeofthepotifneeded,buttrytoavoiddirectcontactbetweentheplant’sroots,leaves,orstemandthefertilizer.

In some gardens, you can reduce fertilizer use by applying it around theindividual plants rather than broadcasting it across the entire garden.Much ofthephosphorusinfertilizerbecomesunavailabletotheplantsoncespreadonthe

soil.Forbetterplantuptake,applythefertilizerinabandneartheplant.Donotapply directly to the plant or in contact with the roots, as it may burn anddamagetheplantanditsrootsystem.

ACheapWaytoFertilize

To save money while still providing your lawn and garden withextra nutrients, simply mow your lawn on a regular basis andleaving the grass clippings to decompose on the lawn, or spreadthemaroundyourgardentodecomposeintothesoil.Annually,thiswillprovidenutrientsequivalenttooneortwofertilizerapplicationsand it is a completely organicmeans of boosting a soil’s nutrientcontent.

The fertilizer in this garden has only been applied to the gardenrows.

RulesofThumbforProperFertilizerUse

Itisbesttoapplyfertilizerbeforeoratthetimeofplanting.Fertilizerscaneitherbe spread over a large area or confined to garden rows, depending on thecondition of your soil and the types of plants you will be growing. Afterspreading, till the fertilizer into the soil about3 to4 inchesdeep.Only spreadaboutonehalfofthefertilizerthiswayandthendispatchtherest3inchestothesides of each row and also a little below each seed or established plant. Thismethod,minusthespreader,isusedwhenapplyingfertilizertospecificrowsor

plantsbyhand.

HowtoProperlyApplyFertilizertoYourGarden

Applyfertilizerwhen thesoil ismoist,and thenwater lightly.Thiswillhelp the fertilizermove into the root zonewhere itsnutrientsareavailable to theplants, rather thanstayingon topofthesoilwhereitcanbeblownorwashedaway.Watch the weather. Avoid applying fertilizer immediatelybeforeaheavyrainsystemispredictedtoarrive.Toomuchrain(or sprinkler water) will take the nutrients away from thelawn’s root zone and could move the fertilizer into anotherwatersystem,contaminatingit.Usetheminimumamountoffertilizernecessaryandapplyitinsmall, frequent applications.An application of two pounds offertilizer, five times per year, is better than five pounds offertilizertwiceayear.Ifyouarespreadingthefertilizerbyhandinyourgarden,weargardeningglovesandbesurenot todamagetheplantorrootsaroundwhichyouarefertilizing.

CompostinginYourBackyard

Composting is nature’s own way of recycling yard and household wastes by

convertingthemintovaluablefertilizer,soilorganicmatter,andasourceofplantnutrients.Theresultofthiscontrolleddecompositionoforganicmatter—adark,crumbly, earthy-smelling material—works wonders on all kinds of soil byprovidingvitalnutrientsandcontributingtogoodaerationandmoisture-holdingcapacity,tohelpplantsgrowandlookbetter.

Compostingcanbeassimpleorasinvolvedasyouwouldlike,dependingonhowmuchyardwasteyouhave,howfastyouwantresults,andtheeffortyouarewillingtoinvest.Becauseallorganicmattereventuallydecomposes,compostingspeedsuptheprocessbyprovidinganidealenvironmentforbacteriaandotherdecomposing microorganisms. The composting season coincides with thegrowingseason,whenconditionsarefavorableforplantgrowth,sothosesameconditionsworkwellforbiologicalactivityinthecompostpile.However,sincecompost generates heat, the processmay continue later into the fall orwinter.Thefinalproduct—calledhumusorcompost—looksandfeelslikefertilegardensoil.

CommonCompostingMaterials

CardboardCoffeegroundsCorncobsCornstalksFoodscrapsGrassclippingsHedgetrimmingsLivestockmanureNewspapersPlantstalksPineneedlesOldpottingsoilSawdustSeaweedShreddedpaperStrawTeabags

TelephonebooksTreeleavesandtwigsVegetablescrapsWeedswithoutseedheadsWoodchipsWoodybrush

Avoidusing:BreadandgrainsCookingoilDairyproductsDeadanimalsDiseasedplantmaterialDogorcatmanureGreaseoroilyfoodsMeatorfishscrapsNoxiousorinvasiveweedsWeedswithseedheads

The calcium in eggshells encourages cell growth in plants. You can evenmixcrushedeggshellsdirectly into thesoilaround tomatoes,zucchini,squash,andpepperstopreventblossomendrot.Eggshellsalsohelpdeterslugs,snails,andcutworm.

CompostPreparation

While amultitude of organisms, fungi, and bacteria is involved in the overallprocess,therearefourbasicingredientsforcomposting:nitrogen,carbon,water,

andair.

Awiderangeofmaterialsmaybecompostedbecauseanythingthatwasoncealive will naturally decompose. The starting materials for composting,commonly referred to as feed stocks, include leaves, grass clippings, straw,vegetable

Mostofyourhousehold foodwastecanbecomposted.Avoidcompostingmeatscraps,dairyproducts,grains,orverygreasyfoods.

andfruitscraps,coffeegrounds,livestockmanure,sawdust,andshreddedpaper.However,somematerialsthatshouldalwaysbeavoidedincludediseasedplants,deadanimals,noxiousweeds,meatscrapsthatmayattractanimals,anddogorcatmanure,which can carry disease. Since adding kitchenwastes to compostmayattractfliesandinsects,makeaholeinthecenterofyourpileandburythewaste.

Forbestresults,youwillwantanevenratioofgreen,orwet,material,whichishighinnitrogen,andbrown,ordry,material,whichishighincarbon.Simplylayerormix landscape trimmingsandgrass clippings, for example,withdriedleavesandtwigsinapileorenclosure.Ifthereisnotagoodsupplyofnitrogen-richmaterial,ahandfulofgeneral lawnfertilizerorbarnyardmanurewillhelpevenouttheratio.

Asyourcompostbeginstobreakdown,youmaynoticegasesescapingfromthepile.

Though rain provides the moisture, you may need to water the pile in dryweather or cover it in extremelywetweather.Themicroorganisms,which aresmallformsofplantandanimallife,inthecompostpilefunctionbestwhenthematerials are as damp as a wrung-out sponge—not saturated with water. Amoisturecontentof40to60percentispreferable.Totestforadequatemoisture,reachintoyourcompostpile,grabahandfulofmaterial,andsqueezeit.Ifafewdrops of water come out, it probably has enough moisture. If it doesn’t, addwaterbyputtingahoseintothepilesothatyouaren’t justwettingthetop,or,betteryet,waterthepileasyouturnit.

Airistheonlypartthatcannotbeaddedinexcess.Forproperaeration,you’llneedtopunchholesinthepilesoithasmanyairpassages.Theairinthepileisusually used up faster than the moisture, and extremes of sun or rain canadverselyaffectthisbalance,sothematerialsmustbeturnedormixedupoftenwith a pitchfork, rake, or other garden tool to add air that will sustain hightemperatures,controlodor,andyieldfasterdecomposition.

Over time, you’ll see that themicroorganismswill break down the organicmaterial. Bacteria are the first to break down plant tissue and are the mostnumerous and effective compost makers in your compost pile. Fungi andprotozoanssoonjointhebacteriaand,laterinthecycle,centipedes,millipedes,beetles, sow bugs, nematodes, worms, and numerous others complete thecomposting process. With the right ingredients and favorable weatherconditions,youcanhaveafinishedcompostpileinafewweeks.

HowtoMakeYourOwnBackyardCompostingHeap

1.Choosealevel,well-drainedsite,preferablynearyourgarden.

2.Decidewhetheryouwillbeusingabinaftercheckingonanylocalorstateregulationsforcompostinginurbanareas,assomecommunitiesrequirerodent-proofbins.Therearenumerousstylesofcompostbinsavailable,dependingonyour needs, ranging from a moveable bin formed by wire mesh to a moresubstantialwoodenstructureconsistingof severalcompartments.Youcanalsoeasilymakeyourownbinusingchickenwireor scrapwood.Whileabinwillhelpcontain thepile, it isnotabsolutelynecessary,asyoucanbuildyourpiledirectly on the ground. To help with aeration, you may want to place somewoodymaterialonthegroundwhereyouwillbuildyourpile.

3.Ensurethatyourpilewillhaveaminimumdimensionof3feetallaround,butisnotallerthan5feet,asnotenoughairwillreachthemicroorganismsatthecenterifitistootall.Ifyoudon’thavethisamountatonetime,simplystockpileyourmaterials until a sufficient quantity is available for propermixing.Whencomposting is completed, the total volume of the originalmaterials is usuallyreducedby30to50percent.

4.Buildyourpilebyusingeitheralternatingequallayersofhigh-carbonandhigh-nitrogen material or by mixing equal parts of both together and thenheapingit intoapile.Ifyouchoosetoalternate layers,makeeachlayer2 to4inches thick. Some composters find that mixing the two together is moreeffectivethanlayering.Addingafewshovelsofsoilwillalsohelpgetthepileofftoagoodstartbecausesoiladdscommonlyfound,decomposingorganismstoyourcompost.

5. Keep the pile moist but not wet. Soggy piles encourage the growth oforganismsthatcanlivewithoutoxygenandcauseunpleasantodors.

6.Punchholesinthesidesofthepileforaeration.Thepilewillheatupandthen begin to cool. The most efficient decomposing bacteria thrive intemperaturesbetween110and160degreesFahrenheit.Youcantrackthiswithacompostthermometer,oryoucansimplyreachintothepiletodetermineifitisuncomfortablyhottothetouch.Atthesetemperatures,thepilekillsmostweedseedsandplantdiseases.However,studieshaveshownthatcompostproducedatthese temperatures has less ability to suppress diseases in the soil, since thesetemperatures may kill some of the beneficial bacteria necessary to suppressdisease.

8.Checkyourbinregularlyduringthecompostingseasontoassureoptimummoistureandaerationarepresentinthematerialbeingcomposted.

9.Movematerials from the center to theoutsideof thepile andviceversa.Turn every day or two and you should get compost in less than four weeks.Turningeveryotherweekwillmakecompost inone to threemonths.Finishedcompostwillsmellsweetandbecoolandcrumblytothetouch.

Anylargebucketcanbeturnedintoacompostbarrel.Youcancutoutapieceofthebarrel foreasyaccess to thecompost,asshownhere,orsimplyaccess thecompost through the lid.Drillingholes in the sidesand lidsof thebucketwillincreaseaircirculationandspeeduptheprocess.Leaveyourbucketinthesunandshakeit,rollit,orstirthecontentsregularly.

OtherTypesofComposting

ColdorSlowComposting

Coldcompostingallowsyoutojustpileorganicmaterialonthegroundorinabin.Thismethod requiresnomaintenance,but itwill takeseveralmonths toayearormorefor thepile todecompose, thoughtheprocess isfaster inwarmerclimates than in cooler areas.Coldcompostingworkswell if youare shortontimeneededtotendtothecompostpileatleasteveryotherday,havelittleyardwaste,andarenotinahurrytousethecompost.

For thismethod,addyardwasteas itaccumulates.Tospeeduptheprocess,shredorchopthematerialsbyrunningoversmallpilesoftrimmingswithyourlawnmower,becausethemoresurfaceareathemicroorganismshavetofeedon,thefasterthematerialswillbreakdown.

Cold composting has been shown to be better at suppressing soilbornediseases than hot composting and also leaves more non-decomposed bits ofmaterial, which can be screened out if desired. However, because of the lowtemperatures achieved during decomposition, weed seeds and disease-causingorganismsmaynotbedestroyed.

Vermicomposting

Vermicomposting usesworms to compost. This takes up very little space andcanbedoneyear-roundinabasementorgarage.Itisanexcellentwaytodisposeofkitchenwastes.

Here’showtomakeyourownvermicompostingpile:

1.Obtainaplasticstoragebin.Onebinmeasuring1footby2feetby3½feetwillbeenoughtomeettheneedsofafamilyofsix.

2.Drill8 to10holesabout¼ inch indiameter in thebottomof thebin fordrainage.

3.Linethebottomofthebinwithafinenylonmeshtokeepthewormsfromescaping.

4.Putatrayunderneathtocatchthedrainage.

5.Ripnewspaperintopiecestouseasbeddingandpourwateroverthestripsuntil they are thoroughlymoist. Place these shreddedbits onone sideof your

bin.Donotletthemdryout.

6. Add worms to your bin. It’s best to have about two pounds of worms(roughly2,000worms)peronepoundoffoodwaste.Youmaywanttostartwithless food waste and increase the amount as your worm population grows.Redwormsarerecommendedforbestcomposting,butotherspeciescanbeused.Redwormsarethecommon,smallwormsfoundinmostgardensandlawns.Youcancollectthemfromunderapileofmulchororderthemfromagardencatalog.

7.Providewormswithfoodwastessuchasvegetablepeelings.Donotaddfatormeatproducts.Limittheirfeed,astoomuchatoncemaycausethematerialtorot.

Worms will filter your organic waste through their systems and turn it intonutrient-richhumus.

8.Keepthebininadarklocationawayfromextremetemperatures.

9.Waitabout threemonthsandyou’ll see that thewormshavechanged thebeddingand foodwastes intocompost.At this time,openyourbin inabrightlightandthewormswillburrowintothebedding.Addfreshbeddingandmorefood to the other side of the bin. Theworms shouldmigrate to the new foodsupply.

10.Scoopoutthefinishedcompostandapplytoyourplantsorsavetouseinthespring.

Grassclippingsandotherplantdebriscanallbeadded toyourcompostpile.Note,however,thatweedscangerminateagaininyourcompostandthusendupbackinyourgarden.

CommonProblemsCompostingisnotanexactscience.Experiencewilltellyouwhatworksbestforyou.Ifyounoticethatnothingishappening,youmayneedtoaddmorenitrogen,water,orair,chiporgrindthematerials,oradjustthesizeofthepile.

If thepile is toohot,youprobablyhave toomuchnitrogenandneed toaddadditionalcarbonmaterialstoreducetheheating.

Abadsmellmayindicatenotenoughairor toomuchmoisture.Simplyturnthepileoradddrymaterialstothewetpiletogetridoftheodor.

UsesforCompost

Compost containsnutrients,but it isnot a substitute for fertilizers.Compost holds nutrients in the soil until plants can use them,loosensandaeratesclaysoils,andretainswaterinsandysoils.

Touse as a soil amendment,mix2 to 5 inches of compost intovegetableandflowergardenseachyearbeforeplanting.Inapottingmixture,addonepartcomposttotwopartscommercialpottingsoil,or make your own mixture by using equal parts of compost andsand,orPerlite.

As a mulch, spread an inch or two of compost around annualflowersandvegetables,andupto6inchesaroundtreesandshrubs.Studieshaveshownthatcompostusedasmulch,ormixedwiththe

top 1-inch layer of soil, can help prevent some plant diseases,includingsomeofthosethatcausedampingofseedlings.

As a top dressing, mix finely sifted compost with sand andsprinkleevenlyoverlawns.

PlantingYourGardenOnceyou’vechosenaspotforyourgarden(aswellasthesizeyouwanttomakeyourgardenbed),andpreparedthesoilwithcompostorotherfertilizer,it’stimetostartplanting.Seedsareveryinexpensiveatyourlocalgardencenter,oryoucanbrowsethroughseedcatalogsandorderseedsthatwilldowellinyourarea.Alternately, you can start with bedding plants (or seedlings) available atnurseriesandgardencenters.

Readtheinstructionsonthebackoftheseedpackageorontheplastictaginyour plant pot. You may have to ask experts when to plant the seeds if thisinformation is not stated on the back of the package. Some seeds (such astomatoes)shouldbestartedindoors, insmallpotsorseedtrays,before the lastfrost, and only transplanted outdoors when the weather warms up. Forestablishedplantsor seedlings,be sure toplant asdirectedon theplant tagorconsultyourlocalnurseryaboutthebestplantingtimes.

Seedlings

If you live in a cooler regionwith a shorter growingperiod, youwillwant tostartsomeofyourplants indoors.Todo this,obtainplugflats (traysseparatedintomany small cups or “cells”) ormake your own small planters by pokingholesinthebottomofpapercups.Fillthecupstwo-thirdsfullwithpottingsoilor composted soil.Bury the seed at the recommended depth, according to theinstructions on the package. Tamp down the soil lightly and water. Keep theseedlings in a warm, well-lit place, such as the kitchen, to encouragegermination.

Oncetheweatherbeginstowarmupandyouarefairlycertainyouwon’tbegettinganymorefrosts(youcancontactyourlocalextensionofficetofindoutthelast“frostfree”dateforyourarea)youcanbegintoacclimateyourseedlingstothegreatoutdoors.Firstplacetheminapartiallyshadyspotoutdoorsthatisprotected from strong wind. After a couple of days, move them into directsunlight,andthenfinallytransplantthemtothegarden.

Some plugs are biodegradable so that you can insert them directly into thegardenbed,ratherthanhavingtotransplantthem.

Youcangrowseedlingsinanywood,metal,orplasticcontainerthatisatleast3inchesdeep.Eggcartonsworkverywellifyoudon’thaveaccesstoregularplugflats.Justpunchholesinthebottomfordrainage.

Seedscanbesproutedandeatenonsandwiches, salads,orstirfriesany time of the year. They are delicious and full of vitamins andproteins.Mungbean,soybean,alfalfa,wheat,corn,barley,mustard,clover, chickpeas, radish, and lentils all make good sprouts. Findseeds for sprouting from your local health food store or use driedpeas, beans, or lentils from the grocery store. Never use seedsintended forplantingunlessyou’veharvested the seedsyourself—commercially available planting seeds are often treated with apoisonouschemicalfungicide.

Togrowsprouts,thoroughlyrinseandstraintheseeds,thensoakovernightincoolwater.You’llneedaboutfourtimesasmuchwateras you have seeds. Drain the seeds and place them in a wide-

mouthedbowloronacookiesheetwithalip.Sprinklewithwatertokeeptheseedsslightlydamp.Youmaywishtoplacetheseedsonadamppaper towel tobetterhold in themoisture.Keep theseedsat60 to 80 degrees F and rinse twice a day, returning them to theirbowlortrayafter.Oncesproutsare1to1½incheslong(generallyafter3to5days),theyarereadytoeat.

Radish sprouts are delicious on their own or in sandwiches orsalads

Recommendedplantstostartasseedlings

HowtoBestWaterYourSoilAfter your seeds or seedlings are planted, the next step is towater your soil.Differentsoil typeshavedifferentwateringneeds.Youdon’tneed tobeasoilscientist toknowhow towateryoursoilproperly.Herearesome tips thatcanhelptomakeyoursoilmoistandprimedforgardening:

Agentlespraywillsoakintothesoilwithoutdamagingtheplants.Thethinlayerofmulchwillhelptokeepthewaterfromevaporatingtooquickly.

1. Loosen the soil around plants so water and nutrients can be quicklyabsorbed.

2.Usea1-to2-inchprotective layerofmulchon the soil surfaceabove therootarea.Cultivatingandmulchinghelpreduceevaporationandsoilerosion.

3.Wateryourplantsattheappropriatetimeofday.Earlymorningornightisthebest timeforwatering,asevaporationis less likely tooccurat these times.Donotwateryourplantswhenitisextremelywindyoutside.Windwillpreventthewaterfromreachingthesoilwhereyouwantittogo.

Agoodold-fashionedwateringcanisgreatforsmallgardensandpottedplants.

TypesofSoilandTheirWaterRetention

Knowing the type of soil you are planting in will help you bestunderstand how to properly water and grow your garden plants.Three common types of soil and their various abilities to absorbwaterarelistedbelow:

Clay soil: To make this type of soil more loamy, add organicmaterials,suchascompost,peatmoss,andwell-rottedleaves,inthespring before growing and also in the fall after harvesting yourvegetables and fruits. Adding these organic materials allows thistypeofsoil toholdmorenutrientsforhealthyplantgrowth.Tillorspadetohelploosenthesoil.

Sinceclaysoilabsorbswaterveryslowly,wateronlyasfastasthesoilcanabsorbthewater.

Sandy soil: As with clay soil, adding organic materials in thespring and fall will help supplement the sandy soil and promotebetterplantgrowthandwaterabsorption.

Leftonitsown(withnoaddedorganicmatter)thewaterwillrunthroughsandysoilsoquicklythatplantswon’tbeabletoabsorbitthroughtheirrootsandwillfailtogrowandthrive.

Loam soil: This is the best kind of soil for gardening. It’s a

combinationofsand,silt,andclay.Loamysoilisfertile,deep,easilycrumbles,andismadeupoforganicmatter.Itwillhelppromotethegrowthofqualityfruitsandvegetables,aswellasflowersandotherplants.

Loamabsorbswaterreadilyandstoresitforplantstouse.Wateras frequently as the soil needs to maintain its moisture and topromoteplantgrowth.

Sandy soil is usually lighter in color andwon’t easily clump together in yourhands.Itneedsorganicmatterandplentyofwatertobesuitableforgrowing.

ConservingWater

Wiseuseofwaterforhydratingyourgardenandlawnnotonlyhelpsprotecttheenvironment, but savesmoney and also provides optimumgrowing conditionsforyourplants.Therearesimplewaysofreducingtheamountofwaterusedforirrigation, such as growing xeriphytic species (plants that are adapted to dryconditions), mulching, adding water-retaining organic matter to the soil, andinstallingwindbreaksandfencestoslowwindsandreduceevapotranspiration.

You can conserve water by watering your plants and lawn in the earlymorning, before the sun is too intense.This helps reduce the amount ofwaterlost due to evaporation. Installing rain gutters and collecting water fromdownspouts—in collection bins such as rain barrels—also helps reduce wateruse.

HowPlantsUseWaterWater is a critical component of photosynthesis, the process by which plantsmanufacture their own food fromcarbondioxide andwater in thepresenceoflight. Water is one of the many factors that can limit plant growth. Otherimportant factors include nutrients, temperature, and amount and duration ofsunlight.

Plantstakeincarbondioxidethroughtheirstomata—microscopicopeningsontheundersidesoftheleaves.Thestomataarealsotheplacewherewaterislost,inaprocesscalledtranspiration.Transpiration,alongwithevaporationfromthesoil’s surface, accounts for most of the moisture lost from the soil andsubsequentlyfromtheplants.

When there isa lackofwater in theplant tissue, thestomataclose to try tolimitexcessivewaterloss.Ifthetissueslosetoomuchwater,theplantwillwilt.Plants adapted to dry conditions have developed certain characteristics thatsupport numerous mechanisms for reducing water loss—they typically havenarrow, hairy leaves and thick, fleshy stems and leaves. Pines, hemlocks, andjunipersarealsowell-adaptedtosurviveextendedperiodsofdryconditions—anenvironmental factor theyencountereachwinterwhen the frozensoilprevents

theuptakeofwater.Cacti,whichhavethickstemsandleavesreducedtospines,arethebestexampleofplantswell-adaptedtoextremelydryenvironments.

Heathflowersarewell-adaptedtodryenvironmentsandmakeaveryattractivegroundcover.

ChoosingPlantsforLowWaterUseYou are not limited to cacti, succulents, or narrow-leafed evergreens whenselecting plants adapted to low water requirements. Many plants growing inhumidenvironmentsarewell-adaptedtolowlevelsofsoilmoisture.Numerousplants found growing in coastal or mountainous regions have developedmechanismsfordealingwithextremelysandy,excessivelywell-drainedsoilsorrocky,coldsoilsinwhichmoistureislimitedformonthsatatime.Tryalfalfa,aloe,artichokes,asparagus,bluehibiscus,chives,columbine,eucalyptus,garlic,germander, lamb’s ear, lavender, ornamental grasses, prairie turnip, rosemary,sage,sedum,shrubroses,thyme,yarrow,yucca,andverbena.

Evenverydryareascanbemadeattractivewithtastefulplacementofgrasses,yarrow,andsimilarplants.

TrickleIrrigationSystems

Trickle irrigationanddrip irrigationsystemshelpreducewateruseandsuccessfullymeettheneedsofmostplants.Withthesesystems,verysmallamountsofwateraresuppliedtothebasesoftheplants.Since thewater isapplieddirectly to thesoil—rather thanonto theplant—evaporationfromtheleafsurfacesisreduced, thusallowingmorewatertoeffectivelyreachtheroots.Inthesetypesofsystems,thewaterisnotwastedbybeingspreadalloverthegarden;rather,itisapplieddirectlytotheappropriatesource.

Asimpletrickleirrigationsystem.

InstallingIrrigationSystemsAnirrigationsystemcanbeeasytoinstall,andtherearemanydifferentproductsavailableforhomeirrigationsystems.Thesimplestsystemconsistsofasoakerhose that is laidout around theplants andconnected toanoutdoor spigot.Noinstallationisrequired,andthehosecanbemovedasneededtowatertheentiregarden.

A slightlymore sophisticated system is a slotted pipe system.Here are thestepsneededtoinstallthistypeofirrigationsysteminyourgarden:1. Sketchthelayoutofyourgardensoyouknowwhatmaterialsyouwillneed.

Ifyouintendtowateravegetablegarden,youmaywantonepipenext to

everyroworonepipebetweeneverytworows.2. Dependingonthelayoutandtypeofgarden,purchasetherequiredlengths

ofpipe.Youwillneedalengthofsolidpipeforthewidthofyourgarden,andperforatedpipesthatarethelengthofyourlateralrows(andremembertobuyonepipeforeachrowortwo).

3. Measure the distances between rows and cut the solid pipe to the properlengths.

4. PlaceT-connectorsbetweenthepiecesofsolidpipe.5. Intheapproximatecenterofthesolidpipe,placeaT-connectortowhicha

hoseconnectorwillbefitted.6. Cuttheperforatedpipetothelengthoftherows.7. AttachtheperforatedpipestotheT-connectorssothattheperforationsare

facingdownward.Captheendofthepipe.8. Connectagardenhosetothehoseconnectoronthesolidpipe.Adjust the

pressure of the water flowing from the spigot until the water slowlyemergesfromeachoftheperforatedpipes.

Aslottedpipeirrigationsystem.

RainBarrelsAnotherveryefficientandeasywaytoconservewater—andsavemoney—istobuy ormake your own rain barrel. A rain barrel is a large bin that is placedbeneathadownspoutand thatcollects rainwater runoff froma roof.Thewatercollectedintherainbarrelcanthenberoutedthroughagardenhoseandusedtowateryourgardenandlawn.

Rainbarrelscanbepurchased fromspecialtyhomeandgardenstores,butasimple rain barrel is also quite easy tomake.Here are simple instructions onhowtomakeyourownrainbarrel.

HowtoMakeaSimpleRainBarrel

ThingsYou’llNeedA clean, plastic barrel; tall trash can with lid; or a woodenbarrel that does not leak (a 55-gallon plastic drum or barreldoesaverygoodjobatholdingrainwater)Twohosebibs(avalvewithafittingforagardenhoseononeendandaflangewithashortpipestickingoutofitattheotherend)GardenhosePlywoodandpaint(ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveatop)WindowscreenWoodscrewsVegetableoilAdrillAhacksawAscrewdriver

Rainbarrelscanbemadefromany largebucket. It isespeciallyconvenient tohave a spigot coming from the bottom of the bucket so you can fill smallercontainerswithwaterasneeded.

Instructions1. Obtain a suitable plastic barrel, a large plastic trashcan with a lid, or a

wooden barrel (e.g., a wine barrel) that has not been stored dry for toomanyseasons,sinceitcanstarttoleak.Goodplacestofindplasticbarrelsincludesuppliersofdairyproducts,metalplatingcompanies,andbulkfoodsuppliers. Justbesure thatnothing toxicorharmful toplantsandanimals(including you!) was stored in the barrel. Awine barrel can be obtained

through a winery. Barrels that allow less light to penetrate through willeliminate the risk of algae growth and the establishment of othermicroorganisms.

2. Onceyouhaveyourbarrel,findalocationforitunderornearoneofyourhome’sdownspouts.Forthebarreltofit,youwillprobablyneedtoshortenthedownspoutbya fewfeet.Youcando thisby removing the screwsorrivetslocatedatajointofthedownspout,orbysimplycuttingoffthelastfewfeetwithahacksaworothercutter.Ifyourbarrelwillnotbeabletofitunderneaththedownspout,youcanpurchaseaflexibledownspoutatyourlocal home improvement store. These flexible tubeswill direct thewaterfrom the downspout into the barrel. An alternate, and aestheticallyappealing,optionistousearainchain—alarge,metalchainthatwatercanrundown.

3. Createa level, stableplatform foryour rainbarrel to sitonby raking thedirt under the spout, adding gravel to smooth out lawn bumps, or usingbricks or concrete blocks to make a low platform. Keep in mind that abarrelfullofwaterisveryheavy,soifyoudecidetobuildaplatform,makesureitissturdyenoughtoholdsuchheavyweight.

4. Ifyourbarrelhasasolidtop,you’llneedtomakeagood-sizedholeinitforthedownspouttopourinto.Youcandothisusingahole-cuttingattachmentonapowerdrillorbydrillingaseriesofsmallerholesclosetogetherandthen cutting out the remainingmaterial with a hacksaw blade or a scrollsaw.

5. Mosquitoesaredrawntostandingwater,sotoreducetheriskofbreedingtheseinsects,andtoalsokeepdebrisfromenteringthebarrel,fastenapieceofwindowscreentotheundersideofthetopsoitcoverstheentirehole.

6. Next,drillaholesothehosebibyou’llattachtothesideofthebarrelfitssnugly.Placethehosebibasclosetothebottomofthebarrelaspossible,soyou’llhaveaccesstothemaximumamountofwaterinthebarrel.Attachthe hose bib using screwsdriven into the barrel.You’ll probably need toapply some caulking, plumber’s putty, or silicon sealant around the jointbetweenthebarrelandthehosebibtopreventleaks,dependingonthetypeofhardwareyou’reusingandhowsnugitfitsintheholeyoudrilled.

7. Attachasecondhosebibtothesideofthebarrelnearthetop,toactasanoverflow drain.Attach a short piece of garden hose to this hose bib androuteittoaflowerbed,lawn,oranothernearbyareathatwon’tbedamagedbysomerunningwaterifyourbarrelgetstoofull(or,ifyouwanttohaveasecondrainbarrelforexcesswater,youcanattachittoanotherhosebibonasecondbarrel.Ifyouarechainingmultiplebarrelstogether,oneofthem

shouldhaveahoseattachedtodrainofftheoverflow.8. Attach a garden hose to the lower hose bib and open the valve to allow

collectedrainwatertoflowtoyourplants.Thelowerbibcanalsobeusedtoconnectmultiplerainbarrelstogetherforalargerwaterreservoir.

9. Considerusingadripirrigationsysteminconjunctionwiththerainbarrels.Rainbarrelsdon’tachieveanythingnearthepressureofcitywatersupplies,soyouwon’tbeabletousemicrosprinklerattachments,andyouwillneedtousebuttonattachmentsthatareintendedtodeliverfourtimestheamountofcity-suppliedwateryouneed.

10. Now,waitforaheavydownpourandstartenjoyingyourrainbarrel!

ThingstoConsider

Put some water in the barrel from a garden hose onceeverything is in place and any sealants have had time tothoroughlydry.Thefirstgooddownpourisnotthetimetofindoutthere’saleakinyourbarrel.If you don’t own the property on which you are thinking ofinstallingarainbarrel,besuretogetpermissionbeforealteringthedownspouts.Ifyourbarreldoesn’talreadyhaveasolidtop,coveritsecurelywithacircleofpaintedplywood,anoldtrashcanlidscrewedtothewallsofthebarrel,oraheavytarpsecuredoverthetopofthe barrel with bungee cords. This will protect children andsmallanimalsfromfallingintothebarrelanddrowning.

Asstatedbefore,stagnantwaterisanexcellentbreedinggroundformosquitoes, so itwould be a good idea to take additionalstepstokeepthemoutofyourbarrelbysealingalltheopeningsinto the barrel with caulk or putty. You might also consideraddingenoughnon-toxicoil(suchasvegetablecookingoil)tothebarrel to forma filmon topof thewater thatwillpreventmosquito larvaefromhatching.Alwaysdoublecheck tomakesure the barrel you’re using (particularly if it is from a fooddistribution center or other recycled source) did not containpesticides,industrialchemicals,weedkillers,orothertoxinsorbiologicalmaterials thatcouldbeharmful toyou,yourplants,ortheenvironment.Ifyouareconcernedaboutthis,itisbesttopurchaseanewbarrelortrashcansothereisnodoubtaboutitssafety.

Mary Maddox and her husband and children maintain a fullvegetablegardenandraisechickens,ducks,turkeys,andagooseonless thanhalfanacreof land.Theydescribe theirexperiencesandsharetipsontheirblog,“TheYardstead,”www.yardstead.com.

Myhusband,children,andIliveinasmalltowninNorthFlorida.Likemostofourneighborswe liveona little less than½acre lot.Wedreamofbecominghomesteaderson10to15acresbutuntilthatdreambecomes reality,wedowhatwe canonour small plot.Wecurrentlymaintaina30x30-ft.vegetablegarden,andkeepchickens,ducks,turkeys,andagoose.Thesebirdsonlyrequire3–4sq.ft.perbirdandareeasytocareforinanappropriate-sizedpen.

Wekeepbetween10and20chickensmostofthetimeina72sq.ft. pen,withanadjoining200 sq. ft. pen for a fewducks, turkeys,and a goose. We supply our family, friends, and neighbors withfresheggsyear-roundandputafewchickensinthefreezeraswell.Werecentlyweregivenaroosterbyoneofourneighbors,andourhenshavehatchedtheirfirstbabiesthisspring.

We try tokeepsomethinggrowing in thegardenallyear-round.

Each yearwe are able to grow enough squash and zucchini to eatfreshallspringandsummerandputenoughawayin thefreezer tolastthroughthewinter.Wealsogrowenoughonionsandgarlicmostyears tomeet all ourneeds and sharewithour friends and family.Wedabbleinothervegetablesandgrowavarietyofgourdsonourfencelineeachyear.

Wehavelandscapedtheyardwithmostlyedibleplantsandtrees.Ourbackyardshade isprovidedbyapecan,mulberry,persimmon,and other trees. We have chosen some native shrubs, like thepineapple guava, that also produces edible flowers and fruit. Wekeepseveraldwarfcitrusaspottedplantsthatcanbemovedinandout of the house depending on ourwinter temperatures each year.Last fall we planted a few small sugarcane. These clumps ofsugarcanewill bemostly for our children to enjoy in late summereachyear.

We try to garden and care for our animals and yard with anemphasisonpermaculture,andwefolloworganicpracticesasmuchaspossible.Alloftheyardwasteandfoodwasteweproducegofirsttothechickensandotherbirdswholovetoeattablescrapsaswellas grass clippings and the like. They eat what they like, and theleftovers alongwith the rich droppings are raked out occasionallyandaddedtothecompostpile.Thisprovidesusaconstantsupplyofrichcompost,which is thefertilizerweuse in thegarden.Wealsoletsomechickensroamthegardenaftertheplantshavegrownto8–10inchesinheight.Theydoanexcellentjobofkeepingthegardenpest-freebyeatingeverybugtheycanfind.

We love teaching our children about gardening and caring foranimals,andweallenjoyahealthysenseofself-reliance.Weshareour produce as much as possible and also try to share as muchknowledgeaspossiblewithanyonewhoisinterested.

MulchinginYourGardenandYard

Mulching is one of the simplest andmost beneficial practices you can use inyourgarden.Mulchissimplyaprotectivelayerofmaterialthatisspreadontopof the soil to enrich the soil, prevent weed growth, and help provide a bettergrowingenvironmentforyourgardenplantsandflowers.

Woodchipsorshavingsaresomeofthemostcommonformsofmulch.

Mulchescaneitherbeorganic—suchasgrassclippings,barkchips,compost,groundcorncobs,choppedcornstalks,leaves,manure,newspaper,peanutshells,peat moss, pine needles, sawdust, straw, and wood shavings—or inorganic—such as stones, brick chips, and plastic. Both organic and inorganic mulcheshavenumerousbenefits,including:1. Protectingthesoilfromerosion2. Reducingcompactionfromtheimpactofheavyrains3. Conservingmoisture,thusreducingtheneedforfrequentwatering4. Maintainingamoreevensoiltemperature5. Preventingweedgrowth

6. Keepingfruitsandvegetablesclean

CommonOrganicMulchingMaterials

BarkchipsChoppedcornstalksCompostGrassclippingsGroundcorncobsHayLeavesManureNewspaperPeanutshellsPeatmossPineneedlesSawdustStrawWoodshavings

7. Keepingfeetcleanandallowingaccesstothegardenevenwhenit’sdamp8. Providinga“finished”looktothegarden

Organicmulchesalsohavethebenefitofimprovingtheconditionofthesoil.As thesemulchesslowlydecompose, theyprovideorganicmatter tohelpkeepthe soil loose. This improves root growth, increases the infiltration of water,improves the water-holding capacity of the soil, provides a source of plantnutrients, and establishes an ideal environment for earthworms and otherbeneficialsoilorganisms.

A trowel and hand fork are helpful for mulching small areas around andbetweenplants.

Whileinorganicmulcheshavetheirplaceincertainlandscapes,theylackthesoil-improving properties of organic mulches. Inorganic mulches may bedifficulttoremoveifyoudecidetochangeyourgardenplansatalaterdate.

Mulchcanbeneatandattractive,especiallyifkeptfromspillingintoyouryardwitharoworcircleofstones.

WheretoFindMulchMaterialsYoucanfindmulchmaterialsrightinyourownbackyard.Theyinclude:

1.Lawnclippings.

Thesemakeanexcellentmulchinthevegetablegardenifspreadimmediatelyto avoidheating and rotting.The fine texture allows them tobe spreadeasily,evenaroundsmallplants.

2.Newspaper.

As a mulch, newspaper works especially well to control weeds. Save yourownnewspapersandonlyuse the textpages,or thosewithblack ink,ascolordyesmaybeharmful to soilmicrofloraand fauna if compostedandused.Usethree or four sheets together, anchored with grass clippings or other mulchmaterialtopreventthemfromblowingaway.

3.Leaves.

Leaf mold, or the decomposed remains of leaves, gives the forest floor itsabsorbent, spongy structure. Collect leaves in the fall and chop with alawnmower or shredder. Compost leaves over winter, as some studies haveindicatedthatfreshlychoppedleavesmayinhibitthegrowthofcertaincrops.

4.Compost.

Themixturemakeswonderfulmulch—ifyouhavea largesupply—as itnotonly improves the soil structure but also provides an excellent source of plantnutrients.

5.Barkchipsandcompostedbarkmulch.

Thesematerialsareavailableatgardencentersandaresometimesusedwithlandscapefabricorplasticthatisspreadatopthesoilandbeneaththemulchtoprovide additional protection againstweeds.However, the barrier between thesoil and the mulch also prevents any improvement in the soil condition andmakesplantingadditionalplantsmoredifficult.Withoutthebarrier,barkmulchmakesaneatfinishtothegardenbedandwilleventuallyimprovetheconditionofthesoil.Itmaylastforonetothreeyearsormore,dependingonthesizeof

thechipsorhowwell-compostedthebarkmulchis.Smallerchipsareeasiertospread,especiallyaroundsmallplants.

6.Hayandstraw.

These work well in the vegetable garden, although they may harbor weedseeds.

7.Seaweedmulch,groundcorncobs,andpineneedles.

Depending onwhere you live, thesematerialsmay be readily available andcanalsobeusedasmulch.However,pineneedlestendtoincreasetheacidityofthesoil,sotheyworkbestaroundacidlovingplants,suchasrhododendronsandblueberries.

Whenchoosingamulchmaterial,thinkofyourprimaryobjective.Newspaperandgrassclippingsaregreatforweedcontrol,whilebarkmulchgivesaperfect,finishing touch to a front-yardperennial garden. If you’re looking for a cheapsolution, consider using materials found in your own yard or see if yourcommunityofferschippedwoodorcomposttoitsresidents.

If youwant themulch to stay in place for several years around shrubs, forexample,youmightwanttoconsiderusinginorganicmulches.Whiletheywillnotprovideorganicmattertothesoil,theywillbemoreorlesspermanent.

WhentoApplyMulchTime of application depends on what you hope to achieve by mulching.Mulches, by providing an insulating barrier between the soil and the air,moderate the soil temperature. Thismeans that amulched soil in the summerwillbecoolerthananadjacent,unmulchedsoil;whileinthewinter,themulchedsoilmaynotfreezeasdeeply.However,sincemulchactsasaninsulatinglayer,mulchedsoils tendtowarmupmoreslowlyin thespringandcooldownmoreslowlyinthefallthanunmulchedsoils.

Ifyouareusingmulchesinyourgarden,itisbesttoapplyoraddadditionalmulchafter the soilhaswarmedup in the spring.Organicmulches reduce thesoiltemperatureby8to10degreesFahrenheitduringthesummer,soiftheyareappliedtocoldgardensoils,thesoilwillwarmupmoreslowlyanddelayplant

growth.

Mulchesusedtohelpmoderatewintertemperaturescanbeappliedlateinthefall after the ground has frozen, but before the coldest temperatures arrive.Applyingmulchesbeforethegroundhasfrozenmayattractrodentslookingforawarm over-wintering site. Delayed applications of mulch should prevent thisproblem.

Mulchesusedtoprotectplantsover thewintershouldbecomposedof loosematerial, such as straw, hay, or pine boughs that will help insulate the plantswithout compacting under theweight of snow and ice.One of the benefits ofwinterapplicationsisthereductioninthefreezingandthawingofthesoilinthelatewinterandearlyspring.Theserepeatedcyclesoffreezingatnightandthenthawinginthewarmthofthesuncausemanysmallorshallow-rootedplantstoheaveoutofthesoil.Thisleavestheirrootsystemsexposedandresultsininjury,or death, of the plant.Mulching helps prevent these rapid fluctuations in soiltemperatureandreducesthechancesofheaving.

Gather fallen leaves in the fallandcompost themoruse them in largeplasticbags as extra house insulation over thewinter.Come spring, the decomposedleaveswillbereadyformulch.

GeneralMulchingGuidelines

Mulchismeasuredincubicfeet,so,ifyouhaveanareameasuring10feetby10feet,andyouwishtoapply3inches(¼foot)ofmulch,youwouldneed25cubicfeettodothejobcorrectly.

Whilesomemulchcancomefromrecycledmaterialinyourownyard, it can also be purchased bagged or in bulk from a garden

center.Buying inbulkmaybecheaper ifyouneeda largevolumeandhaveaway tohaul it.Baggedmulch isofteneasier tohandle,especially for smaller projects, asmost baggedmulch comes in 3-cubic-footbags.

To start, remove any weeds. Begin mulching by spreading thematerials in your garden, being careful not to apply mulch to theplantsthemselves.Leaveaninchorsoofspacenexttotheplantstohelppreventdiseasesfromflourishingintimesofexcesshumidity.

HowMuchDoIApply?Theamountofmulchtoapplytoyourgardendependsonthemulchingmaterialused.Spreadbarkmulchandwoodchips2to4inchesdeep,keepingitaninchortwoawayfromtreetrunks.

Scatterchoppedandcompostedleaves3to4inchesdeep.Ifusingdryleaves,applyabout6inches.

Grassclippings,ifspreadtoothick,tendtocompactandrot,becomingslimyand smelly. They should be applied 2 to 3 inches deep, and additional layersshouldbeaddedasclippingsdecompose.Makesurenot touseclippings fromlawnstreatedwithherbicides.

Sheets of newspaper should only be¼ inch thick and covered lightly withgrassclippingsorothermulchmaterialtoanchorthem.Ifothermulchmaterialsarenotavailable,covertheedgesofthenewspaperwithsoil.

If using compost, apply3 to 4 inchesdeep, as it’s an excellentmaterial forenrichingthesoil.

OrganicGardening

“Organically grown” food is food grown and processed using no syntheticfertilizers or pesticides. Pesticides derived from natural sources (such asbiological pesticides—compost and manure) may be used in producingorganicallygrownfood.

Organicgardenersgrowthehealthiest,highest-qualityfoodsandflowers—allwithout the addition of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, or herbicides. Organicgardeningmethodsarehealthier,environmentallyfriendly,safeforanimalsandhumans, and are generally less expensive, since you areworkingwith naturalmaterials.Itiseasytogrowandharvestorganicfoodsinyourbackyardgardenand typically, organic gardens are easier tomaintain thangardens that rely onchemicalandunnaturalcomponentstohelpthemgroweffectively.

Arowoflettucethrivesinthecompost-fertilizedsoil.

Organicproductionisneithersimplytheavoidanceofconventionalchemicalinputs, nor is it the substitution of natural inputs for synthetic ones. Organicfarmers apply techniques first used thousands of years ago, such as croprotationsandtheuseofcompostedanimalmanuresandgreenmanurecrops,inwaysthatareeconomicallysustainableintoday’sworld.

Organicfarmingentails:Useofcovercrops,greenmanures,animalmanures,andcroprotations tofertilizethesoil,maximizebiologicalactivity,andmaintainlong-termsoilhealthUse of biological control, crop rotations, and other techniques tomanageweeds,insects,anddiseasesAnemphasisonbiodiversityoftheagriculturalsystemandthesurroundingenvironmentReduction of external and off-farm inputs and elimination of syntheticpesticides and fertilizers and other materials, such as hormones andantibioticsA focus on renewable resources, soil and water conservation, andmanagement practices that restore, maintain, and enhance ecologicalbalance

HowtoStartYourOwnOrganicGarden

StepOne:ChooseaSiteforYourGarden

1.Thinksmall,atleastatfirst.Asmallgardentakeslessworkandmaterialsthanalargeone.Ifdonewell,a4x4-footgardenwillyieldenoughvegetablesandfruitforyouandyourfamilytoenjoy.

2.Becarefulnottoover-plantyourgarden.Youdonotwanttoendupwithtoomanyvegetablesthatwillendupover-ripeningorrottinginyourgarden.

3.Youcanevenstartagardeninawindowboxifyouareunsureofyourtimeanddedicationtoalargerbed.

Yourgardencanbeassmallorlargeasyourspaceallows,butbesuretostart

withasizeyoucanmanage.

StepTwo:MakeaCompostPile

Compostisthemainingredientforcreatingandmaintainingrich,fertilesoil.Youcanusemostorganicmaterialstomakecompostthatwillprovideyoursoilwithessentialnutrients.Tostartacompostpile,allyouneedarefallen leaves,weeds,grassclippings,andothervegetationthatisinyouryard.(Seepages19–23formoredetailsonhowtomakecompost.)

StepThree:AddSoil

To have a thriving organic garden, you must have excellent soil. Addingorganicmaterial (such as that in your compost pile) to your existing soilwillonlymakeitbetter.Soilcontainingcopiousamountsoforganicmaterialisverygoodforyourgarden.Organicallyrichsoil:

Nourishesyourplantswithoutanychemicals,keepingthemnaturalIseasytousewhenplantingseedsorseedlings,anditalsoallowsforweedstobemoreeasilypickedIssofterthanchemicallytreatedsoil,sotherootsofyourplantscanspreadandgrowdeeperHelpswaterandairfindtheroots

StepFour:WeedControl

Weedsareinvasivetoyourgardenplantsandthusmustberemovedinorderfor your organic garden to grow efficiently. Common weeds that can invadeyourgardenareivy,mint,anddandelions.

Usingasharphoe,goovereachareaofexposedsoilfrequentlytokeepweeds

fromsprouting.Also,pluckingoffthegreenportionsofweedswilldeprivethemofthenutrientstheyneedtosurvive.

Gently pull out weeds by hand to remove their root systems and to stopcontinued growth. Be careful whenweeding around established plants so youdon’tuprootthemaswell.

Mulch unplanted areas of your garden so that weeds will be less likely togrow.Youcanfindorganicmulches,suchaswoodchipsandgrassclippings,atyour local garden store.Thesemulcheswill not only discourageweed growthbutwillalsoeventuallybreakdownandhelpenrichthesoil.Mulchingalsohelpsregulate soil temperatures and helps in conserving water by decreasingevaporation.(Seepages32–34formoreonmulching.)

Ahandforkcanbeusefulindigginguptoughrootsofpeskyweeds.

StepFive:BeCarefulofLawnFertilizers

Ifyouhavealawnandyourorganicgardenissituatedinit,bemindful thatany chemicals you place on your lawnmay find their way into your organicgarden.Therefore,refrainfromfertilizingyourlawnwithchemicalsand,ifyouwishtoreturnnutrientstoyourgrass,simplyletyourcutgrassclippingsremainintheyardtodecomposenaturallyandenrichthesoilbeneath.

ThingstoConsider“Organic”meansthatyoudon’tuseanykindsofmaterials,suchaspaperorcardboard,thatcontainchemicals,andespeciallynotfertilizerorpesticides.

Make sure that these products do not find their way into your garden orcompostpile.Ifyouareaddinggrassclippingstoyourcompostpile,makesuretheydon’tcomefromalawnthathasbeentreatedwithchemicalfertilizer.If you don’t want to start a compost pile, simply add leaves and grassclippings directly to your garden bed. This will act like a mulch, deterweeds from growing, and will eventually break down to help returnnutrientstoyoursoil.Ifyoufindinsectsattackingyourplants,thebestwaytocontrolthemisbypicking them off by hand. Also practice crop rotation (planting differenttypesofplantsinagivenareafromyeartoyear),whichmightreduceyourpestproblem.Forsomeinsects,justastrongstreamofwateriseffectiveinremovingthemfromyourplants.Shy away from using bark mulch. It robs nitrogen from the soil as itdecomposesandcanalsoattracttermites.

StartYourOwnVegetableGarden

Ifyouwant to startyourownvegetablegarden, just follow these simple stepsand you’ll be on yourway to growing your own yummyvegetables—right inyourownbackyard.

Youcanoftengrowtwocropsofcabbageorothergreenleafyvegetablesinonegrowingseasonifyoustartthegardenearlyenough.

StepstoMakingYourOwnVegetableGarden

1.Selectasiteforyourgarden.Vegetablesgrowbestinwell-drained,fertilesoil(loamysoilsarethebest).Some vegetables can cope with shady conditions, but most prefer a sitewithagoodamountofsunshine—atleastsixhoursadayofdirectsunlight.

2.Removeallweedsinyourselectedspotanddisposeofthem.

Ifyouareusingcomposttosupplementyourgardensoil,donotputtheweedson thecompostheap,as theymaygerminateonceagainandcausemoreweedgrowthamongyourvegetableplants.

3.Preparethesoilbytillingit.

Thiswillbreakuplargesoilclumpsandallowyoutoseeandremovepeskyweed roots. This would also be the appropriate time to add organicmaterials(suchascompost)totheexistingsoiltohelpmakeitmorefertile.Thetoolsusedfortillingwilldependonthesizeofyourgarden.Someexamplesare:

Shovel and turning fork—using these tools ishardwork, requiring strongupperbodystrength.Rotarytiller—thiswillhelpcutupweedrootsandmixthesoil.

Aftersoilistilleditshouldbelooseandfreefromweedsorrootsystems.

4.Beginplanting.

Ifyouwouldlikestraightrowsinyourgarden,aguidecanbemadefromtwowooden stakes and a bit of rope. Vegetables can be grown from seeds ortransplanted.

Ifyourgardenhasproblemswithpestssuchasslugs,it’sbesttotransplantolder plants, as they are more likely to survive attacks from theseorganisms.Transplantingworkswell for vegetables like tomatoes and onions,whichusuallyneedaheadstarttomaturewithinashortergrowingseason.Thesecan be germinated indoors on seed trays on a windowsill before thegrowingseasonbegins.

Ashovelisperfectlyadequateforturningoversoilinasmallgarden.

5.Followthesebasicstepstogrowvegetablesfromseeds:

Information on when and how deep to plant vegetable seeds is usuallyprintedonseedpackagesoronvariouswebsites.Youcanalsocontactyourlocalnurseryorgardencentertoinquireafterthisinformation.Measurethewidthoftheseedtodeterminehowdeepitshouldbeplanted.Take thewidth andmultiply by 2. That is how deep the seed should beplaced in the hole. As a general rule, the larger the seed, the deeper itshouldbeplanted.

Tomato plants will grow best if begun as seedlings indoors and thentransplantedintoyourgardenwellafterthelastfrost.

6.Watertheplantsandseedswelltoensureagoodstart.

Makesuretheyreceivewateratleasteveryotherday,especiallyifthereisnorainintheforecast.

Forverysmallseeds,suchascarrotseeds,youcansprinkle15to20seedsperinch ina shallowchannel.Tomake the rowstraight, tiea string to two smallsticksanddriveeachstickintothegroundoneithersideofyourgardensothatthestringistaut.Useahoetodigashallowchannelinthestring’sshadow.

Seeds should be planted at a depth of twice theirwidth. If the seed is¼ inchwide,itshouldbeplanted½inchbelowthesurface.

ThingstoConsiderIn the early days of a vegetable garden, all your plants are vulnerable toattackbyinsectsandanimals.Itisbesttoplantmultiplesofthesameplanttoensurethatsomesurvive.Placingnettingandfencesaroundyourgardencan help keep out certain animal pests. Coffee grains or slug traps filledwithbeerwillalsohelpprotectyourplantsagainstinsectpests.If sowing seed straight onto your bed, be sure to obtain a photograph ofwhatyourseedlingswill looklikesoyoudon’tmistakethegrowingplantforaweed.Weedingearlyon isvery important to theoverallsuccessofyourgarden.Weeds steal water, nutrients, and light from your vegetables, which willstunttheirgrowthandmakeitmoredifficultforthemtothrive.

StartYourOwnFlowerGarden

Flowergardensareeasytogrowandwillbeautifyyourlawnorbackyard.Justfollowthestepsbelow.

Flowergardensdonotneedtobeascarefullyorganizedasvegetablegardens.Experimentwith different color combinations and flower varieties. In general,it’sbesttoputtallerplantstowardthecenterorbackofyourgardensothattheshorterflowerswillstillbevisible.

StepOne:StartwithaSmallGarden

Gardeningtakesalotofwork,andsoforthebeginnergardener,tacklingalargegarden can be overwhelming. Start with a small flowerbed around 25 squarefeet.Thiswillprovideyouwithroomforabout20to30plants—enoughroomfor three types of annuals and two types of perennials. As your gardeningexperiencegrows,socanthesizeofyourgarden!

Ifyouwouldliketostartevensmaller,youcanalwaysbeginyourfirstflowergardeninacontainer,orcreateaborderfromtreatedwoodorbricksandstonesaroundyourexistingbed.Thatway,whenyouarereadytoexpandyourgarden,allyouneedtodoisremovethetemporaryborderandyou’llbeallset.Evenasmall container filledwith a few different types of plants can be awonderfuladditiontoanyyard.

StepTwo:PlanYourFlowerGarden

Drawupaplanofhowyou’dlikeyourgardentolook,andthendigaflowerbedto fit that plan.Planningyour gardenbefore gathering the seeds or plants andbeginningthediggingcangiveyouaclearersenseofhowyourgardenwillbeorganizedandcanfacilitatetheplantingprocess.

StepThree:ChooseaSpotforYourGarden

It is important,when choosingwhere your flower gardenwill be located, thatyouconsideranareathatreceivesatleastsixhoursofdirectsunlightperday,asthiswillbeadequateforalargevarietyofgardenplants.Becarefulthatyouwillnotbediggingintoutilitylinesorpipes,andthatyouplaceyourgardenatleastashortdistanceawayfromfencesorotherstructures.

Some flowers, like lilies, do best if started in pots and then transplanted intoyourgarden.

Ifyouliveinapartofthecountrythatisquitehot,itmightbebeneficialforyour flowers to be placed in an area that gets some shade during the hotafternoonsun.Placingyourgardenontheeastsideofyourhomewillhelpyourflowersflourish.Ifyourgardenwillgetmorethansixhoursofsunlightperday,itwouldbewise to choose flowers that thrive inhot, sunny spaces, andmakesuretowaterthemfrequently.

It isalsoimportant tochooseaspot thathasgood,fertilesoil inwhichyourflowerscangrow.Trytoavoidanyareaswithrocky,shallowsoilorwherewatercollectsandpools.Makesureyourgardenisawayfromlargetreesandshrubs,astheseplantswillcompetewithyourflowersforwaterandnutrients.Ifyouareconcerned that your soilmaynot contain enoughnutrients for your flowers togrowproperly,youcanhaveasoiltestdone,whichwilltellyouthepHofthesoil.Dependingontheresults,youcanthenadjustthetypesofnutrientsneededinyoursoilbyaddingorganicmaterialsorcertaintypesoffertilizers.

StepFour:StartDigging

Now that you have a site picked out,mark out the boundarieswith a hose orstring.Removethesodandanyweedrootsthatmayre-grow.Useyourspadeorgardenforktodigupthebedatleast8to12inchesdeep,removinganyrocksordebrisyoucomeacross.

Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulformedicinalpurposes.Itgrowsbestinsunnyareas.Plant inearly spring for summerblooming,orabout twomonthsbeforethefirstfrostforflowersthenextyear.

Onceyourbedisdug,levelitandbreakupthesoilwitharake.Addcompostormanureifthesoilisnotfertile.Ifyoursoilissandy,addingpeatmossorgrassclippingswillhelpitholdmorewater.Workanyadditionsintothetop6inchesofsoil.

StepFive:PurchaseYourSeedsorPlants

Onceyou’vechosenwhichtypesofflowersyou’dliketogrowinyourgarden,visityourlocalgardenstoreornurseryandpickoutalready-establishedplantsorpackaged seeds. Follow the planting instructions on the plant tabs or seedpackets.Thesmallerplantsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthebed.Onceyourplants or seeds are in their holes, pack in the soil around them.Make sure toleaveamplespacebetweenyourseedsorplantsforthemtogrowandspreadout(most labels and packets will alert you to how large your flower should beexpectedtogrow,soyoucanadjustthespacingasneeded).

StepSix:WaterYourFlowerGarden

After your plants or seeds are first put into the ground, be sure they get athoroughwatering.Continuetocheckyourgardentoseewhetherornotthesoilis drying out. If so, give your garden a good soakingwith the gardenhose orwatering can. The amount of water your garden needs is dependent on theclimateyou live in, theexposure to thesun,andhowmuchrainyourareahasreceived.

Bright,fragrantflowerswillattractbutterfliestoyourgarden.

StepSeven:YourFlowers

Onceyourflowersbegintobloom,feelfreetocutthemanddisplaythebeautifulblooms in your home. Pruning your flower garden (cutting the dead or dyingblooms off the plant) will help certain plants to re-bloom. Also, if you haveplantsthatarebecomingtopheavy,supportthemwithastakeandsomestringsoyoucanenjoytheirblossomstothefullest.

To transplant flowers fromonegrowing location to another, dig up the plant,beingcarefulnottodamagetherootsystem.Wraptherootballinalargeleaforaclothandtieatthetoparoundthestepstokeeptherootsfromdryingout.Leafwrappingsdonotneedtoberemovedbeforereplanting.Besuretowatertheplantthoroughlyafterplantingitinitsnewlocation.

ThingstoConsiderAnnuals are plants that you need to replant every year. They are ofteninexpensive, and many have brightly colored flowers. Annuals can berewarding for beginner gardeners, as they take little effort and providelovelycolortoyourgarden.Thefollowingseason,you’llneedtoreplantorstartoverfromseed.

Perennials last from one year to the next. They, too, will require annualmaintenance but not yearly replanting. Perennials may require division,support, and extra care during winter months. Perennials may also needtheiroldbloomsandstemsprunedandcutbackeverysooften.Healthy,happyplantstendtobelesssusceptibletopestsanddiseases.Itiseasiertopracticepreventionratherthancuringexistingproblems.Doyourbesttogiveyourplantsgoodsoil,nutrients,andappropriatemoisture,andchooseplants that arewell-suited to your climate.Thisway, your gardenwillbemorelikelytogrowtoitsmaximumpotentialandyourplantswillbestrongandhealthy.

A fence can be set up around your garden to keep out deer and other wildanimals.Seepages248–253forfenceconstructionideas.

Garden centers or farm stands often sell flowers that are started in flats orplugs.Becausetherootsystemsarealreadyestablished,theyareeasiertogrowandcreateaninstantlyattractivegarden.

BarrelPlantHolder

Ifyouhavesomeperennialsyouwanttodisplayinyouryardawayfrom your flower garden, you can create a planter out of an oldbarrel.Thisplantholderismadebysawinganoldbarrel(woodenormetal) into two pieces and mounting it on short or tall legs—whicheverdesignfitsbetter inyouryard.Youcanchoosetoeitherpaintitorleaveitnatural.Fillingtheplanterwithgood-qualitysoilandcompostandplantinganarrayofmulti-coloredflowersintothebarrelplanterwillbrightenupyouryardallsummerlong.Ifyoudonotwanttomountthebarrelonlegs,itcanbeplacedonthegroundonasmoothandlevelsurfacewhereitwon’teasilytipover.

RusticPlantStand

Ifyou’dliketoincorporatearustic,natural-lookingplantstandinyourgardenoronyourpatioordeck,onecaneasilybemadefromapreexistingwoodenboxorbynailingboards together.Thisbox shouldbemountedon legs.Tomake thelegs, saw thepieceofwoodmeant for the leg inhalf toa length from the topequaltothedepthofthebox.Then,crosscutandremoveonehalf.Thecorneroftheboxcanthenbeinsertedinthemiddleofthecrosscutandthelegnailedtothesideofthebox.

Theplantstandcanbedecoratedtosuityourneedsandpreference.Youcannailsmaller,alternatingtwigsorcutbranchesaroundthestandtogiveitamorenatural feeloryoucansimplypaint it a soothing,naturalcolorandplace it inyouryard.

WoodenWindowBox

Plantingperennialflowersandcascadingplantsinwindowboxesisthe perfect way to brighten up the front exterior of your home.Making a simple wooden window box to hold your flowers andplants is quite easy. These boxes can be made from preexistingwoodenboxes(suchasfruitcrates)oryoucanmakeyourownoutof simple boards. Whatever method you choose, make sure theboardsarestoutenoughtoholdthebradsfirmly.

The size of your window will ultimately determine the size ofyourbox,butthisplancallsforaboxroughly21x7x7inches.Youcandecorateyourboxeswithwaterproofpaintoryoucannailstripsofwoodorstickstothepanels.Makesuretocutafewholesinthebottomoftheboxtoallowforwaterdrainage.Thewindowboxcanbekept inpositionbytwometalangle-piecesscrewedtothewoodsillandtothebackofthebox.

PlantingTrees

Treesinyouryardcanbecomehometomanydifferenttypesofwildlife.Treesalsoreduceyourcoolingcostsbyprovidingshade,helpcleantheair,addbeautyand color, provide shelter from the wind and the sun, and add value to yourhome.

ChoosingaTreeChoosing a tree shouldbe awell-thought-out decision.Treeplanting canbe asignificant investment, both in money and time. Selecting the proper tree foryour yard can provide you with years of enjoyment, as well as significantlyincrease the value of your property. However, a tree that is inappropriate foryourpropertycanbeaconstantmaintenanceproblem,orevenadangertoyourandothers’safety.Beforeyoudecide topurchasea tree, takeadvantageof themanyreferencesongardeningatlocallibraries,universities,arboretums,nativeplantandgardeningclubs,andnurseries.Somequestionstoconsiderinselectingatreeinclude:

Fruittreesprovidesweet-smellingflowersinthespringandfruitinthefall.

1.Whatpurposewillthistreeserve?

Trees can serve numerous landscape functions, including beautification,screening of sights and sounds, shade and energy conservation, and wildlifehabitat.

2.Isthespeciesappropriateforyourarea?

Reliable nurseries will not sell plants that are not suitable for your area.However,somemassmarketershavetreesandshrubsthatarenotfittedfortheenvironment inwhich theyare sold.Even if a tree ishardy, itmaynot flowerconsistentlyfromyeartoyeariftheenvironmentalfactorsarenotconduciveforittodoso.Ifyouarebuyingatreeforitsspringflowersandfallfruits,considerclimatewhendecidingwhichspeciesoftreetoplant.

Be aware of microclimates. Microclimates are localized areas whereweather conditionsmay vary from the norm. A very sheltered yardmaysupportvegetationnotnormallyadaptedtotheregion.Ontheotherhand,anorth-facingslopemaybesignificantlycoolerorwindierthansurroundingareas,andsurvivalofnormallyadaptedplantsmaybelimited.Select treesnative toyourarea.These treeswillbemore tolerantof localweather and soil conditions, enhance natural biodiversity in yourneighborhood, and be more beneficial to wildlife than many non-nativetrees. Avoid exotic trees that can invade other areas, crowd out nativeplants,andharmnaturalecosystems.

Full-grown trees create a shade-producing canopy of branches and leaves.Shadecanbeagoodadditiontoyourproperty,butbesureyoudon’tplanttreesinanareawhereyouwantagardenthatrequiresfullsun.

3.Howbigwillitget?

Whenplantingasmall tree, it isoftendifficult toimaginethatin20yearsitwill most likely be shading your entire yard. Unfortunately, many trees are

planted and later removedwhen the tree grows beyond the dimensions of theproperty.

4.Whatistheaveragelifeexpectancyofthetree?

Sometreescanliveforhundredsofyears.Othersareconsidered“short-lived”andmayliveforonly20to30years.Manyshort-livedtreestendtobesmaller,ornamentalspecies.Short-livedspeciesshouldnotnecessarilyberuledoutwhenconsideringplantings,as theymayhaveotherdesirablecharacteristics,suchassize, shape, toleranceof shade,or fruit, thatwouldbeuseful in the landscape.Thesespeciesmayalsofillavoidinayounglandscapeandcanberemovedasotherlarger,longer-livedspeciesmature.

5.Doesithaveanyparticularornamentalvalue,suchasleafcolororflowersandfruits?

Some species provide beautiful displays of color for short periods in thespringorfall.Otherspeciesmayhavefoliage that is reddishorvariegatedandcanaddcolorinyouryardyear-round.Treesbearingfruitsornutscanprovideanexcellentsourceoffoodformanyspeciesofwildlife.

6.Doesithaveanyparticularinsect,disease,orotherproblemthatmayreduceitsusefulnessinthefuture?

Certain insects and diseases can cause serious problems for some desirablespeciesincertainregions.Dependingonthepest,controloftheproblemmaybedifficultand thepestmaysignificantly reduce theattractiveness, ifnot the lifeexpectancy, of the tree.Other species, such as the silvermaple, are known tohaveweakwoodthatissusceptibletodamageinicestormsorheavywinds.Allthese factors should be kept inmind, as controlling pests or dealingwith treelimbs that have snapped in foul weather can be expensive and potentiallydamaging.

7.Howcommonisthisspeciesinyourneighborhoodortown?

Some species are over-planted. Increasing the natural diversity in your areawillprovidehabitatforwildlifeandhelplimittheopportunityforasinglepesttodestroylargenumbersoftrees.

8.Isthetreeevergreenordeciduous?

Evergreen treeswillprovidecoverand shadeyear-round.Theymayalsobemore effective aswind and noise barriers.On the other hand, deciduous treeswillgiveyousummershadebutallowthewintersun toshine in. Ifplantingadeciduoustree,keeptheseheatingandcoolingfactorsinmindwhenplacingthetreeinyouryard.

PlacementofTrees

Properplacementoftreesiscriticalforyourenjoymentandfortheirlong-termsurvival.Checkwithlocalauthoritiesaboutregulationspertainingtoplacementof trees inyourarea.Somecommunitieshaveordinancesrestrictingplacementof treeswithinaspecifieddistancefromastreet,sidewalk,streetlight,orothercityutilities.

Before planting your tree, consider the tree’s potential maximum size. Askyourselfthesesimplequestions:

1.When the treenearsmaturity,will itbe tooclose toyouroraneighbor’shouse?Anevergreentreeplantedonyournorthsidemayblockthewintersunfromyournext-doorneighbor.

2.Will it provide too much shade for your vegetable and flower gardens?Mostvegetablesandmanyflowersrequireconsiderableamountsofsun.Ifyouintend to grow these plants in your yard, consider how the placement of treeswillaffectthesegardens.

3.Willthetreeobstructanydrivewaysorsidewalks?

4.Willitcauseproblemsforburiedoroverheadpowerlinesandutilitypipes?

Onceyouhavetakenthesequestionsintoconsiderationandhavebought theperfecttreeforyouryard,itistimetostartdigging!

PlantingaTreeAproperlyplantedandmaintainedtreewillgrowfasterandlivelongerthanonethatisincorrectlyplanted.Treescanbeplantedalmostanytimeoftheyear,aslongasthegroundisnotfrozen.Latesummerorearlyfallistheoptimumtimeto plant trees in many areas. By planting during these times, the tree has achance to establish new roots before winter arrives and the ground freezes.

When spring comes, the tree is then ready to grow.Another feasible time forplanting trees is late winter or early spring. Planting in hot summer weathershould be avoided if possible as the heat may cause the young tree to wilt.Planting in frozen soil during thewinter is very difficult and is tough on treeroots.Whenthetreeisdormantandthegroundisfrozen,thereisnoopportunityforthenewrootstobegingrowing.

B&Btreesaredugfromanursery,wrappedinburlap,andkeptinthenurseryforanadditionalperiodoftime,givingtherootsopportunitytoregenerate.B&Bplantscanbequitelarge.

Treescanbepurchasedascontainer-grown,balledandburlapped(B&B),orbare root.Generally, container-grown are the easiest to plant and successfullyestablish in any season, including summer. With container-grown stock, theplant has been growing in a container for a period of time. When plantingcontainer-grown trees, little damage is done to the roots as the plant istransferred to the soil. Container-grown trees range in size from very smallplantsingallonpotsuptolargetreesinhugepots.

Bare root trees are usually extremely small plants. Because there is no soilaround the roots, theymustbeplantedwhen theyaredormant toavoiddryingout,and the rootsmustbekeptmoistuntilplanted.Frequently,bare root treesareofferedbyseedandnurserymailordercatalogs,or in thewholesale trade.Manystateoperatednurseriesandlocalconservationdistrictsalsosellbarerootstock in bulk quantities for only a few cents per plant. Bare root plants areusuallyofferedintheearlyspringandshouldbeplantedassoonaspossible.

ThingsYou’llNeed

TreeShovelWateringcanorgardenhoseMeasuringstickMulchOptional:scissorsorknifetocuttheburlaporcontainer,stakes,andsupportingwires

Besuretocarefullyfollowtheplantinginstructionsthatcomewithyourtree.If specific instructions are not available, here are some general tree-plantingguidelines:

1.Beforestartinganydigging,callyourlocalutilitycompaniestoidentifythelocationofanyundergroundwiresorlines.IntheU.S.,youcancall811tohaveyourutilitylinesmarkedforfree.

2. Dig a hole twice as wide as, and slightly shallower than, the root ball.Roughenthesidesandbottomoftheholewithapickorshovelsothattherootscaneasilypenetratethesoil.

3.Withapotted tree,gently remove the tree fromthecontainer.Todo this,lay the tree on its side with the container end near the planting hole. Hit thebottom and sides of the container until the root ball is loosened. If roots aregrowing in a circularpattern around the rootball, slice through the rootsonacoupleofsidesoftherootball.Withtreeswrappedinburlap,removethestringorwirethatholdstheburlaptotherootcrown;itisnotnecessarytoremovetheburlapcompletely.Plasticwrapsmustbecompletelyremoved.Gentlyseparatecircling roots on the root ball. Shorten exceptionally long roots and guide theshortenedrootsdownwardandoutward.Roottipsdiequicklywhenexposedtolightandair,socompletethisstepasquicklyaspossible.

Burlapwraps do not need to be removed before planting your tree. Theywilldecomposeinthesoilwithtime.

4. Place the root ball in the hole. Leave the top of the root ball (where therootsendandthetrunkbegins)½to1inchabovethesurroundingsoil,makingsurenot to cover it unless the roots are exposed.Forbare rootplants,make amoundofsoil in themiddleof theholeandspreadplantrootsoutevenlyoverthemound.Donotsetthetreetoodeepintothehole.

5.Asyouaddsoiltofillinaroundthetree,lightlytapthesoiltocollapseairpockets, or add water to help settle the soil. Form a temporary water basinaroundthebaseofthetreetoencouragewaterpenetration,andbesuretowaterthe tree thoroughly after planting. A tree with a dry root ball cannot absorbwater; if the root ball is extremely dry, allowwater to trickle into the soil byplacingthehoseatthetrunkofthetree.

6. Place mulch around the tree. A circle of mulch, 3 feet in diameter, iscommon.

7.Dependingonthesizeofthetreeandthesiteconditions,stakingthetreeinplace may be beneficial. Staking supports the tree until the roots are well-established toproperly anchor it. Staking should allow for somemovementofthetreeonwindydays.Aftertreesareestablished,removeallsupportingwires.If these are not removed, they can girdle the tree, cut into the trunk, andeventuallykillthetree.

MaintenanceFor thefirstyearor two,especiallyafteraweekorsoofespeciallyhotordryweather,watchyourtreecloselyforsignsofmoisturestress.Ifyouseeanyleafwiltingorhard,cakedsoil,water the treewellandslowlyenoughtoallowthewatertosoakin.Thiswillencouragedeeprootgrowth.Keeptheareaunderthetreemulched.

Somespeciesofevergreentreesmayneedprotectionagainstwintersunandwind.Athoroughwateringinthefallbeforethegroundfreezesisrecommended.

Fertilizationisusuallynotneededfornewlyplantedtrees.Dependingonthesoilandgrowingconditions,fertilizermaybebeneficialatalatertime.

Young trees need protection against rodents, frost cracks, sunscald, lawnmowers,andweedwhackers.Inthewintermonths,miceandrabbitsfrequentlygirdlesmalltreesbychewingawaythebarkatthesnowlevel.Sincethetissuesthattransportnutrientsinthetreearelocatedjustunderthebark,agirdledtreeoften dies in the spring when growth resumes. Weed whackers are also acommon cause of girdling. To prevent girdling, use plastic guards, which areinexpensiveandeasytocontrol.

Frostcrackingiscausedbythesunnysideofthetreeexpandingatadifferentrate than the colder, shaded side. This can cause large splits in the trunk. Topreventthis,wrapyoungtreeswithpapertreewrap,startingfromthebaseandwrappingup to thebottombranches.Sunscaldcanoccurwhenayoung tree issuddenlymovedfromashadyspotintodirectsunlight.Light-coloredtreewrapscanbeusedtoprotectthetrunkfromsunscald.

Pruning

Usually,pruning isnotneededonnewlyplanted trees.As the treegrows, lower branchesmay be pruned to provide clearance abovethe ground, or to remove dead or damaged limbs or suckers thatsproutfromthetrunk.Sometimeslargertreesneedpruningtoallowmore light to enter the canopy. Small branches can be removedeasily with pruners. Large branches should be removed with apruningsaw.Allcutsshouldbevertical.Thiswillallowthetreetohealquicklywithouttheuseofanyartificialsealants.Majorpruningshouldbedoneinlatewinterorearlyspring.Atthistime,thetreeismore likely to “bleed,” as sap is rising through the plant. This isactually healthy and will help prevent invasion by many disease-carryingorganisms.

Under no circumstance should trees be topped (topping ischopping off large top tree branches). Not only does this practiceruin the natural shape of the tree, but it also increases itssusceptibility to diseases and results in very narrow crotch angles

(the angle between the trunk and the side branch). Narrow crotchanglesareweaker thanwideonesandmore susceptible todamagefromwindandice.Ifalargetreerequiresmajorreductioninheightorsize,contactaprofessionallytrainedarborist.

FinalThoughtsTreesarenaturalwindbreaks,slowingthewindandprovidingshelterandfoodforwildlife. Trees can help protect livestock, gardens, and larger crops. Theyalso help prevent dust particles from adding to smog over urban areas. Treeplantings are key components of an effective conservation system and canprovideyouryardwithbeauty;shade;andrich,naturalresources.

ContainerGardening

Analternativetogrowingvegetables,flowers,andherbsinatraditionalgardenistogrowthemincontainers.Whiletheamountthatcanbegrowninacontaineris certainly limited, container gardens work well for tomatoes, peppers,cucumbers,herbs,saladgreens,andmanyfloweringannuals.Choosevegetablevarietiesthathavebeenspecificallybredforcontainergrowing.Youcanobtainthisinformationonlineoratyourgardencenter.Containergardeningalsobringsbirdsandbutterfliesrighttoyourdoorstep.Hangingbasketsoffuchsiaorpotsofsnapdragons are frequently visited by hummingbirds, allowing for up-closeobservation.

Containergardeningisanexcellentmethodofgrowingvegetables,herbs,andflowers,especiallyifyoudonothaveadequateoutdoorspaceforafullgardenbed. A container garden can be placed anywhere—on the patio, balcony,rooftop,orwindowsill.Vegetablessuchasleaflettuce,radishes,smalltomatoes,andbabycarrotscanallbegrownsuccessfullyinpots.

HowtoGrowVegetablesinaContainerGardenHerearesomesimplestepstofollowforgrowingvegetablesincontainers.

1. Choose a sunny area for your container plants. Your plants will need atleast five tosixhoursofsunlightaday.Someplants,suchascucumbers,mayneedmore.

Selectplantsthataresuitableforcontainergrowing.Usuallytheirnamewillhave words such as “patio,” “bush,” “dwarf,” “toy,” or “miniature” in them.Peppers,onions,andcarrotsarealsogoodchoices.

2.Choose a planter that is at least 5gallons, unless theplant is very small.Poke holes in the bottom if they don’t already exist; the soilmust be able todraintopreventtherootsfromrotting.Avoidterracottaordark-coloredpotsastheytendtodryoutquickly.

3.Fillyourcontainerwithpottingsoil.Goodpottingsoilwillhaveamixtureof peat moss and vermiculite. You can make your own potting soil usingcomposted soil (see pages 19–23). Read theDirections on the seed packet orlabeltodeterminehowdeeptoplantyourseeds.

4. Check the moisture of the soil frequently. You don’t want the soil tobecomemuddy,butthesoilshouldalwaysfeeldamptothetouch.Donotwaituntiltheplantiswiltingtowaterit—atthatpoint,itmaybetoolate.

ThingstoConsiderFollownormalplantingschedulesforyourclimatewhendeterminingwhentoplantyourcontainergarden.You may wish to line your container with porous materials such asshreddednewspaperorragstokeepthesoilfromwashingout.Besurethesoilcanstilldraineasily.

Youonlyneedafewsimpletoolsforcontainergardening.

HowtoGrowHerbsinaContainerHerbswillthriveincontainersifcaredforproperly.Andifyoukeepthemnearyour kitchen, you can easily snip off pieces to use in cooking.Here’s how tostartyourownherbcontainergarden:

1.Ifyourcontainerdoesn’talreadyhaveholesinthebottom,pokeseveraltoallowthesoiltodrain.Pourgravelintothecontaineruntilitisaboutaquarteroftheway full.Thiswillhelp thewaterdrainoutandhelp tokeep thesoil fromwashingout.

2. Fill your container three-quarters of the way with potting soil or a soil-basedcompost.

3.It’sbesttouseseedlingswhenplantingherbsincontainers.Teasetherootsslightly, gently spreading themapartwithyour fingertips.Thiswill encouragethemtospreadonceplanted.Placeeachherbintothepotandcovertherootbasewithsoil.Placeherbsthatwillgrowtallerinthecenterofyourcontainer,andthesmalleronesaroundtheedges.Leaveaboutfoursquareinchesofspacebetweeneachseedling.

4.Asyougentlypressinsoilbetweentheplants,leaveaninchorsobetweenthecontainer’stopandthesoil.Youdon’twantthecontainertooverflowwhenyouwatertheherbs.

5.Cutthetopsoffthetallerherbplantstoencouragethemtogrowfasterandtoproducemoreleaves.

6.Pourwater into thecontaineruntil itbegins to leakout thebottom.Mostherbsliketodryoutbetweenwatering,andover-wateringcancausesomeherbstorotanddie,sowateronlyeveryfewdaysunlesstheplantsareinaveryhotplace.

It’s easiest to grow herbs from seedlings like these, though you can certainlygrowthemfromseeds,too.

ThingstoConsider

Growing severalkindsofherbs togetherhelps theplants to thrive.A fewexceptionstothisruleareoregano,lemonbalm,andteabalm.Theseherbsshouldbeplantedontheirownbecausetheywillovertaketheotherherbsinyourcontainer.Youmaywishtochooseyourherbsaccordingtocolortocreateattractivearrangementsforyourhome.Anyofthefollowingherbswillgrowwellincontainers:Silverherbs:artemsias,curryplans,santolinasGoldenherbs:lemonthyme,calendula,nasturtium,sage,lemonbalmBlueherbs:borage,hyssop,rosemary,catnipGreenherbs:basil,mint,marjoram,thyme,parsley,chives,tarragonPinkandpurpleherbs:oregano(theflowers)arepink,lavenderIfyoudecidetotransplantyourherbsinthesummermonths,theywillgrowquitewelloutdoorsandwillgiveyoualargerharvest.

Cinder blocks or simple wooden planters made of scrap wood can makeinexpensivecontainergardens.

HowtoGrowFlowersfromSeedsinaContainer1.Coverthedrainageholeinthebottomofthepotwithaflatstone.Thiswill

keepthesoilfromtricklingoutwhentheplantiswatered.

2.Fillthecontainerwithsoil.Thecontainershouldbefilledalmosttothetopandforthebestresults,usepottingsoilfromyourlocalnurseryorgardencenter.

3.Makeholesfortheseeds.Refertotheseedpackettoseehowdeeptomaketheholes.Alwayssavetheseedpacketforfuturereference—itmost likelyhashelpfuldirectionsaboutthinningyoungplants.

4.Placeaseedineachhole.Patthesoilgentlyontopofeachseed.

5.Usealightmisttowateryourseeds,makingsurethatthesoilisonlymoistandnotsoaked.

6.Makesureyourseedsgetthecorrectamountofsunlight.Refertotheseedpacketfortheadequateamountofsunlighteachseedlingneeds.

7.Watchyourseedsgrow.Mostseedstake3to17daystosprout.Oncetheplantsstartsprouting,besuretopulloutplantsthataretooclosetogethersotheremainingplantswillhaveenoughspacetoestablishgoodrootsystems.

8.Remembertowaterandfeedyourcontainerplants.Keepthesoilmoistsoyourplantscangrow.Andinnotimeatall,youshouldhavewonderfulflowersgrowinginyourcontainergarden.

Growingflowersfromseeds.

PreservingYourContainerPlantsAs fall approaches, frost will soon descend on your container plants and canultimatelydestroyyourgarden.Containerplants areparticularly susceptible tofrostdamage,especiallyifyouaregrowingtropicalplants,perennials,andhardywoodyplants in a single container garden.There aremanyways that you canpreserve and maintain your container garden plants throughout the winterseason.

Preservation techniqueswill vary depending on the plants in your containergarden. Tropical plants can be over-wintered using methods replicating a dryseason, forcing the plant into dormancy; hardy perennials and woody shrubsneedacolddormancytogrowinthespring,sotheymuststayoutside;cactiandsucculentsprefertheirwinterswarmanddryandmustbebroughtinside,whilemany annuals can be propagated by stem cuttings or can just be repotted andmaintainedinside.

PreservingTropicalBulbsandTubers

Manytropicalplants,suchascannas,elephantears,andangel’strumpetscanbesavedfromanuntimelydeathbyover-winteringtheminadarkcornerorsunnywindow of your home, depending on the type of plant. A lot of bulbous andtuberous tropical plants have a natural dry season (analogous to our winter)when their leafy parts die off, leaving the bulb behind.Don’t throw the bulbsaway. After heavy frosts turn the aboveground plant parts to mush, cut thedamagedfoliageoffabout4inchesabovethethickenedbulb.Then,digthemupandremoveallexcesssoilfromtheroots.Atthispoint,youcandetermineiftheclumpneedsdividing.Ifitneedsdividing,besuretodustallcutsurfaceswithasulfur-basedfungicidemadeforbulbs toprevent thewounds fromrotting.Cuttherootsbackto1inchfromthebulbandleavetodryoutevenly.Rottenbulbs

orrootsneedtobethrownawaysoinfectiondoesn’tspreadtothehealthybulbs.

A bulb’s or tuber’s drying time can last up to twoweeks if it is sitting onsomethingabsorbent likenewspaperand locatedsomewhere shadedanddry—preferably around 50°F—such as a garage or basement. Once clean and dry,bulbs should be stored allwinter in damp (not soggy)milled peatmoss. Thispreventsthebulbsfromdryingoutanyfurther,whichcouldcausethemtodie.Manygardenersdon’t have aperfectly cool basementor garage tokeepbulbsdormant.Alternativemethodsfordrystorageincludeadarkclosetwiththedoorcrackedforcirculation,acabinet,orunderneathabedinacardboardboxwithafewholespunchedforairflow.Theimportant thing tokeepinmindis that thebulbneedstobekeptonthedryside,inthedark,andmoderatelywarm.

Ifabulbwasgrownasasinglespecimeninitsownpot,theentirepotcanbeplacedinagaragethatstaysabove50°Foracoolbasementandallowedtodryout completely. Cut all aboveground plant parts flush with the soil and don’twater until the outside temperatures stabilize above 60°F. Often, bulbs breakdormancy unexpectedly in this dry pot method. If this happens, pots can bemovedtoasunnylocationnearawindowandwateredsparinglyuntiltheycanbe placed outside. The emerging leaveswill be stunted, but once outside, theplantwillreplaceanyspindlyleaveswithlush,newones.

Annuals

Manyherbaceousannualscanalsobesavedfor thefollowingyear.Byrootingstem cuttings in water on a sunny windowsill, plants like impatiens, coleus,sweetpotatovinecultivars,andpurpleheartcanbeheldoverwinteruntilneededin the spring.Otherwise, the plants can be cut back by half, potted in a peat-based,soillessmix,andplacedonasunnywindowsill.Withawideassortmentof “annuals” available on the market, some research is required to determinewhichannualscanbeover-winteredsuccessfully.Trueannuals(suchasbasils,cockscomb, and zinnias)—regardless of any treatment given—will go to seedanddiewhenbroughtinside.

CactiandSucculents

If you planted a mixed dry container this year and want to retain any of theplants for next year, they should be removed from the main container andrepotted intoahigh-sand-content soilmix forcacti and succulents.Keep themnear a sunnywindowandwaterwhendry.Many succulents andcactidowell

indoors,eitherinaheatedgarageoramoderatelysunnycornerofalivingroom.

Aswith other tropical plants, succulents also need time to adjust to sunnierconditionsinthespring.Movethemtoashadyspotoutsidewhentemperatureshave stabilized above 60°F and then gradually introduce them to brighterconditions.

HardyPerennials,Shrubs,andVines

Hardyperennials,woody shrubs, and vines needn’t be thrown awaywhen it’stimetogetridofaccentcontainers.Crack-resistant,four-seasoncontainerscanhouse perennials and woody shrubs year-round. Below is a list of specificperennialsandwoodyplantsthatdowellinbothhotandcoldweather,indoorsandout:

Shade perennials, like coral bells, lenten rose, assorted hardy ferns, andJapaneseforestgrassaregreatforallweathercontainers.Sun-loving perennials, such as sedges, some salvias, purple coneflower,daylily, spiderwort, and bee blossom are also very hardy and do well inyear-roundcontainers.Interplantthemwithcoolgrowingplants,likekale,pansies,andSwisschard,forfallandspringinterest.Woodyshrubsandvines—manyofwhichhavegreat foliage interestwithfour-seasonappeal—areidealforcontainergardens.Red-twiggeddogwoodcultivars,clematisvinecultivars,anddwarfcrapemyrtlecultivarsaregreatcontaineradditionsthatcanstayoutdoorsyear-round.

Ifthecontainerhastoberemoved,hardyperennialsandwoodyshrubscanbetemporarilyplantedinthegroundandmulched.Digthemfromthegardeninthespring,ifyouwish,andreplantintoacontainer.Or,leavethemintheirgardenspot and start overwith fresh ideas and newplantmaterial for your containergarden.

SustainablePlantsandMoneyinYourPocket

Over-winteringisagreatformofsustainableplantconservationachievedsimplyand effectively by adhering to each plant’s cultural and environmental needs.Withcarefulplanningandstoragetechniques,you’llsavemoneyaswellasplantmaterial. The beauty and interest you’ve created in this season’s well-growncontainergardencanalsoprovideenjoymentforyearstocome.

Youcanmakecontainergardensoutofalmostanything.

RooftopGardens

If you live in an urban area and don’t have a lawn, that does not mean youcannothaveagarden.Whetheryou live inanapartmentbuildingorownyourown homewithout yard space, you can grow your very own garden, right onyourroof!

IsYourRoofSuitableforaRooftopGarden?Theoretically,anyroofsurfacecanbegreened—evenslopedorcurvedroofscansupportalayerofsodorwildflowers.However,iftheangleofyourroofisover30 degrees you should consult with a specialist. Very slanted roofs make itdifficulttokeepthesoilinplaceuntiltheplant’srootstakehold.Certainly,aflatroof, approximating level ground conditions is the easiest onwhich to grow agarden,thoughaslightslantcanbehelpfulinallowingdrainage.

Also consider howmuchweight your roof can bear. A simple, lightweightrooftop gardenwillweigh between13 and30 pounds per square foot.Add tothis your ownweight—or that of anyonewhowill be tending or enjoying thegarden—gardening tools, and, if you live in a colder climate, the additionalweightofsnowinthewinter.

Rooftopgardensarebecomingmorepopularinurbanareasaroundtheworld.

BenefitsofRooftopGardening

Create more outdoor green space within your urbanenvironment.Growyourownfreshvegetables—eveninthecity.ImproveairqualityandreduceCO2emissions.Helpdelaystormwaterrunoff.Giveadditionalinsulationtobuildingroofs.Reducenoise.

WillaRooftopGardenCauseWaterLeakageorOtherDamage?No.Infact,plantingbedsorsurfacesareoftenusedtoprotectandinsulateroofs.However,youshouldtakesomeprecautionstoprotectyourroof:

1.Coveryourroofwithalayerofwaterproofmaterial,suchasaheavy-dutypondliner.Youmaywanttoplaceanoldrugontopofthewaterproofmaterialtohelpitstayinplaceandtogiveadditionalsupporttothematerialsontop.

2. Place a protective drainage layer on top of the waterproof material.Otherwise,shovels,shoeheels,ordroppedtoolscouldpuncturetheroof.Useacoarsematerialsuchasgravel,pumice,orexpandedshale.

3.Placeafilterlayerontopofthedrainagelayertokeepsoilinplacesothatit won’t clog up your drainage. A lightweight polyester geotextile (aninexpensive,non-wovenfabricfoundatmosthomeimprovementstores)isidealforthis.Notethatifyourroofhasanangleofover10degrees,onlyinstallthefilterlayeraroundtheedgesoftheroofasitcanincreaseslippage.

4. Using movable planters or containers, modular walkways and surfacingtreatment,andcompartmentalizedplantingbedswillmakeiteasier tofixleaksshouldtheyappear.

HowtoMakeaRooftopGarden

Preparation

1.Beforeyoubegin,findoutifitispossibleandlegaltocreateagarden on your roof. You don’t want to spend lots of time andmoneypreparingforagardenandthenfindoutthatitisprohibited.

2.Makesurethattheroofisabletoholdtheweightofarooftopgarden. If so, figure out howmuchweight it can hold.Rememberthiswhenmaking thegardenanduse lightercontainersandsoilasneeded.

SettingUptheGarden

1.Installyourwaterproof,protectivedrainage,andfilterlayers,asdescribed earlier. If your roof is angled, youmaywant to place awoodenframearoundtheedgesoftherooftokeepthelayersfromslidingoff.Besuretouserot-resistantwoodandcutoutletsintotheframetoallowexcesswatertodrainaway.Layerpebblesaroundtheoutletstoaiddrainageandtokeepvegetationfromcloggingthem.

2.Addsoiltoyourgarden.Itshouldbe1–4inchesthickandwillbebest if it’samixof¾inorganicsoil (crushedbrickorasimilargranularmaterial)and¼organiccompost.

PlantingandMaintainingtheGarden

1. Start planting. You can plant seeds, seedlings, or transplantmatureplants.Chooseplantsthatarewind-resistantandwon’tneedagreatdealofmaintenance.Sedumsmakeexcellent rooftopplantsastheyrequireverylittleattentiononceplanted,arehardy,andareattractive throughout most of the year. Most vegetables can begrown in-season on rooftops, though the wind will make tallervegetables (like corn or beans) difficult to grow. If your roof isslanted, plant drought-resistant plant varieties near the peak, asthey’llgetlesswater.

Youcanusecontainerplantsonyour rooftoprather than layingagardendirectlyontheroof.However,stillbesurethatyourroofissturdyenough tohold thepotsand thepeoplewhowillbe tendingthem.

2. Water your garden immediately after planting, and thenregularlythroughoutthegrowingseason,unlessraindoestheworkforyou.

ThingstoConsider1. If you live in a very hot area, you may want to build small wooden

platforms to elevateyourplants above thehot rooftop.Thiswill help increasetheventilationaroundtheplants.

2.Whendeterminingthestrengthofyourroof,rememberthatlargepotsfullofwaterandsoilwillbeveryheavy,andiftheroofisnotstrongenough,yourgardencouldcausestructuraldamage.

3.Youcanusepotsorothercontainersonyourrooftopratherthanmakingafullgardenbed.Youshouldstill firstfindouthowmuchweightyourroofcanholdandchooselightweightcontainers.

4.Consideraddingafenceorrailingaroundyourroof,especiallyifchildrenwillbehelpinginthegarden.

Terracing

Terraces can create several mini-gardens in your backyard. On steep slopes,terracingcanmakeplantingagardenpossible.Terracesalsopreventerosionbyshortening a long slope into a series of shorter,more level steps. This allowsheavyrainstosoakintothesoilratherthantorunoffandcauseerosionandpoorplantgrowth.

MaterialsNeededforTerracesNumerousmaterials are available for building terraces. Treatedwood is oftenused in terracebuildingandhas severaladvantages: It is easy toworkwith, itblends well with plants and the surrounding environment, and it is often lessexpensivethanothermaterials.Therearemanytypesoftreatedwoodavailablefor terracing—railroad ties and landscaping timbers are just two examples.Thesematerialswill last for years,which is crucial if you are hoping to keepyourterracedgardenintactforanylengthoftime.Therehasbeensomeconcernabout using these treatedmaterials around plants, but studies by TexasA&MUniversityand theSouthwestResearch Instituteconcluded that thesematerialsarenotharmfultogardensorpeoplewhenusedasrecommended.

Othermaterialsforterracesincludebricks,rocks,concreteblocks,andsimilarmasonrymaterials.Somemasonrymaterialsaremadespecificallyforwallsandterracesandcanbemoreeasilyinstalledbyahomeownerthanothermaterials.Theseincludefieldstoneandbrick.Onedrawbackisthatmoststoneormasonryproducts tend to bemore expensive thanwood, so if you are looking to savemoney,treatedwoodwillmakeasufficientterracewall.

HowHighShouldtheTerraceWallsBe?The steepness of the slope on which you wish to garden often dictates theappropriate height of the terrace wall. Make the terraces in your yard highenoughsothelandbetweenthemisfairlylevel.Besuretheterracematerial isstrongenoughandanchoredwelltostayinplacethroughfreezingandthawing,andduringheavyrainstorms.Donotunderestimatethepressureofwaterloggedsoil behindawall—it canbe enormous andwill cause improperly constructed

wallstobulgeorcollapse.

Manycommunitieshavebuildingcodesforwallsandterraces.Largeprojectswillmostlikelyneedtheexpertiseofaprofessionallandscapertomakesurethewallscanstandup towaterpressure in thesoil.Large terracesalsoneed tobebuiltwithadequatedrainageand tiedback into the slopeproperly.Becauseoftheexpertiseandequipmentrequiredtodothiscorrectly,youwillprobablywanttorestrictterracesyoubuildonyourowntonomorethanafootortwohigh.

Terraceshelppreventerosionandencouragevegetationonslopedground.

BuildingYourOwnTerraceThesafestwaytobuilda terraceisbyusingthecutandfillmethod.Withthismethod, little soil is disturbed, giving you protection from erosion should asuddenstormoccurwhiletheworkisinprogress.Thismethodwillalsorequirelittle,ifany,additionalsoil.Herearethestepsneededtobuildyourownterrace:

1.Contactyourutilitycompaniestoidentifythelocationofanyburiedutilitylinesandpipesbeforestartingtodig.

2.Determine the riseandrunofyourslope.Therise is theverticaldistancefrom the bottom of the slope to the top. The run is the horizontal distancebetween the top and the bottom. Thiswill allow you to determine howmanyterracesyouwillneed.Forexample,ifyourrunis20feetandtheriseis8feet,andyouwanteachbed tobe5feetwide,youwillneedfourbeds.Theriseofeachbedwillbe2feet.

3.Startbuildingthebedsatthebottomofyourslope.Youwillneedtodiga

trench inwhich toplaceyour first tier.Thedepthandwidthof the trenchwillvarydependingonhowtalltheterracewillbeandthespecificbuildingmaterialsyou are using. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions carefully when usingmasonry products, asmany of these have limits on the number of tiers or theheight that can be safely built. If you are using landscape timbers and yourterraceislow(lessthan2feet),youonlyneedtoburythetimbertoabouthalfitsthickness or less. The width of the trench should be slightly wider than yourtimber. Make sure the bottom of the trench is firmly packed and completelylevel,andthenplaceyourtimbersintothetrench.

Neatrowsofgreenplantslinethisterracedhill,whichwouldotherwiselikelybebarren.

4.Forthesidesofyourterrace,digatrenchintotheslope.Thebottomofthistrenchmustbelevelwiththebottomofthefirst trench.Whenthedepthofthetrench isone inchgreater than the thicknessofyour timber,youhave reachedthebackoftheterraceandcanstopdigging.

5.Cutapieceoftimbertothecorrectlengthandplaceitintothetrench.

6.Drillholesthroughyourtimbersandpoundlongspikes,orpipes, throughthe holes and into the ground. A minimum of 18 inches of pipe length isrecommended, and longer pipes may be needed in higher terraces for addedstability.

7.Placethenexttieroftimbersontopofthefirst,overlappingthecornersandjoints.Poundaspikethroughbothtierstofusethemtogether.

8.Move the soil from the back of the bed to the front of the bed until thesurfaceislevel.Addanothertierasneeded.

9. Repeat, starting with step 2, to create the remaining terraces. Incontinuouslyconnected terrace systems, the first timberof the second tierwillalsobethebackwallofyourfirstterrace.

10.Thebackwallofthelastbedwillbelevelwithitsfrontwall.

11.Whenfinished,youcanstarttoplantandmulchyourterracedgarden.

OtherWaystoMakeUseofSlopesinYourYardIf terraces are beyond the limits of your time or money, you may want toconsiderotheroptions forbackyard slopes. If youhave a slope that is hard tomow, consider using groundcovers on the slope rather than grass. There aremanyplantsadaptedtoawiderangeoflightandmoistureconditionsthatrequirelittlecare(anddonotneedmowing)andprovidesoilerosionprotection.Theseinclude:

JuniperWintercreeperPeriwinkleCotoneasterPotentillaHeathersandheaths

Strip-cropping is anotherway to dealwith long slopes in your yard.Ratherthanterracingtomakegardenbedslevel,plantperennialbedsandstripsofgrassacross the slope. Once established, many perennials are effective in reducingerosion.Addingmulchalsohelpsreduceerosion.Iferosiondoesoccur,itwillbebasicallylimitedtothegardenedarea.Thegrassstripswillactasfilterstocatchmuchofthesoilthatmayrunoffthebeds.Grassstripsshouldbewideenoughtomoweasily,andwideenoughtoeffectivelyreduceerosion.

Periwinklesrequirelittlemaintenance,spreadquickly,andwillgroweasilyonaslopeinyouryard.

Heathergrowswildinmanyareasbutcanalsobeplantedonyourhillsidestohelppreventerosion.

RaisedBeds

Ifyouliveinanareawherethesoiliswet(preventingagoodvegetablegardenfromgrowingthespring),finditdifficulttobendovertoplantandcultivateyourvegetables or flowers, or if you just want a different look to your backyardgarden,considerbuildingaraisedbed.

Araisedbedisaninterestingandaffordablewaytogarden.Itcreatesanidealenvironmentforgrowingvegetables,sincethesoilconcentrationcanbecloselymonitored and, as it is raised above the ground, it reduces the compaction ofplantsfrompeoplewalkingonthesoil.

Raised beds are typically 2 to 6 feet wide and as long as needed. In mostcases,a raisedbedconsistsofa“frame” that is filled inwithnutrient-richsoil(includingcompostororganic fertilizers) and is thenplantedwith avarietyofvegetables or flowers, depending on the gardener’s preference. By controllingthebed’sconstructionandthesoilmixturethatgoesintothebed,agardenercaneffectivelyreducetheamountofweedsthatwillgrowinthegarden.

Whenplantingseedsoryoungsprouts inaraisedbed, it isbest tospacetheplantsequallyfromeachotheronallsides.Thiswillensurethattheleaveswillbetouchingoncetheplant ismature, thussavingspaceandreducingthesoil’smoistureloss.

Raised beds make neat, attractive gardens and make it easy to monitor the

conditionofthesoil.

ThingsYou’llNeed

Formsforyourraisedbed(considerusing4x4-inchpostscutto24 inches inheight forcorners, and2x12-inchboards forthesides)NailsorscrewsHammerorscrewdriverPlasticliner(toactasaweedbarrieratthebottomofyourbed)ShovelCompost,orcompostingmanureSoil(eitherpottingsoilorsoilfromanotherpartofyouryard)Rake(tosmoothoutthesoilonceinthebed)SeedsoryoungplantsOptional:PVCpipingandgreenhouseplastic (toconvertyourraisedbedtoagreenhouse)

HowtoMakeaRaisedBed

StepOne:PlanOutYourRaisedBed

1.Thinkabouthowyou’d likeyour raisedbed to look, and thendesign theshape.Araisedbedisnotextremelycomplicated,andallyouneedtodoisbuildanopen-topandopen-bottombox(ifyouareambitious,youcancreatearaisedbedintheshapeofacircle,hexagon,orstar).Themainpurposeofthisboxistoholdsoil.

2.Makeadrawingofyourraisedbed,measureyouravailablegardenspace,andaddthosemeasurementstoyourdrawing.Thiswillallowyoutodeterminehowmuchmaterialisneeded.Generally,yourbedshouldbeatleast24inchesinheight.

3.Decidewhatkindofmaterialyouwanttouseforyourraisedbed.Youcanuse lumber,plastic,syntheticwood,railroadties,bricks, rocks,oranumberofother items to hold the dirt. Using lumber is the easiest and most efficientmethod.

4.Gatheryoursupplies.

StepTwo:BuildYourRaisedBed

1.Makesureyourbedwillbesituatedinaplacethatgetsplentyofsunlight.Carefullyassessyourplacement,asyourraisedbedwillbefairlypermanent.

2.Connectthesidesofyourbedtogether(witheitherscrewsornails)toformthedesiredshapeofyourbed.Ifyouareusinglumber,youcanuse4x4-inchpoststoserveasthecornersofyourbed,andthennailorscrewthesidestothesecorner posts. By doing so, youwill increase the strength of the structure andensurethatthedirtwillstayinside.

3.Cutapieceofgardeningplastictofitinsideyourraisedbed,andlayitoutin theappropriate location.Thiswill significantly reduce theamountofweedsgrowinginyourgarden.

4.Placeyourframeoverthegardeningplastic(thismighttaketwopeople).

StepThree:StartPlanting

1.Addsomecompostintothebottomofthebedandthenlayerpottingsoilontopof thecompost. Ifyouhavesoil fromotherpartsofyouryard, feel free tousethatinadditiontothecompostandpottingsoil.Plantofillatleast⅓ofyourraised bed with compost or composted manure (available from nurseries orgardencentersin40-poundbags).

2.Mixindryorganicfertilizers(likewoodash,bonemeal,andbloodmeal)whilebuildingyourbed.Followthepackageinstructionsforhowbesttomixitin.

3.Decidewhatyouwanttoplant.Somepeopleliketogrowflowersintheirraised beds; others prefer to grow vegetables. If you do want to grow food,

raised beds are excellent choices for salad greens, carrots, onions, radishes,beets,andotherrootcrops.

ThingstoConsider1.Tosavemoney,trytodigupandusesoilfromyouryard.Pottingsoilcan

beexpensive,andyardsoilisjustaseffectivewhenmixedwithcompost.

2.Be creativewhen building your raised planting bed.You can construct agreatraisedbedoutofrecycledgoodsoroldlumber.

3.Youcanconvertyourraisedbedintoagreenhouse.Justaddhoopstoyourbedby bending and connectingPVCpipe over the bed.Then clip greenhouseplastictothePVCpipes,andyouhaveyourowngreenhouse.

4.Makesuretowateryourraisedbedoften.Becauseitisaboveground,yourraisedbedwillnotretainwateraswellasthesoilintheground.Ifyoukeepyourbednarrow,itwillhelpconservewater.

5.Decorateorilluminateyourraisedbedtomakeitafocalpointinyouryard.

6. If you use lumber to construct your raised bed, keep a watch out fortermites.

7.Bewareofold,pressure-treatedlumber,asitmaycontainarsenicandcouldpotentiallyleakintotherootsystemsofanyvegetablesyoumightgrowinyourraised bed. Newer, pressure-treated lumber should not contain these toxicchemicals.

GrowingPlantswithoutSoil

Plants grown in soilless cultures still need the basic requirements of plantgrowth, such as temperature, light (if indoors, use a heat lamp and set thecontainernearoronawindowsill),water,oxygen(youcanproducegoodairflowby using a small, rotating fan indoors), carbon dioxide, andmineral nutrients(derived from solutions).But plants grownwithout soil have their roots eitherfree-floatinginanutrient-richsolutionorbeddedinasoil-likemedium,suchassand,gravel,brickshards,Perlite,orrockwool.Theseplantsdonothavetoexertas much energy to gather nutrients from the soil and thus they grow morequicklyand,usually,moreproductively.

TypesofSoillessSystemsTherearetwomaintypesofsoillessculturesthatcanbeusedtogrowplantsandvegetables.Thefirstisawaterculture,inwhichplantsaresuppliedwithmineralnutrientsdirectlyfromthewatersolution.Thesecond,calledaggregatecultureor“sandculture,”usesanaggregate(suchassand,gravel,orPerlite)assoil toprovideananchoringsupportfortheplantroots.Bothtypesofhydroponicsareeffective in growing soilless plants and in providing essential nutrients forhealthyandproductiveplantgrowth.

Lettuceisespeciallywell-suitedtohydroponicssystems.

TheBenefitsandDrawbacksofGrowingPlantsinaHydroponicsSystem

Hydroponics is the method of growing plants in a container filled with anutrient-richbath(waterwithspecialfertilizer)andnosoil.

Benefits:Plants can be grown in areas where normal plant agriculture is difficult(suchasdesertsandotheraridplaces,orcities).Mostterrestrialplantswillgrowinahydroponicssystem.Thereisminimalweedgrowth.Thesystemtakesuplessspacethansoilsystem.Itconserveswater.Nofearofcontaminatedrunofffromgardenfertilizers.Thereislesslaborandcostinvolved.Certainseasonalplantscanberaisedduringanyseason.Thequalityofproduceisgenerallyconsistent.Oldnutrientsolutioncanbeusedtowaterhouseplants.

Inthistypeofhydroponicssystem,adripperreleasesthenutrientsolutionintothetoplayerofpiping.Itthenflowsinasteadystreamdownthroughtheotherlayersofpiping.

Drawbacks:Cancausesalmonellatogrowduetothewetandconfinedconditions.Moredifficulttogrowrootvegetables,suchascarrotsandpotatoes.If nutrient solution is not regularly changed, plants can become nutrientdeficientandthusnotgroworproduce.

WaterCultureThemainadvantageofusingawaterculturesystemisthatasignificantpartofthenutrientsolutionisalwaysincontactwiththeplants’roots.Thisprovidesanadequateamountofwaterandnutrients.Themainchallengesofthissystemareprovidingsufficientairsupplyfortherootsandprovidingtherootswithpropersupportandanchorage.

Water culture systems are not extremely expensive, though the cost doesdependon thepriceof the chemicals andwater used in thepreparationof thenutrientsolutions,thesizeofyourcontainer,andwhetherornotyourareusingmechanized objects, such as pumps and filters. You can decrease the cost bystartingsmallandusingreadilyavailablematerials.

MaterialsNeededtoMakeYourOwnWaterCulture

Alargewaterculture systemwillneedeitherawoodorconcrete tank6 to18inchesdeepand2to3feetwide.Ifyouuseawoodencontainer,besure therearenoknotsinthewoodandsealthetankwithnon-creosoteortarasphalt.

Forsmallwaterculturesystems,whicharerecommendedforbeginners,glassjars,earthenwarecrocks,orplasticbucketswillsufficeasyourholdingtanks.Ifyourcontainer is transparent,besure topaint theoutsideof thecontainerwithblackpaint to keep the light out (and to keep algae fromgrowing inside yoursystem).Keepanarrow,verticalstripunpaintedinordertoseethelevelofthenutrientsolutioninsideyourcontainer.

Theplantbedshouldbe3ormoreinchesdeepandlargeenoughtocoverthecontainer or tank. To support the weight of the litter (where your seeds orseedlingsareplaced),coverthebottomofthebedwithchickenwireandthenfillthe bed with litter (wood shavings, sphagnum moss, peat, or other organicmaterials that donot easilydecay). If you are startingyourplants from seeds,germinatetheseedsinabedofsandandthentransplanttothewaterculturebed,keeping the bed moist until the plants get their roots down into the nutrientsolution.

Aeration

Adifficultyinusingwatercultureiskeepingthesolutionproperlyaerated.Itisimportanttokeepenoughspacebetweentheseedbedandthenutrientsolutionsotheplant’srootscanreceiveproperoxygen.Tomakesurethataircaneasily

flowintothecontainer,eitherpropuptheseedbedslightlytoallowairflowordrillaholeinyourcontainerjustabovethehighestsolutionlevel.

Install an aquarium pump in yourwater culture system to ensure sufficientoxygenreachingtheplantroots.Justmakesurethatthewaterisnotagitatedtoomuchortherootsmaybedamaged.Youcanalsouseanairstoneorperforatedpipetogentlyintroduceairflowintoyourcontainer.

WaterSupply

Yourhydroponics systemneedsanadequate supplyof freshwater tomaintainhealthy plant life. Make sure that the natural minerals in your water are notgoingtoadverselyaffectyourhydroponicsplants.Ifthereistoomuchsodiuminyourwater(usuallyaneffectofsoftenedwater), itcouldbecometoxic toyourplants. Ingeneral, theminerals inwaterarenotharmful to thegrowthofyourplants.

NutrientSolution

You may add nutrient solution by hand, by a gravity-feed system, ormechanically.Insmallerwaterculturesystems,mixingthenutrientsolutioninasmallcontainerandaddingitbyhand,asneeded,istypicallyadequate.

Ifyouareusingalargersetup,agravity-feedsystemwillworkquitewell.Inthistypeofsystem,thenutrientsolutionismixedinavatandthentappedfromthevatintoyourcontainerasneeded.Youcanuseaplasticcontainerorlargerearthenwarejarasthevat.

A pump can also be used to supply your system with adequate nutrientsolution.Youcaninsert thepumpintothevatandthentransfer thesolutiontoyourhydroponicssystem.

Whenyourplantsareyoung, it is important tokeep thespacebetweenyourseed bed and the nutrient solution small (that way, the young plant roots canreachthenutrients).Asyourplantsgrow,theamountofspacebetweenthebedand solution should increase (but do this slowly and keep the level ratherconsistent).

In a water culture system, the roots are always in contact with the nutrientsolution.

If the temperature is rather high and there is increased evaporation, it isimportant to keep the roots at the correct level in the water and change thenutrientsolutioneveryday,ifneeded.

Drain your container every twoweeks and then renew the nutrient solutionfromyourvatorbyhand.Thismustbedone inashortamountof timeso therootsdonotdryout.

Transplanting

When transplantingyour seedlings, it’s important thatyouarecarefulwith thetinyrootsystems.Gentlywork theroots throughthesupportnettinganddownintothenutrientsolution.Thenfill in thesupportnettingwithlitter tohelptheplantremainupright.

HowtoBuildaSimple,HomemadeHydroponicsSystem

ThingsYou’llNeed

ExternalpumpAirlineortubingAirstonesWaterproofbin,bucket,orfishtanktouseasareserveStyrofoamNetpotsTypeofgrowingmedium,suchasrockwoolorgrowrocksHydroponicsnutrients, such asgrow formula, bloom formula,

supplements,andpHBlack spray paint (this is only required if the reservoir istransparent)Knife,boxcutter,orscissorsTapemeasure

StepstoBuildingYourHydroponicsSystem:

1.Findacontainertouseasareservoir,suchasafishtank,abin,orabucketof some sort. The reservoir should be painted black if it is not lightproof (orcovered with a thick, black trash bag if you want to reuse the tank at somepoint),andallowedtodrybeforemovingontothenextstep.Allowinglighttoenter the reservoirwillpromote thegrowthofalgae. It isagood idea touseareservoirthatisthesamedimensions(lengthandwidth)fromtoptobottom.

Asimplehydroponicssystem.

2.Using a knife or sharp object, score a line on the tank (scratch off somepaintinastraightlinefromtoptobottom).Thiswillbeyourwaterlevelmeter,whichwill letyouseehowmuchwater is in the reservoirandwillgiveyouamoreaccurateandconvenientviewofthenutrientsolutionlevelinyourtank.

3.Use a tapemeasure to determine the length andwidth of your reservoir.Measuretheinsideofthereservoirfromoneendtotheother.Onceyouhavethedimensions,cuttheStyrofoam¼inchsmallerthanthesizeofthereservoir.Forexample,ifyourdimensionsare36x20inches,youshouldcuttheStyrofoamto35¾x19¾inches.TheStyrofoamshouldfitnicelyinthereservoir,withjustenoughroomtoadjust toanywaterlevelchanges.If thereservoirtapersoffatthe bottom (the bottom is smaller in dimension than the top) the floater(Styrofoam) should be 2 to 4 inches smaller than the reservoir, or more if

necessary.

4.DonotplacetheStyrofoaminthereservoiryet.First,youneedtocutholesforthenetpots.PutthenetpotsontheStyrofoamwhereyouwanttoplaceeachplant.Usingapenorpencil,tracearoundthebottomofeachnetpot.Useaknifeorboxcuttertofollowthetracelinesandcuttheholesforpots.OnoneendoftheStyrofoam,cutasmallholefortheairlinetorunintothereservoir.

5.Thenumberofplantsyoucangrowwilldependonthesizeofthegardenyoubuildand the typesofcropsyouwant togrow.Remember tospaceplantsappropriatelysothateachreceivesampleamountsoflight.

6.Thepumpyouchoosemustbestrongenoughtoprovideenoughoxygentosustain plant life. Ask for advice choosing a pump at your local hydroponicssupplystoreorgardencenter.

7.Connecttheairlinetothepumpandattachtheairstonetothefreeend.Theair line shouldbe longenough to travel from thepump into thebottomof thereservoir,oratleastfloatinthemiddleofthetanksotheoxygenbubblescangettotheplantroots.Italsomustbetherightsizeforthepumpyouchoose.Mostpumpswillcomewiththecorrectsizeairline.Todeterminethetank’scapacity,useaone-gallonbucketorbottleandfillthereservoir.Remembertocounthowmanygallonsittakestofillthereservoirandyouwillknowthecorrectcapacityofyourtank.

SettingUpYourHydroponicsSystem1. Fillthereservoirwiththenutrientsolution.2. PlacetheStyrofoamintothereservoir.3. Runtheairlinethroughthedesignatedholeornotch.4. Fillthenetpotswithgrowingmediumandplaceoneplantineachpot.5. PutthenetpotsintothedesignatedholesintheStyrofoam.6. Pluginthepump, turniton,andstartgrowingwithyourfullyfunctional,

homemadehydroponicssystem.

ThingstoConsider

A homemade hydroponics system like this is not ideal forlarge-scaleproductionofplantsorforcommercialusage.This

particularsystemdoesnotofferawaytoconvenientlychangethenutrient solution.Anextra containerwouldbe required toholdthefloaterwhileyouchangethesolution.Lettuce, watercress, tomatoes, cucumbers, and herbs growespeciallywellhydroponically.

AggregateCultureAggregateculturesystemsutilizedifferentmediums thatact inplaceofsoil tostabilize theplantand its roots.Theaggregate in thecontainer is floodedwiththenutrientsolution.Theadvantageofthistypeofsystemisthatthereisnotasmuchtroublewithaeratingtheroots.Also,aggregateculturesystemsallowforthe easy transplantation of seedlings into the aggregatemedium and it is lessexpensive.

Asimpleaggregateculturesystem.

MaterialsNeededforanAggregateCultureSystem

Thecontainershouldbewatertighttoconservethenutrientsolution.Largetankscanbemadeofconcreteorwood,andsmalleroperationscaneffectivelybedonein glass jars, earthenware containers, or plastic buckets. Make sure to painttransparentcontainersblack.

Aggregatematerialsmaydiffergreatly,dependingonwhattypeyouchoosetouse.Silicasand(wellwashed)isoneofthebestmaterialsthatcanbeused.Anyother type of coarse-textured sand is also effective, butmake sure it does notcontain lime. Sand holds moisture quite well and it allows for easytransplantation. A mixture of sand and gravel together is also an effectiveaggregate.Othermaterials,suchaspeatmoss,vermiculite,woodshavings,andcocopeat, are also good aggregates.You can find aggregatematerials at your

localgardencenter,homecenter,orgarden-supplyhouse.

Aeration

Aggregate culture systems allow much easier aeration than water culturesystems.Drainingandrefillingthecontainerwithnutrientsolutionhelpstheairto move in and out of the aggregate material. This brings a fresh supply ofoxygentotheplantroots.

WaterSupply

Thesamewaterrequirementsareneededforthistypeofhydroponicssystemasforawaterculturesystem.Mineralsinthewatertendtocollectintheaggregatematerial, so it’s a good idea to flush thematerial with freshwater every fewweeks.

NutrientSolution

Thesimplestwayofaddingthenutrientsolutiontoaggregateculturesistopouritovertheaggregatesbyhand.Youmayalsouseamanualgravity-feedsystemwithbucketsorvats.Attachthevattothebottomofthecontainerwithaflexiblehose,raisethevattofloodthecontainer,andlowerittodrainit.Coverthevattopreventevaporationandreplenishitwithnewnutrientsolutiononceeverytwoweeks.

Agravitydrip-feed systemalsoworkswell andhelps reduce the amountofwork you do. Place the vat higher than the container, and then control thesolutiondripsoitisjustfastenoughtokeeptheaggregatemoist.

It is important that the nutrient solution is added and drained or raised andloweredatleastonceaday.Inhotterweather,theaggregatematerialmayneedmorewettingwiththesolution.Makesurethatthematerialisnotdryingouttheroots.Drenchingtheaggregatewithsolutionoftenwillnotharmtheplantsbutlettingtherootsdryoutcouldhavedetrimentaleffects.

Always replace your nutrient solution after two weeks. Not replacing thesolutionwillcausesaltsandharmfulfertilizerresidues tobuildup,whichmayultimatelydamageyourplants.

Planting

Youmayuseeitherseedlingsorrootedcuttingsinanaggregateculturesystem.Theaggregateshouldbefloodedandsolutiondrainedbeforeplantingtocreateamoist, compacted seed bed. Seeds may also be planted directly into theaggregate material. Do not plant the seeds too deep, and flood the containerfrequently with water to keep the aggregate moist. Once the seedlings havegerminated,youmaystartusingthenutrientsolution.

If you are transplanting seedlings from a germination bed, make sure theyhavegerminatedinsoillessmaterial,asanysoilleftontherootsmaycausethemtorotandmayhampertheminobtainingnutrientsfromthesolution.

MakingNutrientSolutions

For plants to grow properly, they must receive nitrogen,phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron,manganese, boron, zinc, copper,molybdenum, and chlorine.Thereisawiderangeofnutrientsolutionsthatcanbeused.Ifyourplantsarereceivinginadequateamountsofnutrients,theywillshowthisindifferentways.Thismeansthatyoumustproceedwithcautionwhenselecting and adding the minerals that will be present in yournutrientsolution.

Itisimportanttohavepurenutrientmaterialswhenpreparingthesolution.Usingfertilizergradechemicalsisalwaysthebestroutetogo, as it is cheapest.Make sure the containers are closed and notexposed to air. Evaporated solutions increase the amount of saltwhichcouldharmyourplants.

Pre-mixedChemicalsMany of the essential nutrients needed for hydroponic plant growth are nowavailable already mixed in their correct proportions. You may find thesesolutions in catalogs or from garden-supply stores. They are typicallyinexpensiveandonlysmallquantitiesareneededtohelpyourplantsgrowstrongand healthy. Always follow the directions on the container when using pre-mixedchemicals.

MakingYourOwnSolution

Intheeventthatyouwanttomakeyourownnutrientsolution,hereisaformulaforasolutionthatwillprovideallthemajorelementsrequiredforyourplantstogrow.

Youcanobtainallofthesechemicalsfromgarden-supplystoresordrugstores.

Afterallthechemicalshavebeenmixedintothesolution,checkthepHofthesolution.ApHof7.0isneutral;anythingbelow7.0isacidicandanythingaboveis alkaline.Certainplantsgrowbest in certainpHs.Plants that growwell at alower pH (between 4.5 and 5.5) are azaleas, buttercups, gardenias, and roses;plantsthatgrowwellataneutralpHarepotatoes,zinnias,andpumpkins;mostplantsgrowbestinaslightlyacidicpH(between5.5and6.5).

Todetermine thepHofyour solution,use apH indicator (theseareusuallypaperstrips).ThestripwillchangecolorwhenplacedindifferentlevelsofpH.IfyoufindyourpHleveltobeaboveyourdesiredrange,youcanbringitdownby adding dilute sulfuric acid in small quantities using an eyedropper. KeepretestinguntilyoureachyourdesiredpHlevel.

PlantNutrientDeficienciesWhen plants are lacking nutrients, they typically display these deficienciesoutwardly.Followingisalistofsymptomsthatmightoccurifaplantislackinga certain type of nutrient. If your plants display any of these symptoms, it isimperativethatthelevelofthatparticularnutrientbeincreased.

DeficientNutr ient Symptoms

Boron Tipoftheshootdies;stemsandpetiolesarebrittle

Calcium Tipoftheshootdies;tipsoftheyoungleavesdie;tipsoftheleavesarehooked

leavesarehooked

Iron Newupperleavesturnyellowbetweentheveins;edgesandtipsofleavesmaydie

Magnesium Lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;leafmarginscurlupordown;leavesdie

Manganese Newupperleaveshavedeadspots;leafmightappearnetted

Nitrogen Leavesaresmallandlightgreen;lowerleavesarelighterthanupperleaves;weakstalks

Phosphorous Dark-greenfoliage;lowerleavesareyellowbetweentheveins;purplishcoloronleaves

Potassium Lowerleavesmightbemottled;deadareasneartipsofleaves;yellowingatleafmarginsandtowardthecenter

Sulfur Light-greenupperleaves;leafveinsarelighterthansurroundingarea

Nutrientdeficienciesandtheirsymptoms.

Aggregate culture is especiallyuseful inurbanareaswherequality soil is not

readilyavailable.Iftheonlyspotyouhaveforagardenisoutsideyourwindow,youshouldstillbeabletogrowavarietyofflowers,vegetables,orherbs.

PestandDiseaseManagement

Pestmanagement can be one of the greatest challenges to the home gardener.Yardpestsincludeweeds,insects,diseases,andsomespeciesofwildlife.Weedsare plants that are growing out of place. Insect pests include an enormousnumberofspeciesfromtinythripsthatarenearlyinvisibletothenakedeye,tothe large larvae of the tomato hornworm. Plant diseases are caused by fungi,bacteria, viruses, and other organisms—some of which are only now beingclassified.Poorplantnutritionandmisuseofpesticidesalsocancauseinjurytoplants. Slugs, mites, and many species of wildlife, such as rabbits, deer, andcrowscanbeextremelydestructiveaswell.

AJapanesebeetleeatsholesinaleaf.

LeafdamagefromJapanesebeetles.

IdentifytheProblemCareful identification of the problem is essential before taking measures to

controltheissueinyourgarden.Someinsectdamagemayatfirstappeartobeadisease,especiallyifnovisibleinsectsarepresent.Nutrientproblemsmayalsomimicdiseases.Herbicidedamage,resultingfrommisapplicationofchemicals,can also be mistaken for other problems. Learning about different types ofgardenpestsisthefirststepinkeepingyourplantshealthyandproductive.

InsectsandMitesAll insects have six legs, but other than that they are extremely differentdependingonthespecies.Someinsectsincludesuchorganismsasbeetles,flies,bees, ants,moths, and butterflies.Mites and spiders have eight legs—they arenot,infact,insectsbutwillbetreatedassuchforthepurposesofthissection.

Insects damage plants in severalways. Themost visible damage caused byinsects is chewedplant leaves and flowers.Manypests are visible and canbereadily identified, including the Japanese beetle, Colorado potato beetle, andnumerousspeciesofcaterpillarssuchastentcaterpillarsandtomatohornworms.Otherchewinginsects,however,suchascutworms(whicharecaterpillars)comeout at night to eat, and burrow into the soil during the day. These are muchhardertoidentifybutshouldbeconsideredlikelyculpritsifyoungplantsseemtodisappearovernightorarefoundcutoffatgroundlevel.

Suckinginsectsareextremelycommoningardensandcanbeverydamagingto your vegetable plants and flowers. The most known of these insects areleafhoppers, aphids, mealy bugs, thrips, and mites. These insects insert theirmouthparts into theplant tissues and suckout theplant juices.Theyalsomaycarrydiseasesthattheyspreadfromplanttoplantastheymoveabouttheyard.Youmay suspect that these insects are present if you noticemisshapen plantleavesorflowerpetals.Oftentheyoungerleaveswillappearcurledorpuckered.Flowers developing from the budsmay only partially develop if they’ve beensuckedbythesebugs.Lookontheundersidesoftheleaves—thatiswheremanyinsectstendtogather.

Otherinsectscausedamagetoplantsbyboringintostems,fruits,andleaves,possibly disrupting the plant’s ability to transport water. They also createopportunities for disease organisms to attack the plants. Youmay suspect thepresence of boring insects if you see small accumulations of sawdustlikematerial on plant stemsor fruits.Common examples of boring insects includesquashvineborersandcornborers.

IntegratedPestManagement(IPM)

Itisdifficult,ifnotimpossible,topreventallpestproblemsinyourgardeneveryyear.Ifyourbestpreventioneffortshavenotbeenentirelysuccessful,youmayneedtousesomecontrolmethods.Integratedpestmanagement(IPM)reliesonseveral techniques to keep pests at acceptable population levels withoutexcessive use of chemical controls. The basic principles of IPM includemonitoring (scouting), determining tolerable injury levels (thresholds), andapplyingappropriate strategiesand tactics to solve thepest issue.Unlikeothermethodsofpest controlwherepesticides are appliedona rigid schedule, IPMapplies only those controls that are needed, when they are needed, to controlpeststhatwillcausemorethanatolerablelevelofdamagetotheplant.

Monitoring

Monitoring is essential for a successful IPM program. Check your plantsregularly. Look for signs of damage from insects and diseases as well asindications of adequate fertility andmoisture. Early identification of potentialproblemsisessential.

There are thousands of insects in a garden,many ofwhich are harmless oreven beneficial to the plants. Proper identification is needed before controlstrategies can be adopted. It is important to recognize the different stages ofinsectdevelopmentforseveralreasons.Thecaterpillareatingyourplantsmaybethelarvaeofthebutterflyyouweretryingtoattract.Anysmall larvaewithsixspotsonitsbackisprobablyayoungladybug,averybeneficialinsect.

Thresholds

Itisnotnecessarytokilleveryinsect,weed,ordiseaseorganisminvadingyourgardeninordertomaintaintheplants’health.Whendealingwithgardenpests,an economic threshold comes into play and is the point where the damagecaused by the pest exceeds the cost of control. In a home garden, this can bedifficulttodetermine.Whatyouaregrowingandhowyouintendtouseitwilldeterminehowmuchdamageyouarewillingtotolerate.Rememberthatlargerplants, especially those close to harvest, can toleratemore damage than a tinyseedling.Afewfleabeetlesonaradishseedlingmaywarrantcontrol,whereasnumerousJapanesebeetleseatingtheleavesofbeansclosetoharvestmaynot.

Ifthethresholdlevelforcontrolhasbeenexceeded,youmayneedtoemploycontrolstrategies.EffectiveandsafestrategiescanbediscussedwithyourlocalCooperativeExtensionService,gardencenters,ornurseries.

Mechanical/PhysicalControlStrategies

Many insects can simply be removed by hand. This method is definitelypreferable ifonlya few, large insectsarecausing theproblem.Simplyremovetheinsectfromtheplantanddropitintoacontainerofsoapywaterorvegetableoil.Be aware that some insects have prickly spines or excrete oily substancesthatcancauseinjurytohumans.Usecautionwhenhandlingunfamiliarinsects.Wearglovesorremoveinsectswithtweezers.

Many insectscanbe removedfromplantsbysprayingwater fromahoseorsprayer.Smallvacuumscanalsobeusedtosuckupinsects.Trapscanbeusedeffectivelyforsomeinsectsaswell.Thesecomeinavarietyofstylesdependingontheinsecttobecaught.Manytrapsrelyontheuseofpheromones—naturallyoccurringchemicalsproducedbytheinsectsandusedtoattracttheoppositesexduringmating.Theyareextremelyspecificforeachspeciesand,therefore,willnot harm beneficial species. One caution with traps is that theymay actuallydrawmoreinsectsintoyouryard,sodon’tplacethemdirectlyintoyourgarden.Other traps (such as yellow and blue sticky cards) aremore generic andwillattract numerous species. Different insects are attracted to different colors ofthesetraps.Stickycardsalsocanbeusedeffectivelytomonitorinsectpests.

OtherPestControls

Diatomaceous earth, a powderlike dustmade of tinymarine organisms calleddiatoms, can be used to reduce damage from soft-bodied insects and slugs.Spread this material on the soil—it is sharp and cuts or irritates these softorganisms. It isharmless tootherorganisms.Putoutshallowdishesofbeer totrapslugs.

BiologicalControls

Certainkindsofwormsandbeetleswillleavedamagingholesinyourplants.

Biological controls are nature’sway of regulating pest populations.Biologicalcontrolsrelyonpredatorsandparasitestokeeporganismsundercontrol.Manyofourpresentpestproblems result from the lossofpredator speciesandotherbiologicalcontrolfactors.

Somebiologicalcontrolsincludebirdsandbatsthateat insects.Asinglebatcaneatupto600mosquitoesanhour.Manybirdspecieseatinsectpestsontreesandinthegarden.

ChemicalControls

Whenusingbiologicalcontrols,beverycarefulwithpesticides.Mostcommonpesticides are broad spectrum, which means that they kill a wide variety oforganisms. Spray applications of insecticides are likely to kill numerousbeneficial insectsaswellas thepests.Herbicidesapplied toweedspeciesmaydriftinthewindorvaporizeintheheatofthedayandinjurenon-targetedplants.Runoffofpesticidescanpollutewater.Manypesticidesaretoxictohumansaswellaspetsandsmallanimalsthatmayenteryouryard.Trytoavoidusingthesetypesofpesticidesatallcosts—andifyoudousethem,readthelabelscarefullyandavoidsprayingthemonwindydays.

Somecommon,non-toxichouseholdsubstancesareaseffectiveasmanytoxicpesticides.Afewdropsofdishwashingdetergentmixedwithwaterandsprayedonplantsisextremelyeffectiveincontrollingmanysoft-bodiedinsects,suchasaphids and whiteflies. Crushed garlic mixed with water may control certaininsects. A baking soda solution has been shown to help control some fungaldiseasesonroses.

Aphids.

Cutworms.

BeneficialInsectsthatHelpControlPestPopulations

Insect Pest Control led

Greenlacewings Aphids,mealybugs,thrips,andspidermites

Ladybugs AphidsandColoradopotatobeetles

Prayingmantises Almostanyinsect

Groundbeetles Caterpillarsthatattacktreesandshrubs

Seedheadweevilsandotherbeetles

Weeds

AlternativestoPesticidesandChemicals

Whenusedincorrectly,pesticidescanpollutewater.Theyalsokillbeneficialaswell asharmful insects.Natural alternativespreventbothof these events fromoccurringandsaveyoumoney.Considerusingnaturalalternativesforchemicalpesticides:Non-detergentinsecticidalsoaps,garlic,hotpepperspray,1teaspoonofliquidsoapinagallonofwater,useddishwater,oraforcefulstreamofwaterfromahoseallworktodislodgeinsectsfromyourgardenplants.

Another solution is toalsoconsiderusingplants thatnaturally repel insects.Theseplantshavetheirownchemicaldefensesystems,andwhenplantedamong

flowersandvegetables,theyhelpkeepunwantedinsectsaway.

NaturalPestRepellants

Pest Repel lant

Ant Mint,tansy,orpennyroyal

Aphids Mint,garlic,chives,coriander,oranise

Beanleafbeetle Potato,onion,orturnip

Codlingmoth Commonoleander

Coloradopotatobug Greenbeans,coriander,ornasturtium

Cucumberbeetle Radishortansy

Fleabeetle Garlic,onion,ormint

Importedcabbageworm Mint,sage,rosemary,orhyssop

Japanesebeetle Garlic,larkspur,tansy,rue,orgeranium

Leafhopper Geraniumorpetunia

Mice Onion

Rootknotnematodes Frenchmarigolds

Slugs Prostraterosemaryorwormwood

Spidermites Onion,garlic,cloves,orchives

Squashbug Radish,marigolds,tansy,ornasturtium

Stinkbug Radish

Thrips Marigolds

Thrips Marigolds

Tomatohornworm Marigolds,sage,orborage

Whitefly Marigoldsornasturtium

PlantDiseasesPlantdiseaseidentificationisextremelydifficult.Insomecases,onlylaboratoryanalysis can conclusively identify some diseases. Disease organisms injureplantsinseveralways:Someattackleafsurfacesandlimittheplant’sabilitytocarry on photosynthesis; others produce substances that clog plant tissues thattransportwater and nutrients; still other disease organismsproduce toxins thatkilltheplantorreplaceplanttissuewiththeirown.

Symptomsthatareassociatedwithplantdiseasesmayincludethepresenceofmushroomlike growths on trunks of trees; leaves with a grayish, mildewedappearance; spots on leaves, flowers, and fruits; suddenwilting or death of aplant or branch; sap exuding from branches or trunks of trees; and stuntedgrowth.

Misapplication of pesticides and nutrients, air pollutants, and otherenvironmentalconditions—suchasfloodingandfreezing—canalsomimicsomedisease problems. Yellowing or reddening of leaves and stunted growth mayindicateanutritionalproblem.Leafcurlingormisshapengrowthmaybearesultofherbicideapplication.

Powderymildewleafdisease.

PestandDiseaseManagementPracticesPreventingpestsshouldbeyourfirstgoalwhengrowingagarden,althoughitisunlikely that you will be able to avoid all pest problems because some plantseedsanddiseaseorganismsmaylaydormantinthesoilforyears.

Diseases need three elements to become established in plants: the diseaseorganism,asusceptiblespecies,andtheproperenvironmentalconditions.Somediseaseorganismscan live in the soil foryears;otherorganismsarecarried ininfected plant material that falls to the ground. Some disease organisms arecarriedbyinsects.Goodsanitationwillhelplimitsomeproblemswithdisease.Choosing resistant varieties of plants also prevents many diseases fromoccurring.Rotatingannualplantsinagardencanalsopreventsomediseases.

Plantsthathaveadequate,butnotexcessive,nutrientsarebetterabletoresistattacksfrombothdiseasesandinsects.Excessiveratesofnitrogenoftenresultinextremelysucculentvegetativegrowthandcanmakeplantsmoresusceptibletoinsectanddiseaseproblems,aswellasdecreasingtheirwinterhardiness.Properwateringandspacingofplants limits thespreadofsomediseasesandprovidesgood aeration around plants, so diseases that fester in standing water cannotmultiply.Trickleirrigation,wherewaterisappliedtothesoilandnottheplantleaves,maybehelpful.

Removalofdiseasedmaterialcertainlylimitsthespreadofsomediseases.Itisimportant to clean up litter dropped from diseased plants. Prune diseasedbranches on trees and shrubs to allow formore air circulation.When pruningdiseasedtreesandshrubs,disinfectyourprunersbetweencutswithasolutionofchlorinebleach to avoid spreading the disease fromplant to plant.Also try tocontrolinsectsthatmaycarrydiseasestoyourplants.

Youcanmakeyourownnaturalfungicidebycombining5teaspoonseachofbaking soda and hydrogen peroxide with a gallon of water. Spray on yourinfectedplants.Milkdilutedwithwaterisalsoaneffectivefungicide,duetothepotassium phosphate in it, which boosts a plant’s immune system. The moredilutedthesolution,themorefrequentlyyou’llneedtospraytheplant.

AttractingBirds,Butterflies,andBeestoYourGarden

Awonderfulpartofhavingagardenisthewildlifeitattracts.Thetypesoftrees,shrubs,vines,plants,andflowersyouchooseforyourgardenandyardaffectthetypes of wildlife that will visit. Whether you are looking to attract birds,butterflies, or bees to your garden, here are some specific types of plants thatwillbringthesecreaturestoyouryard.

PlantSpeciesforBirdsFollowing is a list of trees, shrubs, and vines thatwill attract various birds toyouryardandgarden.Besuretocheckwithyourlocalnurserytofindoutwhichplantsaremostsuitableforyourarea.

Trees:AmericanbeechAmericanhollyBalsamfirCrabappleFloweringdogwoodOak

Shrubs:CommonjuniperHolliesSumacsViburnums

Vines:StrawberryTrumpethoneysuckleVirginiacreeperWildgrape

AKingfishersitsonthebranchofacrabappletree.

FlowersandNectarPlantsforHummingbirds,Butterflies,andBeesToattracthummingbirds,butterflies,andbeestoyourgarden,considerplantingthesenectar-producingshrubsandflowers.Again,checkwithyourlocalnurserytomakesuretheseplantsaresuitableforyourgeographicarea.Somecommonnectarplantsare:

AsterAzaleaButterflybushCloverandotherlegumesColumbineConeflowerHoneysuckleLupineMilkweedsZinnia

HarvestingYourGarden

Itisessential,togetthebestfreshness,flavor,andnutritionalbenefitsfromyourgarden vegetables and fruits, to harvest them at the appropriate time. Thevegetable’s stage ofmaturity and the time of day atwhich it is harvested areessentialforgood-tastingandnutritiousproduce.Overripevegetablesandfruitswill be stringy and coarse.When possible, harvest your vegetables during thecoolpartof themorning.Ifyouaregoingtocanandpreserveyourvegetablesandfruits,dosoassoonaspossible.Or,ifthisprocessmustbedelayed,coolthevegetablesinicewaterorcrushediceandstorethemintherefrigerator.Herearesomebriefguidelinesforharvestingvarioustypesofcommongardenproduce:

Asparagus—Harvest the spearswhen they are at least 6 to 8 inches tall bysnapping or cutting them at ground level.A few spearsmay be harvested thesecondyearaftercrownsaresetout.Afullharvestseasonwill last four tosixweeksduringthethirdgrowingseason.

Beans,snap—Harvestbeforetheseedsdevelopinthepod.Beansarereadytopickiftheysnapeasilywhenbentinhalf.

Beans, lima—Harvest when the pods first start to bulge with the enlargedseeds.Podsmuststillbegreen,notyellowish.

Broccoli—Harvest the dark green, compact cluster, or head,while the budsare shut tight, before any yellow flowers appear. Smaller side shoots willdeveloplater,providingacontinuousharvest.

Brussels sprouts—Harvest the lower sprouts (small heads) when they areabout 1 to 1½ inches in diameter by twisting them off. Removing the lowerleavesalongthestemwillhelptohastentheplant’smaturity.

Cabbage—Harvestwhentheheadsfeelhardandsolid.

Cantaloupe—Harvestwhen thestemslipseasily fromthefruitwithagentletug. Another indicator of ripeness is when the netting on the skin becomesroundedandthefleshbetweenthenettingturnsfromagreentoatancolor.

Don’tcutasparagusbelowthesoilasitcoulddamageotherbudsonthecrownthatwouldotherwisesendupnewspears.

If you have an overabundance of snap peas, blanch them for 1 to 2minutes,drain,dunktheminicewater,drainagain,andfreezeinairtightplasticbags.

Carrots—Harvestwhentherootsare¾to1inchindiameter.Thelargestrootsgenerallyhavedarkertops.

Cauliflower—When preparing to harvest, exclude sunlight when the curds(heads)are1to2inchesindiameterbylooselytyingtheouter leavestogetherabovethecurdwithastringorrubberband.Thisprocessisknownasblanching.Harvest the curds when they are 4 to 6 inches in diameter but still compact,white, and smooth. The head should be ready 10 to 15 days after tying theleaves.

Collards—Harvest older, lower leaveswhen they reach a length of 8 to 12inches. New leaves will grow as long as the central growing point remains,providing a continuous harvest.Whole plantsmaybe harvested and cooked ifdesired.

Corn, sweet—Thesilksbegin to turnbrownanddryoutas theearsmature.Checkafewearsformaturitybyopeningthetopoftheearandpressingafewkernelswithyourthumbnail.Iftheexudedliquidismilkyratherthanclear,theear is ready for harvesting.Cooking a few ears is also a goodway to test formaturity.

Driedcorncanbemade intocornmealby removing thekernels from thehuskandgrindingtheminafoodprocessor.

Cucumbers—Harvest when the fruits are 6 to 8 inches in length. Harvestwhenthecolorisdeepgreenandbeforeyellowcolorappears.Pickfourtofivetimesperweektoencouragecontinuousproduction.Leavingmaturecucumbersonthevinewillstoptheproductionoftheentireplant.

Eggplant—Harvest when the fruits are 4 to 5 inches in diameter and theircolor is a glossy, purplish black. The fruit is getting too ripe when the colorstartstodullorbecomebronzed.Becausethestemiswoody,cut—donotpull—thefruitfromtheplant.Ashortstemshouldremainoneachfruit.

Kale—Harvestbytwistingofftheouter,olderleaveswhentheyreachalengthof8to10inchesandaremediumgreenincolor.Heavy,darkgreenleavesareoverripeandarelikelytobetoughandbitter.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.

Lettuce—Harvesttheolder,outerleavesfromleaflettuceassoonastheyare4 to6 inches long.Harvestheading typeswhen theheadsaremoderately firmandbeforeseedstalksform.

Mustard—Harvesttheleavesandleafstemswhentheyare6to8incheslong;new leaveswill provide a continuous harvest until they become too strong inflavorandtoughintexture,duetotemperatureextremes.

Okra—Harvestyoung,tenderpodswhentheyare2to3incheslong.Picktheokra at least every other day during the peak growing season. Overripe podsbecomewoodyandaretootoughtoeat.

Onions—Harvestwhenthetopsfalloverandbegintoturnyellow.Diguptheonionsandallowthemtodryoutintheopensunforafewdaystotoughentheskin.Then remove thedried soilbybrushing theonions lightly.Cut the stem,leaving2to3inchesattached,andstoreinanettypebaginacool,dryplace.

Peas—Harvest regular peas when the pods are well rounded; edible-podvarietiesshouldbeharvestedwhentheseedsarefullydevelopedbutstill freshandbrightgreen.Pods aregetting toooldwhen they lose their brightness and

turnlightoryellowishgreen.

Peppers—Harvestsweetpepperswithasharpknifewhenthefruitsarefirm,crisp, and full size.Greenpepperswill turn red if lefton theplant.Allowhotpepperstoattaintheirbrightredcolorandfullflavorwhileattachedtothevine;thencutthemandhangthemtodry.

Potatoes (Irish)—Harvest the tubers when the plants begin to dry and diedown.Store the tubers inacool,high-humidity locationwithgoodventilation,

suchasthebasementorcrawlspaceofyourhouse.Avoidexposingthetuberstolight,asgreening,whichdenotesthepresenceofdangerousalkaloids,willoccurevenwithsmallamountsoflight.

Pumpkins—Harvestpumpkinsandwintersquashbefore the first frost.Afterthe vines dry up, the fruit color darkens and the skin surface resists puncturefromyour thumbnail.Avoid bruising or scratching the fruitwhile handling it.Leavea3-to4-inchportionofthestemattachedtothefruitandstoreitinacool,drylocationwithgoodventilation.

Radishes—Harvest when the roots are ½ to 1½ inches in diameter. Theshoulders of radish roots often appear through the soil surfacewhen they aremature. If left in the ground too long, the radishes will become tough andwoody.

Rutabagas—Harvestwhentherootsareabout3inchesindiameter.Therootsmaybestoredinthegroundandusedasneeded,ifproperlymulched.

Spinach—Harvestbycuttingall the leavesoffat thebaseof theplantwhentheyare4to6incheslong.Newleaveswillgrow,providingadditionalharvests.

Squash, summer—Harvest when the fruit is soft, tender, and 6 to 8 incheslong.Theskincoloroftenchangestoadark,glossygreenoryellow,dependingonthevariety.Pickeverytwotothreedaystoencouragecontinuedproduction.

Sweetpotatoes—Harvesttherootswhentheyarelargeenoughforusebeforethe first frost.Avoidbruisingor scratching thepotatoesduringhandling. Idealstorageconditionsareata temperatureof55degreesFahrenheitanda relativehumidityof85percent.Thebasementorcrawlspaceofahousemaysuffice.

Swiss chard—Harvest by breaking off the developed outer leaves 1 inchabovethesoil.Newleaveswillgrow,providingacontinuousharvest.

Tomatoes—Harvest the fruits at themost appealing stage of ripeness,whentheyarebrightred.Theflavorisbestatroomtemperature,butripefruitmaybe

heldintherefrigeratorat45to50degreesFahrenheitfor7to10days.

Turnips—Harvesttherootswhentheyare2to3inchesindiameterbutbeforeheavyfallfrostsoccur.Thetopsmaybeusedassaladgreenswhentheleavesare3to5incheslong.

Watermelons—Harvestwhenthewatermelonproducesadullthudratherthana sharp, metallic sound when thumped—this means the fruit is ripe. Otherripenessindicatorsareadeepyellowratherthanawhitecolorwherethemelontouches the ground; brown tendrils on the stem near the fruit; and a rough,slightlyridgedfeeltotheskinsurface.

CommunityGardens

Acommunitygardenisconsideredanypieceoflandthatmanypeoplegarden.Thesegardenscanbelocatedinurbanareas,out in thecountry,orevenin thesuburbs, and they grow everything from flowers to vegetables to herbs—anything that the community members want to produce. Community gardenshelp promote the growing of fresh food, have a positive impact onneighborhoods by cleaning up vacant lots, educate youth about gardening andworkingtogetherasacommunity.Whetherthegardenisjustoneplotormanyindividualgardensinaspecifiedarea,acommunitygardenisawonderfulwaytoreachouttofellowneighborswhilegrowingfreshfoodswhereveryoulive.

Agardenertransplantsflowersfromapotinhishometoacommunitygarden.

10StepstoBeginningYourOwnCommunityGardenThe following steps are adapted from the American Community GardenAssociation.

1.Organizeameetingforallthoseinterested.Determinewhetheragardenisreally needed and wanted, what kind it should be (vegetable, flower, or acombination,andorganicornot),whomitwillinvolve,andwhobenefits.Inviteneighbors, tenants, community organizations, gardening and horticulturalsocieties,andbuildingsuperintendents(ifitisatanapartmentbuilding).

2.Establishaplanningcommittee.Thisgroupcanbemadeupofpeoplewhofeelcommittedtothecreationofthegardenandwhohavethetimetodevotetoit, at least in the initial stages. Choose well-organized people as gardencoordinators and formcommittees to tackle specific tasks suchas fundingandpartnerships,youthactivities,construction,andcommunication.

3. Compile all of your resources. Do a community asset assessment.Whatskillsandresourcesalreadyexistinthecommunitythatcanaidinthegarden’screation? Contact local municipal planners about possible sites, as well ashorticultural societies and other local sources of information and assistance.Look within your community for people with experience in landscaping andgardening.

4.Lookforasponsor.Somegardens“selfsupport”throughmembershipdues,but for many, a sponsor is essential for donations of tools, seeds, or money.Churches, schools, private businesses, or parks and recreation departments areallpossiblesponsors.

5. Choose a site for your garden. Consider the amount of daily sunshine(vegetablesneedatleastsixhoursaday),availabilityofwater,andsoiltestingfor possible pollutants. Find out who owns the land. Can the gardeners get alease agreement for at least three years? Will public liability insurance benecessary?

6. Prepare and develop the chosen site. In most cases, the land will needconsiderablepreparationforplanting.Organizevolunteerworkcrewstocleanit,gathermaterials,anddecideonthedesignandplotarrangement.

7.Organize the layoutof thegarden.Membersmustdecidehowmanyplotsareavailableandhowtheywillbeassigned.Allowspaceforstoring toolsandmakingcompost,andallotroomforpathwaysbetweeneachplot.Plantflowersor shrubs around the garden’s edges to promote goodwill with nongardeningneighbors,pedestrians,andmunicipalauthorities.

8. Plan a garden just for kids. Consider creating a special garden for thechildren of the community—including them is essential. Children are not asinterested in the size of the harvest but rather in the process of gardening. Aseparateareasetasideforthemallowsthemtoexplorethegardenattheirownspeedandcanbeavaluablelearningtool.

9.Draft rules andput them inwriting.Thegardeners themselvesdevise thebestgroundrules.Wearemorewillingtocomplywithrulesthatwehavehadahandincreating.Groundruleshelpgardenerstoknowwhatisexpectedofthem.

Thinkof it asacodeofbehavior.Someexamplesof issues that arebestdealtwithbyagreed-uponrulesare:Whatkindsofdueswillmemberspay?Howwillthemoneybeused?Howareplots assigned?Will gardeners share tools,meetregularly,andhandlebasicmaintenance?

10.Keepmembersinvolvedwithoneanother.Goodcommunicationensuresastrongcommunitygardenwithactiveparticipationbyall.Somewaystodothisare:formatelephonetree,createane-maillist,installarainproofbulletinboardinthegarden,andhaveregularcommunitycelebrations.Communitygardensareallaboutcreatingandstrengtheningcommunities.

ToolsNeededtoCreateandMaintainaCommunityGardenWhen purchasing tools for your community garden, buy high-quality tools.Thesewill last longer andare an investment thatwill benefit yourgardenandthose working in it for years to come. Every community garden should beequippedwiththese10essentialtools:

Fork:Youcan’tdiganddivideperennialswithoutaheavy-dutyfork.

Gloves:Leatherglovesholdupbest.Ifyouhaveroses,getapairthatisthickenoughtoresistthornpricks.

Handforkorcultivator:Ahandforkhelpscultivatesoil,chopupclumps,andworkfertilizerandcompostintothesoil.Ahandforkisnecessaryforcultivatingincloselyplantedbeds.

Handpruners:Therearedifferenttypesandsizesofprunersdependingonthetypeandsizeofthejob.Handprunersareforcuttingsmalldiameters,uptothethicknessofyourlittlefinger.

Hoe:Along-handledhoeiskeytokeepingweedsoutofyourgarden.

Hose:Thisisthefastestwaytotransportlotsofwatertoyourgardenplants.Considerusingdripirrigationhosesortapetoapplyasteadystreamofwatertoyourplants.

Shovels and spades:There are several different types and shapesof shovelsandspades,eachwithitsownpurpose.Therearealsodifferenttypesofhandlesforeither—aDshape,aTshape,ornoneatall.Ashovelisarequisitetoolforplanting largeperennials, shrubs,and trees;breakingground;andmovingsoil,leaves,andjustaboutanythingelse.Thesharpertheblade,thebetter.

Trowel: A well-made trowel is your most important tool. From containergardeningtolargebeds,atrowelwillhelpyougetyourplantsintothesoil.

Watering can: A watering can creates a fine, even stream of water thatdeliverswith agentleness thatwon’twash seedlingsor sprouting seedsoutoftheirsoil.

Wheelbarrow:Wheelbarrowscomeinalldifferentsizes(andprices).Theyareindispensable for hauling soil, compost, plants, mulch, hoses, tools, andeverythingelseyou’llneedtomakeyourgardenasuccess.

ThingstoConsiderThere aremany things that need to be consideredwhen you create your owncommunitygarden.Remember thatcommunitygardens takea lotofworkandforesightinorderforthemtobesuccessfulandbeneficialforallthoseinvolved.

TheOrganizationoftheGarden

Will your garden establish rules and conditions for membership—such asresidence, dues, and agreement with any drafted rules and regulations? It isimportant to know who will be able to use the garden and who will not.Furthermore,decidinghowthegardenwillbeparceledoutisanotherkeytopictodiscussbeforebeginningyourcommunitygarden.Willtheplotsbeassignedby family size or need? Will some plots be bigger to accommodate largerfamilies?Willyourgardenincorporatechildren’splotsaswell?

Insurance

It is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain leases from landownerswithout

liabilityinsurance.Gardeninsuranceisanewthingformanyinsurancecarriers,andtheirunderwritersarereluctanttocovercommunitygardens.Ithelpsifyouknowwhatyouwantoutofyourcommunitygardenbeforeyoustart talkingtoinsurance agents. Two tips: Work with an agent from a firm that deals withmanydifferentcarriers(soyoucangetthebestpolicyforyourneeds),andyouwillprobablyhavebettersuccesswithsomeonelocalwhohasalreadydonethistype of policy or who works with social service agencies in the area. Shoparounduntilyoufindapolicythatfitstheneedsofyourcommunitygardenanditsusers.

SetUpaGardenAssociation

Many garden groups are organized very informally and operate successfully.Leaders rise to theoccasion topropose ideasandcarryout tasks.However,asthe workload expands, many groups choose a more formal structure for theirorganization.

Astructuredprogramisaconscious,plannedefforttocreateasystemsothateachpersoncanparticipatefullyandthegroupcanperformeffectively.It’svitalthattheleadershipberesponsivetothemembersandtheirneeds.

Ifyourgroupisnew,haveseveralplanningmeetingstodiscussyourprogramandorganization.Tryoutsuggestionsraisedat thesemeetings,andaftera fewmonths of operation, you’ll be in a better position to develop bylaws ororganizationalguidelines.Acommunitygardenprojectshouldbekeptassimpleaspossible.

CreatingBylaws

Bylawsare rules thatgovern the internal affairsof anorganization.Checkoutbylawsfromothercommunitygardenorganizationswhencreatingyourown.

Bylawscoverthesetopics:ThefullnameoftheorganizationandaddressTheorganizingmembersandtheiraddressesThepurpose,goal,andphilosophyoftheorganizationMembershipeligibilityandduesTimelineforregularmeetingsofthecommitteeHowthebylawscanberescindedoramendedMaintenanceandcleanupofthecommunitygardenA hold harmless clause: “We the undersigned members of the [name]

garden group hereby agree to hold harmless [name landowner] from andagainstanydamage, loss, liability, claim,demand, suit, cost, andexpensedirectlyorindirectlyresultingfrom,arisingoutoforinconnectionwiththeuse of the [name] garden by the garden group, its successors, assigns,employees,agents,andinvitees.”

SampleGuidelinesandRulesforGardenMembers

Here are some sample guidelines community garden members may need tofollow:

Iwillpayafeeof$___tohelpcovergardenexpenses.Iwillhavesomethingplantedinthegardenby[date]andkeepitplantedallsummerlong.If I must abandon my plot for any reason, I will notify the gardenleadership.

10BenefitsofCreatingaCommunityGarden

1. Improvesthequalityoflifeforpeopleusingthegarden.2. Provides a pathway for neighborhood and community

development and promotes intergenerational and cross-culturalconnections.

3. Stimulatessocialinteractionandreducescrime.4. Encouragesself-reliance.5. Beautifiesneighborhoodsandpreservesgreenspace.6. Reduces family food budgets while providing nutritious

foodsforfamiliesinthecommunity.7. Conservesresources.8. Creates an opportunity for recreation, exercise, therapy,

andeducation.9. Createsincomeopportunitiesandeconomicdevelopment.10. Reducescityheatfromstreetsandparkinglots.

I will keep weeds at a minimum and maintain the areas immediately

surroundingmyplot.Ifmyplotbecomesunkempt,IunderstandIwillbegivenoneweek’snoticetocleanitup.Atthattime,itwillbereassignedortilledin.Iwillkeeptrashandlitteroutoftheplot,aswellasadjacentpathwaysandfences.Iwillparticipateinthefallcleanupofthegarden.Iwillplanttallcropswheretheywillnotshadeneighboringplots.Iwillpickonlymyowncropsunlessgivenpermissionbyanotherplotuser.I will not use fertilizers, insecticides, or weed repellents that will in anywayaffectotherplots.I understand that neither the garden group nor owners of the land areresponsible formy actions. I therefore agree to hold harmless the gardengroupandownersofthelandforanyliability,damage,loss,orclaimthatoccursinconnectionwithuseofthegardenbymeoranyofmyguests.

PreventingVandalismofYourCommunityGarden

Vandalism is a common fear among community gardeners. Try to detervandalismbyfollowingthesesimple,preventativemethods:

Make a sign for the garden. Let people know that the garden is acommunityproject.Put up fences aroundyourgarden.Fences canbeof almost anymaterial.Theyserveasmuchtomarkpossessionofapropertyastoprevententry.Invite everyone in the neighborhood to participate in the garden projectfromtheverybeginning.Ifyouexcludepeople,theymaybecomepotentialvandals.Plantraspberries,roses,orotherthornyplantsalongthefenceasabarriertoanyonetryingtoclimbthefence.Make friendswith neighborswhosewindows overlook the garden. Tradethemflowersandvegetablesforaprotectiveeye.Harvest all ripe fruit and vegetables on a daily basis to prevent thetemptationofoutsiderstoharvestyourcrops.Planta“vandal’sgarden”attheentrance.Markitwithasign:“Ifyoumusttakefood,pleasetakeitfromhere.”

PeopleProblemsandSolutions

Angry neighbors and bad gardeners pose problems for a community garden.Neighbors may complain to municipal governments about messy, unkemptgardens or rowdy behavior; most gardens cannot afford poor relations withneighbors, local politicians, or potential sponsors. Therefore, choose bylawscarefullysoyouhaveprocedurestofollowwhenmembersfailtokeeptheirplotsclean and up to code. A well-organized garden with strong leadership andcommittedmemberscanovercomealmostanyobstacle.

Communitygardenscanbeagreatplaceforchildrentolearnabouthowthingsgrow.

SchoolGardens

Aschoolgardenprovideschildrenwithanidealoutdoorclassroom.Withinasinglevisittoagarden,astudentcanrecordplantgrowth,studydecompositionwhile turning a compost pile, and learnmoreabout plants, nature, and the outdoors in general. Gardens alsoprovidestudentswithopportunities tomakehealthierfoodchoices,learnaboutnutrientcycles,anddevelopadeeperappreciationfortheenvironment,community,andeachother.Whileschoolgardensaretypicallyusedforscienceclasses,theycanalsoteachchildrenaboutthehistoryoftheircommunity(whattheirtownwaslikehundredsofyears ago andwhat people did to farm food), and be incorporated

intomathcurriculumandotherschoolsubjects.

HowtoStartaSchoolGarden

School gardens do not need to start on a grand scale. In fact,individualclassroomscangrowtheirveryowncontainergardensbyjustplantingseedsinsmallpots,wateringthemdaily,placingthemin a sunny corner of the room, and watching the seedlings grow.However, if there is space for a larger, outdoor garden, this is theidealplace to teachchildrenaboutworkingasacommunity,aboutplant and vegetables, and responsibility. A school garden shouldeventually become a permanent addition to the school and bemaintainedyear-round.

Whenstartingaschoolgarden,itisimportanttofindsomeonetocoordinatethegardenprogram.Thisistheperfectwaytogetparentsinvolved in the school’s garden. Establish a volunteer gardencommitteeandassigncertainparentsparticulartasksintheplanning,upkeep (evenduring the summermonthswhen school is generallynotinsession),andfundingfortheschool’sgarden.

It is important, so thegarden isnotneglected, toplanparticularclassroomactivitiesandlessonsthatwillincorporatethegardenanditsplants.Assigning studentsvarious jobs that relate to thegardenwillbeawonderfulwayofintroducingthemtogardeningaswellasresponsibilityandcommunity.

Afteralltheinitialplanningisdone,itistimetochooseaspotforthe school garden. A place in the lawn that receives plenty ofsunlightandthatwillbecloseenoughtothebuildingforeasyaccessisideal.Itshouldalsobenearanoutdoorspigotsotheplantscanbeeasily watered. If there is enough space, it might be beneficial tohaveagardenshed,wheregardeninggloves, tools,buckets,hoses,andotheritemscanbestoredforuseinthegarden.Onceyouhavechosenyourspot,it’stimetostartdiggingandplanting!

Bothnewandestablishedgardensbenefitfromtheuseofcompostand mulch. Many schools purchase compost when they initiallyestablishtheirgarden,andthentheystartmakingtheirowncompost—whichisawonderfulsciencelessonforstudentsaswell.Youcan

use grass clippings, yard trimmings, rotten vegetables, and evenfood scraps from the cafeteria or students’ lunches to build andmaintain your compost pile.While some schools choose to makecompostpilesinthegarden,otherscompostwithwormboxesrightintheclassroom!

Depending on funding and the needs and desires of the school,these gardens can become quite elaborate, with fences, ponds,trellises, trees and shrubs, and other structures. However, all aschool garden truly needs is a little bit of dirt and a few plants(preferablyanassortmentofvegetables,fruit,andwildflowers)thatstudents can study and even eat. Whether the school garden isestablishedonly foroneclassorgrade level,or if it isgoing tobeavailabletoeveryoneattheschool,isafactorthatwilldeterminethetypesofplantsandthesizeoftheoverallgarden.

Whetherbigorsmall,complexorsimple,schoolgardensprovidea wonderful, enriching learning experience for children and theirparentsalike.

Farmers’Markets

Farmers’ markets are an integral part of the urban–farm linkage and havecontinued to rise in popularity, mostly due to growing consumer interest inobtaining fresh products directly from the farm. Farmers’ markets allowconsumerstohaveaccesstolocallygrown,farm-freshproduce,enablefarmersthe opportunity to develop a personal relationship with their customers, andcultivate consumer loyalty with the farmers who grow the produce. Directmarketing of farm products through farmers’ markets continues to be animportant sales outlet for agricultural producers nationwide. Today, there aremorethan4,600farmers’marketsoperatingthroughoutthenation.

WhoBenefitsfromFarmers’Markets?Smallfarmoperators:Thosewithlessthan$250,000inannualreceiptswhoworkandmanagetheirownoperationsmeet thisdefinition(94percentofallfarms).Farmers and consumers: Farmers have direct access to markets tosupplement farm income.Consumershave access to locallygrown, farm-fresh produce and the opportunity to personally interact with the farmerwhogrowstheproduce.The community:Manyurban communities—where fresh, nutritious foodsarescarce—gaineasyaccesstoqualityfood.Farmers’marketsalsohelptopromote nutrition education, wholesome eating habits, and better foodpreparation,aswellasboostingthecommunity’seconomy.

GettingInvolvedinaFarmers’MarketA farmers’ market is a great place for new gardeners to learn what sorts ofproduce customers want, and it also promotes wonderful communityrelationshipsbetweenthegrowersandthebuyers.Ifyouhaveawell-establishedgarden,andknowafewotherpeoplewhoalsohavefruits,vegetables,andevengardenflowerstospare,youmaywanttoconsiderorganizingandimplementingyourownlocalfarmers’market(ifyourtownorcityalreadyhasanestablishedfarmers’market,youmaywant togovisit itonedayandask thefarmershowyou could join, or contact your local Cooperative Extension Service formoreinformation). Joining existing farmers’ markets may require that you pay anannualfee,andyourproducemayalsobesubject to inspectionandotherrulesestablishedbythemarket’sorganizationorthelocalgovernment.

Establishingafarmers’marketisnotsimplysettingupastandinfrontofyourhome and selling your vegetables—though you can certainly do this if youprefer.Afarmers’marketmusthaveasmallgroupofpeoplewhoarealllookingtosell theirproduceandgardenharvests. It is important,beforeplanningevenbegins, to hold ameeting and discuss the feasibility of your venture. Is thereotherlocalcompetitionthatmightimpedeonyourmarket’ssuccess?Arethereenough people and enough produce tomake a farmers’market profitable andsustainable? What kind of monetary cost will be incurred by establishing afarmers’market?Itisalsoagoodideatothinkabouthowyoucansponsoryourmarket—suchas throughmembers, nonprofit organizations, or the chamberofcommerce.Ifatallpossible,itisbesttotrytogetyourentireneighborhoodandlocalgovernmentinvolvedandpromotetheideaoffresh,home-grownfruitsandvegetablesthatwillbeavailabletothecommunitythroughtheestablishmentofafarmers’market.

Onceyou’vedecided thatyouwant togoaheadwithyourplan,youshouldestablish rules foryourmarket.Such rulesand regulationsshoulddetermine ifthere will be a board of directors, who will be responsible for the overallmanagementof themarket,whocanbecomeamember,where themarketwillbelocated(preferablyinaplacewithampleparking,goodvisibility,andcoverincaseofbadweather),andwhenandforhowlongthemarketwillbeopentothepublic.Itisalsoagoodideatodiscusshowtheproduceshouldbepricedandmakesureyouarefollowingalllocalandstateregulations.

Ideally,itisbeneficialforyourmarket’svendorsandthecommunitytogathersupportandinvolvementfromlocalfarmersinyourarea.Thatway,yourgardenvegetableandfruitstandwillbesupplementedwithotherlocallygrownproduceandcropsfromfarms,whichwilldrawmorepeopletoyourmarket.

Once your farmers’market is up and running, it is important tomaintain agood rapport with the community. Be friendly when customers come to yourstand,andmakesurethatyouareofferingqualityproductsforthemtopurchase.Price your vegetables and fruits fairly andmake your displays pleasing to theeye, luring customers to your stall.Make sure your produce is clearlymarkedwiththenameandprice,soyourcustomerswillhavenodoubtastowhattheyarebuying.Makeyourstallaspersonalaspossible,andalways,alwaysinteractwith the customer. In this way, you’ll begin to build relationships with yourcommunity members and hopefully continue to draw in business for yourselfandtheothervendorsinthefarmers’market.

Ifyouarelookingtofindalocalfarmers’marketnearyou(eithertotrytojoinor just to visit), here is a link to aWeb site that offers extensive listings forfarmers’marketsbystate:http://apps.ams.usda.gov/farmersmarkets.

PartTwoPantry

“Thegreatestdelightthefieldsandwoodsministeristhesuggestionofanoccultrelationbetweenmanandthevegetable.Iamnotaloneandunacknowledged.TheynodtomeandItothem.”

—RalphWaldoEmerson

One of the greatest pleasures of self-sufficiency is preparing, preserving, andeatingyourownfood.Afterthehardworkofplantingandtendingyourgardens,orraisinganimalsforeggs,milk,ormeat,yourkitchenwillbecomealaboratorywhereyoucancreatewonderfulfoodsfromthefruitsofyourlabortoenjoyortoshare. With a little preparation, your pantry can become a treasure trove ofcannedanddriedfoods,readytodrawfromallwinterlong.Thereissomethingdistinctlyrewardingaboutrunningouttothegardentopicksaladmakingsinthesummer, or reaching into the cupboard for a new jar of strawberry jam in themiddleofthewinter.It’sagiftmoreandmorepeoplearefindingtimetoaccept,asthequalityofsupermarketofferingsseemstoplummetandanewawarenessofthebenefitsoflocallygrownfoodsweepsacrossruralandurbanareasalike.Ifyoudon’thavethespaceortimetogroworproduceyourownfood,therearefarmers’ markets springing up all over where you can find fresh, deliciousproduce,meats, baked goods, and dairy products to enjoy on your own or toinspireafestivedinnerparty.Whetheryougoto thegarden, thepantry,or themarket for your food, remember the work that went into its growth andpreparationandyouwillbegintoseefoodnotonlyasanecessityandapleasure,butalsoasagreatgift.

EatingWell

WhyEatOrganicallyGrownFood?Organically grown produce is becoming more and more readily available,regardlessofwhereyoulive.Ifyougrowyourownfruitsandvegetablesorhaveready access to a farmers’ market, eating organically may be cheaper thanpurchasing commercially grown produce at the supermarket. Though organicfoodsbought at agrocery storemaybe10 to50percentmore expensive thantheirtraditionallygrowncompanions,thebenefitsareoftenworththecost.Herearejustafewofmanyreasonstoeatorganicallygrownproduce:

• Improved taste. Tests comparing various gardening methods have shownthatfruitgrownorganicallyhasahighernaturalsugarcontent,firmerflesh,andis less apt to bruise easily. Do your own taste test and you’ll easily tell thedifference!

•Fewerhealtrisk.Pesticideshavebeenlinkedtocancerandotherdiseases.

• Help support smaller farms. Most organic farms are small, familyownedendeavors.Bypurchasingorganicproduce,you’llbehelping themsurviveandthrive.

• Help the environment. According to the EPA (Environmental ProtectionAgency),agricultureisresponsiblefor70percentofthepollutionintheUnitedStates’streamsandrivers.Organicfarmersdon’tusethesyntheticpesticidesandfertilizersthatcausethispollution.

•Betternutrition.Higherlevelsoflycopene,polyphenols,andflavonolshave

beenfoundinorganicallyproducedfruitsandvegetables.Phytonutrients(manyofwhichareantioxidants involved in theplant’sowndefense system)maybehigherinorganicproducebecausecropsrelymoreontheirowndefensesintheabsenceofregularapplicationsofchemicalpesticides.

WhyEatLocallyGrownFood?Even if you grow the majority of your own produce, you may want tosupplementyourmenuwithfoodfromothersources.Whendoingso,therearelotsofgreatreasonstochoosefoodsgrownnearwhereyoulive.Hereareafew:

• Support the local economy.According to a study by theNewEconomicsFoundationinLondon,adollarspentlocallygeneratestwiceasmuchincomeforthelocaleconomy.

•Fresherfood.Produceyoubuyatthesupermarkethaslikelybeenintransitforseveraldaysorevenweeks,andduringthattimeit’sbeendeclininginflavorandnutrition.Produceyoubuyfromafarmers’marketorlocalfarmstandwaslikelypickedthesameday.

•Helptheenvironment.Byeatingfoodgrownlocally,you’recuttingdownonthenumberofmilesithadtotraveltogettoyou,thusloweringfuelemissions.

• Stay attuned to the seasons. Eating locally means that you may not getasparagus inOctoberorsweetpotatoes inApril,but thosefoodswillnotbeattheir best quality in thosemonths anyway. You’ll getmore nutritious, better-tastingfoodifyoueatitatitsgrowingpeak.You’llalsofeelmoreconnectedtothenaturalseasonalrhythms.

• Encourage variety.By supporting the local farmers, you give them theopportunity to try less common or heirloom varieties that wouldn’t travel aswell, produce as high a yield, or have the shelf life of most supermarketvarieties.

FoodCo-ops

WhatAretheDifferentTypesofFoodCo-ops?Typically, there are two typesof food co-ops: the co-opgrocery store and thebuying club. Each is owned and run by members but they do vary in theirstructureandnumberofmembers.

Co-opGroceryStore

Co-opgrocerystoresarebasicallyregulargrocerystoresthataremember-ownedand-operatedandprovidelow-cost,healthyfoodstomembersandoftentothepublicaswell.Therearearound500co-opgrocerystores in theUnitedStatesalone.

BuyingClub

Abuyingclubconsistsofasmallgroupofpeople(friends,neighbors,families,orcolleagues)whogettogetherandbuyfoodinbulkfromaco-opdistributor(aco-opwarehouseornaturalfoodsdistributor)orfromlocalfarms.Byorderinginbulk,themembersareabletosavemoneyongroceryitems.Themembersofthebuying club share the responsibilities of collecting money from the othermembers, placing orders with the distributor, picking up the orders from thedrop-offsite,anddistributingthefoodtotheindividualmembersorfamilies.

WhatIsaFoodCo-op?Food co-ops are non-profit, democratic, and member-owned businesses thatprovidelow-costorganicornaturalfoodstomembersand,insomecases,non-members.

Sincefoodco-opsareestablishedandoperatedbymembers,eachmemberhasa voice regarding what types of foods will be sold, maintenance issues, andmanagementofthestores.Foodco-opsaredemocraticallyrun,soeachmemberhas one vote in any type of election. Members generally elect a board ofdirectorstooverseetheeverydayrunningoftheco-opandtohirestaff.

HowDoYouBecomeaFoodCo-opMember?

Tobecomeamemberofafoodco-op,youmustpayasmallinitialfeeandthentypicallyinvestacertainamountofmoneyintotheco-op to purchase a share. Sometimesmembers can accumulatemoreshares (by paying an annual fee, for example).Members can alsohelp run the co-op by volunteering their time. Members reap thebenefitsof theirmembershipbyhavingaccess todiscountedpricesonfoodproducts.However,ifyoudecidenottobecomeamember,some food co-ops still allow non-members to shop at their storeswithoutthemembershipdiscount.

HowDoYouBecomeaBuyingClubMember?Ifyouare looking to joinabuyingclub inyourarea, it isbest tocontactyourregional co-opdistributor andask them for informationon localbuyingclubs.Checkout thewebsitesof localdistributors tosee if theyhave links tobuying

clubs near you. Or ask friends and neighbors if they’re aware of any buyingclubsthatareactiveinyourarea.

HowDoYouStartYourOwnFoodCo-op?Herearesomestepsyouneedtofollowtoestablishyourownfoodco-op:1. Invitepotentialmemberstomeetanddiscussthestart-upofafoodco-op.

Identifyhowafoodco-opmayhelpthefinancesofthemembers.2. Holdameetinginwhichpotentialmembersvotetocontinuetheprocessof

formingaco-opandthenselectacommitteeforthispurpose.3. Determinehowoftentheco-opwillbeusedbythepotentialmembers.4. Discusstheresultsofanysurveysatanothermeetingandthenvotetoseeif

theplansshouldproceed.5. Do a needs analysis (determine what the members will need in order to

establishafoodco-op).6. Hold a meeting to discuss the outcome of the needs analysis and vote

(anonymously)onwhetherornottoproceedwiththeco-op.7. Developabusinessplanfortheco-opanddecidethefinancialcontribution

neededtostarttheco-op.8. At another meeting, have members vote on the business plan and if

memberswanttocontinue,decideonwhetherornottokeepthecommitteemembers.

9. Preparealllegaldocumentsandincorporate.10. Holdameetingforallpotentialmemberstoreviewandacceptthebylaws

(terms of operation, responsibilities ofmembers, and board of directors).Holdanelectionfortheboardofdirectors.

11. At the first board of directors meeting, elect officers and assign themcertainresponsibilitiesincarryingoutthebusinessplan.

12. Holdamembershipdrive—trytorecruitnewmemberstothefoodco-op.13. Poolmonetaryresourcesandcreatealoanapplicationpackage.14. Employamanagerfortheco-opstore.15. Findabuildingorstorefronttohousetheco-op.16. Startyourbusiness!

Exampleofbylawsforafoodco-op:Establishmembershiprequirements.Formulate the rights and responsibilities of allmembers and the boardofdirectors.Stipulatethegroundsformemberexpulsion.

Establishrulesforcallingandimplementingmembershipmeetings.Determinehowmemberswillvote.Provideelectionproceduresforboardmembersandofficers.Specify the number of board members and officers and how long theirtermsinofficewillbeandwhatsortofcompensationtheywillbeawarded.Establishwhattimeandwheremeetingswillbeheld.Specifytheco-op’sfiscalyeardates.Provideinformationonthedistributionofnetearnings.Includeanyotherrulesofmanagementfortheco-op.

HowDoYouStartYourOwnBuyingClub?To start your own buying club, you will need to collect a group of people(preferablymore than five households). If no one in your new group has anyexperience with organizing a buying club, it may be beneficial for you totemporarily joinabuyingclub toseehowitworks.Onceyouareconfident inyourunderstandingofabuyingclub,it’stimetobegin!1. Find a co-op distributor’s (wholesaler’s) pricing guide to share with the

othersinyourbuyingclub,soyouallhaveanunderstandingoftheproductsavailable and the savings from which you’ll benefit. If you’ll be buyingfromlocalfarms,discusspricingandbulkdiscountswiththefarmers.

2. Have a meeting and invite all those who are interested in joining yourbuyingclub.Emphasizethatabuyingclubrequiresitsmemberstoshareinall responsibilities—from placing orders to picking up deliveries tocollecting

Fruitsdisplayedatafoodco-op.

the money—and that they will all reap the benefits of obtaining greatorganicandnaturalfoodsatwholesaleprices.

3. Establishanorganizationalcommittee.Discussareassuchascoordination,price guide distribution, orders, potential delivery location,what supplies

willbeneeded,bookkeeping,andhowtoorientnewmembers.4. Drawupanymembershiprequirementsyouthinknecessary.5. Brainstorm possible delivery sites, such as churches, firehouses, or other

publicbuildings.Youroptimalsiteshouldbeabletoaccommodatealargetruckandhave longhoursofoperation.Make sureyouwill have enoughspaceatthesitetogothroughtheproductsanddistributethemaccordingly.

6. Developanameforyourbuyingclubandfilloutamembershipapplicationwiththeco-opdistributorofyourchoice.Youshouldreceivesomesortofconfirmation,completewithorderdeadlines,dateofdelivery,andasimpleorientationtothebuyingclub.

7. Startenjoyingyourhealthyfoodsforlowerprices!

Vegetablespackagedfordistribution.

FoodCo-opsandDistributorsbyState

AlabamaGrowAlabamaDistributionCenter2301FinleyBoulevardBirmingham,Alabama35202(205)991-0042www.growalabama.com

AlaskaOrganicAlaska

3404WillowStreetAnchorage,Alaska99517(907)770-2779www.organicalaska.com

ArizonaFoodConspiracyCo-op412North4thAvenueTucson,Arizona85705(520)624-4821natural@foodconspiracy.orgwww.foodconspiracy.org

ShopNaturalMarket350SouthTooleTucson,Arizona85701(520)622-3911www.shopnatural.coop

ArkansasOzarkNaturalFoodsCo-op1554NorthCollegeAvenueFayetteville,Arkansas72703(479)521-7558jerry@ozarknaturalfoods.comwww.ozarknaturalfoods.com

SummercornFoods1410CatoSpringsRoadFayetteville,Arkansas72701(501)521-9338info@summercorn.comwww.summercorn.com

CaliforniaBriarPatchCommunityMarket10061JoerschkeDriveP.O.Box3170GrassValley,California95945(530)272-5333paul@briarpatch.coopwww.briarpatch.coop

TheCooperativeGrocery(TheCoG)145067thStreetEmeryville,California95616(530)758-2667dwalter@davisfood.coopwww.davisfood.coop

CoopportunityConsumersCo-op1525BroadwaySantaMonica,California90404(310)451-8902service@coopportunity.comwww.coopportunity.com

DavisFoodCo-op620GStreetDavis,California94608(510)868-2883info@thecog.orgwww.thecog.org

IslaVistaFoodCo-op

6575SevilleRoadIslaVista,California93117(805)968-1401ivcoop@silcom.comwww.islavistafood.coop

KresgeFoodCo-op600KresgeCourtKresgeCollegeUCSCSantaCruz,California95064(831)426-1506coop@dv8.orghttp://k9.dv8.org/~coop

NorthCoastCo-op,Arcata811IStreetArcata,California95521(707)822-5947co-oparc@northcoastco-op.comwww.northcoastco-op.com

NorthCoastCo-op,Eureka254thStreetEureka,California95501(707)443-6027cco-opeka@northcoastco-op.comwww.northcoastco-op.com

OceanBeachPeople’sOrganicFoodCo-op4765VoltaireStreetSanDiego,California92107(619)224-1387editor@oceanbeachpeoples.com

www.obpeoplesfood.coop

OtherAvenuesCommunityFoodStore3930JudahStreetSanFrancisco,California94122(415)661-7475info@otheravenues.orgwww.otheravenues.org

QuincyNaturalFoodsCo-op269MainStreetQuincy,California95971(530)283-3528qnf@snowcrest.netwww.gnf.coop

RainbowGroceryCo-op1745FolsomSanFrancisco,California94103(415)863-0620comments@rainbowgrocery.coopwww.rainbow.coop

SacramentoNaturalFoodsCo-op1900AlhambraBoulevardSacramento,California95816(916)455-2667comments@sacfoodcoop.comwww.sacfoodcoop.com

SantaRosaCommunityMarket&Café

1899MendocinoAvenueSantaRosa,California95401(707)546-1806srcm1@sonic.netwww.srcommunitymarket.com

UkiahNaturalFoods721SouthStateStreetUkiah,California95482(707)462-4778unf@ukiahcoop.comwww.ukaihcoop.com

ColoradoBoulderCo-opMarket1904PearlStreetBoulder,Colorado80302(303)447-2667sid@boulder.coopwww.boulder.coop

FortCollinsFoodCo-op250EastMountainAvenueFortCollins,Colorado80524(970)484-7448foodcoop@ftcfoodcoop.comwww.ftcfoodcoop.com

HighPlainsFoodCo-op5655SouthYosemiteStreet,Suite400GreenwoodsVillage,Colorado80111

(785)626-3640info@highplainsfood.orghttp://highplainsfood.org

RainbowGardensCo-op655TabernashDriveRidgeway,Colorado81432(970)626-9720kimah@independence.netwww.rainbowcoop.com

ConnecticutWillimanticFoodCo-op91ValleyStreetWillimantic,Connecticut06226(860)456-3611willifoodcoop@snet.netwww.willimanticfood.coop

DelawareNewarkNaturalFoodsCooperative280EastMainStreet,Suite105Newark,Delaware19711(302)368-5894info@newarknaturalfoods.comwww.newarknaturalfoods.coop

FloridaEssentialsForLife2106FloraAvenueFt.Myers,Florida33907(239)939-2529essentialsforlife@embarqmail.comwww.myessentialsforlife.com

Ever’manNaturalFoods315WestGardenStreetPensacola,Florida32502(850)438-0402info@everman.orgwww.everman.org

HomegrownOrganicLocalFoodCo-op604NorthThorntonAvenueOrlando,Florida32803(407)595-3731coop@holisticlivingschool.orgwww.holisticlivingschool.org/coop

JumplightFarms9219LanternDriveLakeWorth,Florida33467(561)427-7296jumplightfarms@comcast.netwww.jumplightfarmsonline.com

KissimmeeOrganicCo-op4830LakeCecileDriveKissimmee,Florida34746

(407)870-9839sharonamus@aol.comhttp://members.tripod.com/kissimmeeorganiccoop/

LittleRiverCo-op3218PalmettoRoadWimauma,Florida33598(702)995-1092lucyomalley@hotmail.comwww.organicconsumers.org/linkpage.cfm?memid=2790

SeminoleNaturalFoods1550WarwickPlaceLongwood,Florida32750(407)699-1883http://groups.yahoo.com/group/seminolenfc

SunseedFoodCo-op,Inc.6615NorthAtlanticAvenueCapeCanaveral,Florida32920(321)784-0930www.sunseedfoodcoop.com

WestOrlandoHealthyFamilies6813HylandOaksRoadOrlando,Florida32818(407)522-9548heather@wohf.comwww.wohf.com

Georgia

DailyGroceriesFoodCo-op523PrinceAvenueAthens,Georgia30601(706)548-1732eatdaily@bellsouth.netwww.dailycoop.com

LifeGroceryNaturalFoodCo-op&Café1453RoswellRoadMarietta,Georgia30062(770)977-9583customerservice@lifegrocery.comwww.lifegrocery.com

SevanandaFoodCo-op467MorelandAvenueNEAtlanta,Georgia30307(404)681-2831info@sevananda.comwww.sevananda.coop

HawaiiKokuaMarketNaturalFoodsCo-op2643SouthKingStreetHonolulu,Hawaii96826(808)941-1922kokuamarket@verizon.netwww.kokua.coop

IdahoBoiseConsumerCo-op888WestFortStreetBoise,Idaho83702

(208)472-4500info@boisecoop.comwww.boisecoop.com

MoscowFoodCo-op121East5thStreetMoscow,Idaho83843(208)882-8537kenna@moscowfood.coopwww.moscowfood.coop

PocatelloCo-op815SouthFirstAvenuePocatello,Idaho83201(208)232-2181www.pocatellocoop.com

IllinoisCommonGroundFoodCo-op610EastSpringfieldChampaign,Illinois61820(217)352-3347comments@commonground.coopwww.commonground.coop

Co-opMarkets:47thStreet1300East47thStreetChicago,Illinois60653(773)268-4700coopmarkets@coopmarkets.comwww.coopmarkets.com

Co-opMarkets:Mr.G1226East53rdStreetChicago,Illinois60615(773)363-2175coopmarkets@coopmarkets.comwww.coopmarkets.com

DuckSoupCo-op129EastHillcrestDriveDeKalb,Illinois60115(815)756-7044ducksoupcoop@tbc.netwww.ducksoupcoop.com

NeighborhoodCo-opGrocery1815WestMainStreetCarbondale,Illinois62901(618)529-3533fmurphy7@juno.comwww.neighborhood.coop

SouthSuburbanFoodCo-op21750MainStreetMatteson,Illinois60433(708)747-2256info@southsuburbanfoodcoop.comwww.southsuburbanfoodcoop.com

StoneSoupAshland4637NorthAshlandChicago,Illinois60614www.stonesoupcoop.org

WestCentralIllinoisFoodCooperativeP.O.Box677Galesburg,Illinois61402wcifoodcoop@wcifoodcoop.comwww.wcifoodcoop.com

IndianaBloomingfoodsDowntown419EastKirkwoodAvenueBloomington,Indiana47408(812)336-5300kirkwood@bloomingfoods.coopwww.bloomingfoods.coop

BloomingfoodsMarket&Deli3220EastThirdStreetBloomington,Indiana47401(812)336-5400east@bloomingfoods.coopwww.bloomingfoods.coop

BloomingfoodsNearWestSide316WestSixthStreetBloomington,Indiana47404(812)333-7312west@bloomingfoods.coopwww.bloomingfoods.coop

ClearCreekFoodCo-op701WestNationalRoad,EarlhamRichmond,Indiana47374(765)983-1547coop@clearcreekcoop.orgwww.clearcreekcoop.org

LostRiverMarket&Deli26LibraryStreetPaoli,Indiana47454(812)723-3735www.lostrivercoop.com

MapleCityMarket314SouthMainStreetGoshen,Indiana46526(574)534-2355marketing@maplecitymarket.comwww.maplecitymarket.com

RiverCityFoodCo-op116WashingtonEvansville,Indiana47713(812)423-1183coop@rivercityfoodcoop.orgwww.rivercityfoodcoop.org

ThreeRiversFoodCo-op’sNaturalGrocery1612ShermanStreetFortWayne,Indiana46808(260)424-8812gm@3riversfood.coop

www.3riversfood.coop

IowaNewPioneerBakehouse4981stAvenueCoralville,Iowa52241(319)358-5513newpi@inav.netwww.newpi.com

NewPioneerCo-op22SouthVanBurenStreetIowaCity,Iowa52240(319)338-9441jangerer@newpi.comwww.newpi.com

OneotaCommunityFoodCo-op415WestWaterStreetDecorah,Iowa52101(563)382-4666foodcoop@oneota.netwww.oneota.net/–foodcoop

WheatsfieldCooperativeGrocery413DouglasAvenueAmes,Iowa50010(515)232-4094shop@wheatsfield.coopwww.wheatsfield.coop

KansasCommunityMercantile901IowaStreetLawrence,Kansas66044(785)843-8544themerc@themerc.coopwww.themerc.coop

PrairielandMarket138South4thSalinas,Kansas67401(785)827-5877pwinks@swbell.netwww.wannabhealthy.com/PFC

SEKSBuyingClub11th&WalnutIndependence,Kansas67301(620)205-7095http://seksbuyingclub.wordpress.com

TopekaNaturalFoodCoop503SouthwestWashburnAvenueTopeka,Kansas66606(785)235-2309www.geocities.com/topekafoodcoop

KentuckyGoodFoodsMarket&Café455-DSouthlandDriveLexington,Kentucky40503(859)278-1813cstites@goodfoods.coop

www.goodfoods.coop

OtherworldFoodCo-op,Inc.1865CelinaRoadBurkesville,Kentucky42717(270)433-7400otherworld@duo-county.comwww.motherworld.net/co-op/otherworld.html

LouisianaNewOrleansFoodCo-op621BNorthRendonStreetNewOrleans,Louisiana70119(504)324-6849info@nolafoodcoop.orghttp://nolafoodcoop.org

MaineBelfastCo-op123HighStreetBelfast,Maine04915(207)338-2532info@belfast.coopwww.belfast.coop

BlueHillCo-opCommunityMarket&Cafe4EllsworthRoad,P.O.Box1133BlueHill,Maine04614-1133(207)374-2165info@bluehill.coophttp://bluehill.coop

FareShareMarket443MainStreetNorway,Maine04268(207)743-9044www.faresharecoop.org

OxfordHillsFoodCooperative35CottageStreetNorway,Maine04268(207)743-8049coopcoord@megalink.netwww.faresharecoop.org

RisingTideCo-op15CoastalMarketplaceDrive

Damariscotta,Maine04543(207)563-5556rtcoop@tidewater.netwww.risingtide.coop

MarylandCommonMarketCo-op5728BuckeystownPike,Unit1-BFrederick,Maryland21704(301)663-3416cm@commonmarket.coopwww.commonmarket.coop

GlutFoodCo-op400534thStreetMt.Rainier,Maryland20712(301)779-1978collective@glut.orgwww.glut.org

MarylandFoodCo-opB-0203 Stamp Student Union University College Park, Maryland20742(301)314-8089coop@marylandfoodcollective.orgwww.marylandfoodcollective.org

TakomaParkFoodCo-op201EthanAllenAvenueTakomaPark,Maryland20912(301)891-2667hbc@takomapark.coopwww.tpss.coop

TakomaParkSilverSpringCoop8309GrubbRoadSilverSpring,Maryland20910(240)247-2667outreach@tpss.coopwww.tpss.coop

MassachusettsArtichokeFoodCo-op800MainStreetWorcester,Massachusetts01610(508)752-3533amourfaux@riseup.netwww.artichokecoop.org

BerkshireCo-opMarket

42BridgeStreet

GreatBarrington,Massachusetts01230

(413)528-9697memberservices@berkshirecoop.orgwww.berkshirecoop.org

CapeAnnFoodCo-op26EmersonAvenueGloucester,Massachusetts01930(978)281-0592cafcoop@tiac.comwww.cafc.org

GreenFieldsMarket144MainStreetGreenfield,Massachusetts01301

(413)773-9567email@greenfieldsmarket.coopwww.greenfieldsmarket.coop

HarvestCo-opMarkets581MassachusettsAvenueCambridge,Massachusetts02139(617)661-1580cdurkin@harvest.coopwww.harvest.coop

HarvestCo-opMarkets57SouthStreetJamaicaPlain,Massachusetts02130(617)524-1667cdurkin@harvest.coopwww.harvest.coop

RiverValleyMarketP.O.Box1245Northampton,Massachusetts01061(802)722-4212info@rivervalleymarket.coopwww.rivervalleymarket.coop

MichiganBrightonFoodCooperative2715WestCoonLakeRoadHowell,Michigan48843(517)546-4190bfcoop@brightonfoodcoop.orgwww.brightonfoodcoop.org

CassCorridorFoodCo-op456CharlotteStreetDetroit,Michigan48201(313)831-7452casscorridorfoodcoop@yahoo.com

www.geocities.com/casscorridorfoodcoop/index.html

DibblevilleFoodCooperative106EastElizabethStreetFenton,Michigan48430(810)629-1175contact@dibbleville.comwww.dibbleville.com

EastLansingFoodCo-op4960NorthwindEastLansing,Michigan48823(517)337-1266info@elfco.coopwww.elfco.coop

GrainTrainNaturalFoodMarket220MitchellStreetPetoskey,Michigan49770(231)347-2381info@graintrain.coopwww.graintrain.coop

Hartland’sNutritionConnectionCooperative

1898KorteStreet

P.O.Box530Hartland,Michigan48353(810)632-7952hnccinc@ismi.netwww.hnccinc.com

IoniaNaturalFoodCo-opHealthyBasics2576StateStreetIonia,Michigan58846steved@iserv.net

http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/ionianaturalfoodscoop

KeweenawFoodCo-op1035EthelAvenueHancock,Michigan49930(906)482-2030info@keweenaw.coopwww.keweenaw.coop

MarquetteFoodCo-op109WestBaragaAvenueMarquette,Michigan49855(906)225-0671info@marquettefood.coopwww.marquettefood.coop

OryanaFoodCooperative260East10thStreetTraverseCity,Michigan49684(231)947-0191info@oryana.coopwww.oryana.coop

People’sFoodCo-op&CaféVerde

214–216North4thAvenueAnnArbor,Michigan48104(734)994-9174info@peoplesfood.coopwww.peoplesfood.coop

People’sFoodCo-opofKalamazoo

436BurdickStreetSouthKalamazoo,Michigan49007(616)342-5686chris@peoplesfoodco-op.orgwww.peoplesfoodco-op.org

SimpleTimesFarmMarket&BuyingClub

6081EastBaldwinRoadGrandBlanc,Michigan48504(810)771-4480healthfood4less@yahoo.comwww.simpletimesfarm.com

WestMichiganCo-op1111GodfreySouthwestGrandRapids,Michigan49503(616)248-0760

membership@westmichigancoop.com

www.westmichigancoop.com

YpsilantiFoodCo-opandRiverStreetBakery

312NorthRiverStreetYpsilanti,Michigan48198(734)483-1520csikorski@emich.eduwww.comnet.org/ypsifoodcoop

MinnesotaBluffCountryCo-op121West2ndStreetWinona,Minnesota55987(507)452-1815bccoop@bluff.coopwww.bluff.coop

CookCountyWholeFoodsCo-opBox813/20East1stStreetGrandMarais,Minnesota55604(218)387-2503foodcoop@boreal.orgwww.boreal.org/–foodcoop

CrowWingFoodCo-op823WashingtonStreetBrainerd,Minnesota56401(218)828-4600info@crowwingfoodco-op.comwww.crowwingfoodco-op.com

EastsideFoodCo-op2551CentralAvenueMinneapolis,Minnesota55418(612)788-0950amy@eastsidefood.coopwww.eastsidefood.coop

HampdenParkFoodCo-op928RaymondAvenueSt.Paul,Minnesota55114(651)646-6686hampden@tcfreenet.orgwww.hamdenparkcoop.net

HarmonyFoodCo-op1173rdStreetNorthwestBemidji,Minnesota56601(218)751-2009harmonyc@paulbunyan.netwww.harmonycoop.com

JustFoodCo-op612FirstStreetWestNorthfield,Minnesota55057(507)650-0106www.justfood.coop

LakewindsNaturalFoods19172ndAvenueSouthAnoka,Minnesota55303(763)427-4340lakewinds@lakewinds.coopwww.lakewinds.coop

LakewindsNaturalFoods435PondPromenadeChanhassen,Minnesota55317(952)697-3366lakewinds@lakewinds.coopwww.lakewinds.coop

LakewindsNaturalFoods17523MinnetonkaBoulevardMinnetonka,Minnesota55345(952)473-0292lakewinds@lakewinds.coopwww.lakewinds.coop

LindenHillsFoodCo-op2813West43rdStreetMinneapolis,Minnesota55410(612)922-1159info@lindenhills.coopwww.lindenhills.coop

LindenHillsNaturalHome2822West43rdStreetMinneapolis,Minnesota55410(612)279-2479info@lindenhills.coopwww.lindenhills.coop

MississippiMarketFoodCo-op622SelbyAvenueSt.Paul,Minnesota55104(651)310-9499info@msmarket.coopwww.msmarket.coop

MississippiMarketNaturalFoodsCo-op

1810RandolphAvenueSt.Paul,Minnesota55105

(651)690-0507info@msmarket.coopwww.msmarket.coop

NaturalHarvestWholeFoodCo-op

5053rdStreetNorthVirginia,Minnesota55792(218)741-4663natharv@mchsi.comwww.virginiamn.com/naturalharvest

NorthCountyCooperativeGrocery

1929South5thStreetMinneapolis,Minnesota55454(612)338-3110www.northcountrycoop.com

PommeDeTerreFoodCo-op613AtlanticAvenueMorris,Minnesota56267(320)589-4332www.pdtfoods.org

RiverMarketCommunityCo-op221NorthMainStreetStillwater,Minnesota55082(651)439-0366info@rivermarket.coopwww.rivermarket.coop

RochesterGoodFoodCo-op

10016thStreetNorthwestRochester,Minnesota55901(507)289-9061gfs@charterinternet.comwww.rochestergoodfood.com

SewardCo-opGrocery&Deli2111EastFranklinAvenueMinneapolis,Minnesota55404(612)338-2465cust@seward.coopwww.seward.coop

St.PeterFoodCo-op&Deli119WestBroadwaySt.Peter,Minnesota56082(507)934-4880info@stpeterfood.coopwww.stpeterfood.coop

ValleyNaturalFoodsCo-op13750CountyRoad11Burnsville,Minnesota55337(952)891-1212info@valleynaturalfoods.comwww.valleynaturalfoods.com

WedgeCommunityCo-op2105LyndaleAvenueSouthMinneapolis,Minnesota55405(612)871-3993wedge@wedge.coopwww.wedge.coop

WholeFoodsCo-op610East4thStreetDuluth,Minnesota55805(218)728-0884info@wholefoods.coophttp://wholefoods.coop

WildRiceBuyingClub91220thAvenueSouthMoorhead,Minnesota56560(218)236-1181m-s.amick@juno.comwww.geocities.com/bcwildrice/index.html

MississippiRainbowWholeFoodsCo-opGrocery,DeliandCafé

2807OldCantonRoadJackson,Mississippi39216(601)366-1602info@rainbowcoop.orgwww.rainbowcoop.org

MissouriCityFoodCo-op(BuyingGroupofSt.Louis)

2855MinnesotaAvenueSt.Louis,Missouri63118(314)771-7213jpciv@mindspring.comwww.cityfoodcoop.com

MontanaCommunityFoodCo-op908WestMainStreetBozeman,Montana59715(406)587-4039huh@bozo.coopwww.bozo.coop

Nebraska

OpenHarvestNaturalFoodsCo-op

1618SouthStreetLincoln,Nebraska68502(402)475-9069harvest@openharvest.comwww.openharvest.com

NevadaGreatBasinCommunityFoodCoop

271WonderStreetReno,Nevada89502(775)324-6133info@greatbasinfood.coophttp://greatbasinfood.coop

NewHampshireConcordCooperativeMarket24SouthMainStreetConcord,NewHampshire03301(603)225-6840infof@concordfoodcoop.coopwww.concordfoodcoop.coop

Co-opCommunityFoodMarket43LymeRoadHanover,NewHampshire03755(603)643-2725comment@coopfoodstore.comwww.coopfoodstore.com

HanoverCo-opFoodStore45SouthParkStreetP.O.Box633Hanover,NewHampshire03755(603)643-2667comment@coopfoodstore.com

www.coopfoodstore.com

HanoverCo-op:LebanonCenterraResourcePark,Route120Lebanon,NewHampshire03766(603)643-4889comment@coopfoodstore.comwww.coopfoodstore.com

NewJersey

GeorgeStreetCo-op89MorrisStreetNewBrunswick,NewJersey08901(732)247-8280gscoop@georgestreetcoop.comwww.georgestreetcoop.com

PurpleDragonCo-op289WashingtonStreetGlenRidge,NewJersey07028(973)429-0391www.purpledragon.com

SussexCountyFoodCo-op30MoranStreetNewton,NewJersey07860(973)579-1882scfc@beithe.comwww.sussexcountyfoods.org

NewMexicoSilverCityFoodCo-op

520NorthBullardStreetSilverCity,NewMexico88061(505)388-2343silvercityfoodcoop@gilanet.comwww.silvercityfoodcoop.com

WildSageNaturalFoodsCooperative

226WestCoalAvenueGallup,NewMexico87301(505)863-5383sage@patmail.comwww.wild-sage.com

NewYorkAbundanceCooperativeMarket62MarshallStreetRochester,NewYork14607(585)454-2667info@abundance.coopwww.abundance.coop

FlatbushFoodCooperative1318CortelyouRoadBrooklyn,NewYork11226(718)284-9717info@flatbushfoodcoop.comwww.flatbushfoodcoop.com

4thStreetFoodCo-op58East4thStreetNewYork,NewYork10003-8914(212)674-3623www.4thstreetfoodcoop.org

GreenStarCooperativeMarket701WestBuffaloStreetIthaca,NewYork14850(607)273-9392alison@greenstar.coopwww.greenstar.coop

HighFallsFoodCoop1398StateRoad213HighFalls,NewYork12440(845)687-7262www.highfallscoop.com

HonestWeightFoodCoop484CentralAvenueAlbany,NewYork12206(518)482-2667email@hwfc.comwww.honestweight.coop

LexingtonCooperativeMarket230LexingtonAvenueBuffalo,NewYork14222(716)884-8828tim@lexington.coopwww.lexington.coop

ParkSlopeFoodCo-op782UnionStreetBrooklyn,NewYork11215(718)622-0560linda_wheeler@psfc.coopwww.foodcoop.com

PotsdamConsumerCo-op24ElmStreetPotsdam,NewYork13676(315)265-4630potsdamcoop@verizon.netwww.potsdamcoop.com

RenePujolRestaurantCooperative

321West51stStreetNewYork,NewYork10019(212)246-3023reneon51st@aol.comwww.renepujol.com

SouthBronxFoodCooperative754MelroseAvenueBronx,NewYork10451(646)226-0758info@sbxfc.orgwww.sbxfc.org

SyracuseRealFoodCo-op618KensingtonRoadSyracuse,NewYork13210(315)472-1385contactus@syracuserealfood.coopwww.syracuserealfood.coop

TheVillageStoreCo-op25EastMainStreet

Cambridge,NewYork12816(518)677-5731http://villagestorecoop.com

NorthCarolinaChathamMarketplace480HillsboroStreet,Suite320Pittsboro,NorthCarolina27312(919)542-2643mary@chathammarketplace.coopwww.chathammarketplace.coop

CompanyShopsMarketP.O.Box152Elon,NorthCarolina27244(336)314-1972melissa@companyshopsmarket.coopwww.companyshopsmarket.coop

DeepRootsMarket3728SpringGardenStreetGreensboro,NorthCarolina27407(336)292-9216deeprootsgm@mindspring.comwww.deeprootsmarket.com

DurhamCo-opGrocery1101WestChapelHillStreetDurham,NorthCarolina27701(919)490-0929durhamcoop@mindspring.comwww.durhamfoodcoop.org

FrenchBroadFoodCo-op90BiltmoreAvenue

Asheville,NorthCarolina28801(828)255-7650fbfc@fbfc.comwww.fbfc.com

HaywoodRoadMarket771HaywoodRoadAsheville,NorthCarolina28806(828)225-4445main@haywoodroadmarket.orgwww.haywoodroadmarket.org

HendersonvilleCommunityCo-op715OldSpartanburgHighwayHendersonville,NorthCaro-lina28792(828)693-0505mail@hendersonville.coopwww.hendersonville.coop

TidalCreekCooperativeFoodMarket

5329OleanderDrive,Suite100Wilmington,NorthCarolina28403(910)799-2667mail@tidalcreek.coopwww.tidalcreek.coop

NorthDakotaNorthDakotaAmazingGrainsNaturalFoodMarket

214DeMersGrandForks,NorthDakota58201(701)775-4542betsy_perkins@hotmail.com

Ohio

ClintonvilleCommunityMarket200CrestviewRoadColumbus,Ohio43202(614)261-3663edwardbain@mindspring.comwww.communitymarket.org

GoodFoodCo-op

Box21,WilderHall,WestCollegeStreet

Oberlin,Ohio44074(440)775-6533kjw@oberlin.netwww.oberlin.edu/~gfc

GreatFoodCo-opatTrinityUnitedChurchofChrist

915NorthMainStreetAkron,Ohio44310(330)376-7186http://trinucc.org

KentNaturalFoodsCo-op151EastMainStreetKent,Ohio44240(330)673-2878http://kentnaturalfoods.org

OregonAshlandFoodCo-op237North1stStreetAshland,Oregon97520(541)482-2237outreach@ashlandfood.coopwww.ashlandfood.coop

AstoriaCooperative1389DuaneStreetAstoria,Oregon97103(503)325-0027balstrom@pacifier.comwww.astoriacoop.org

BrookingNaturalFoodCo-op630FleetStreetP.O.Box8051Brookings,Oregon97415(541)469-9551premaj@verizon.netwww.bnf-foodcoop.org

FirstAlternativeNaturalFoodsCo-op

2855NorthwestGrantAvenueCorvallis,Oregon97330(541)452-3115firstalt@firstalt.coopwww.firstalt.coop

FirstAlternativeNaturalFoodCo-op

1007Southeast3rdStreetCorvallis,Oregon97333(541)753-3115firstalt@firstalt.coopwww.firstalt.coop

FoodFrontCooperativeGrocery

2375NorthwestThurmanStreetPortland,Oregon97209(503)222-5658admin@foodfront.coop

LentsFoodBuyingClub9635SoutheastBoiseStreetPortland,Oregon97266(503)282-5819chakandjo@comcast.nethttp://groups.yahoo.com/group/civicgrocery

OceanaNaturalFoodsCo-op159Southeast2ndStreetNewport,Oregon97365(541)265-8285oceana@newportnet.comwww.oceanafoods.orgwww.foodfront.coop

People’sFoodCo-op3029Southeast21stStreetPortland,Oregon97202(503)674-2642info@peoples.coopwww.peoples.coop

PennsylvaniaEastEndFoodCo-op7516MeadeStreetPittsburgh,Pennsylvania15208(412)242-3598memberservices@eastendfood.coopwww.eastendfood.coop

SeleneWholeFoodsCo-op305WestStateStreetMedia,Pennsylvania19063(610)566-1137info@selenecoop.orgwww.selenecoop.org

SwarthmoreCo-op401DartmouthAvenueSwarthmore,Pennsylvania19081(610)543-9805swacoop@comcast.netwww.swarthmore.coop

WeaversWayCooperativeAssociation

559CarpenterLanePhiladelphia,Pennsylvania19119(215)843-2350jonmcgo@weaversway.coopwww.weaversway.coop

WholeFoodsCo-op1341West26th&BrownAvenueErie,Pennsylvania16508(814)456-0282webmaster@wholefoodscoop.orgwww.wholefoodscoop.org

RhodeIslandAlternativeFoodCo-op357MainStreetWakefield,RhodeIsland02880(401)789-2240

comments@alternativefoodcoop.com

www.alternativefoodcoop.com

SouthCarolinaUpstateFoodCo-op404JohnHolidayRoadSixMile,SouthCarolina29682(864)868-3105upstatecoop@delsouth.netwww.upstatefoodcoop.dynu.com

SouthDakotaTheCo-opNaturalFoods2504SouthDuluthAvenueSiouxFalls,SouthDakota57105(605)339-9506gm.ednfc@midconetwork.comwww.coopnaturalfoods.com

TennesseeMarketplaceBuyingClubCo-op

3135LakelandDriveNashville,Tennessee37214(615)899-4938jackiw@marketplaceco-op.orgwww.marketplaceco-op.org

MidtownFoodCoop2158CentralAvenueMemphis,Tennessee38104(901)276-2250manager@midtownfoodcoop.orgwww.midtownfoodcoop.org

MorningsideBuyingClub215MorningsideLaneLiberty,Tennessee37095(615)563-2353morningside@rlaj.comwww.rlaj.com/morningside

NaturallyGoodFood4242PortRoyalRoadSpringHill,Tennessee37174(931)486-3192info@naturallygoodfood.comwww.naturallygoodfood.com

ThreeRiversMarket937NorthBroadwayKnoxville,Tennessee37917(865)525-2069information@threeriversmarket.coopwww.threeriversmarket.coop

Texas

CentralCityCo-op2115TaftHouston,Texas77006(713)524-9408yaya@wt.netwww.centralcityco-op.org

WheatsvilleFoodCo-op3101GuadalupeAustin,Texas78705(512)478-2667gm@wheatsville.comwww.wheatsville.com

UtahTheCommunityFoodCo-opofUtah

CrossroadsUrbanCenter1469South700WestSaltLakeCity,Utah84104(801)746-7878or(866)959-COOP(2667)community@crossroads-u-c.orgwww.crossroads-u-c.org/cfc

VermontBrattleboroFoodCo-op2MainStreet/BrooksidePlazaBrattleboro,Vermont05301(802)257-0236bfc@sover.netwww.brattleborofoodcoop.com

CityMarket–OnionRiverCo-op82SouthWinooskiAvenue,Suite2Burlington,Vermont05401(802)863-3659

info@citymarket.coopwww.citymarket.coop

HungerMountainCo-op623StoneCuttersWayMontpelier,Vermont05602(802)223-8000info@hungermountain.comwww.hungermountain.com

PutneyFoodCo-opP.O.Box730MainStreetPutney,Vermont05346(802)387-5866ptnycoop@sover.netwww.putneycoop.com

St.J.FoodCo-op490PortlandStreetSt.Johnsbury,Vermont05819(802)748-9498info@stjfoodcoop.comwww.stjfoodcoop.com

VirginiaEatsNaturalFoodsCo-op1200NorthMainStreetBlacksburg,Virginia24060(540)552-2279info@eatsnaturalfoods.comwww.eatsnaturalfoods.com

HealthyFoodsCo-op

110WestWashingtonStreetLexington,Virginia24450(540)463-6954hfoods@rockbridge.netwww.healthyfoodsmarket.com

RoanokeNaturalFoodsCo-op1319GrandinRoadSouthwestRoanoke,Virginia24015(540)343-5652info@roanokenaturalfoods.coopwww.roanokenaturalfoods.coop

ValleyMarketP.O.Box23Staunton,Virginia24402-0023www.valleymarket.org

WashingtonCommunityFoodCo-op1220NorthForestStreetBellingham,Washington98225(360)734-8158diana@communityfood.coopwww.communityfood.coop

TheFoodCo-op414KearneyStreetPortTownsend,Washington98368(360)385-2883memberservicesr@ptfoodcoop.coopwww.foodcoop.coop

MadisonMarket/CentralCo-op1600EastMadisonSeattle,Washington98122(206)329-1545info@madisonmarket.comwww.madisonmarket.com

OkanoganRiverCo-op21West4thStreetP.O.Box591Tonasket,Washington98855(509)486-4188okrivercoop@planettonasket.comwww.planettonasket.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–Fremont

600North34thStreetSeattle,Washington98103(206)632-6811fremont.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–Greenlake

7504AuroraAvenueNorthSeattle,Washington98103(206)525-3586green.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–Issaquah

181012thAvenueNorthwestIssaquah,Washington98027

(425)369-1222issaquah.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–Kirkland

10718Northeast68thStreetKirkland,Washington98033(425)828-4622kirk.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–Offices4201RooseveltWayNortheastSeattle,Washington98105(206)547-1222www.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–SewardPark

5041WilsonAvenueSouthSeattle,Washington98118(206)723-2720park.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–ViewRidge

651440thStreetNortheastSeattle,Washington98115(206)526-7661view.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

PugetConsumers’Co-op–WestSeattle

2749CaliforniaAvenueSouthwestSeattle,Washington98116(206)937-8481west.storems@pccsea.comwww.pccnaturalmarkets.com

SnoIsleNaturalFoodsCo-op2804GrandAvenueEverett,Washington98201(425)259-3798snoisle.coop@verizon.netwww.snoislefoods.coop

YelmFoodCo-op404FirstStreetSouthYelm,Washington98597(360)400-2210yelmcoop@fairpoint.netwww.yelmcoop.com

WestVirginiaMountainPeople’sMarket1400UniversityAvenueMorgantown,WestVirginia26505(304)291-6131coop@labs.netwww.mountaincoop.com

WisconsinBasicCooperative1221WoodmanRoadJanesville,Wisconsin53545(608)754-3925gm@basicshealth.comwww.basicshealth.com

KickapooExchangeFoodCo-op

Box276,209MainStreetGaysMills,Wisconsin54631(608)735-4544kickapooexchange@yahoo.comwww.geocities.com/kickapooexchange

MegaPikNSave1201SouthHastingsWayEauClaire,Wisconsin54701(715)836-8700mathew@megafoods.comwww.megafoods.com

MenomonieMarketFoodCo-op5212ndStreetEastMenomonie,Wisconsin54751(715)235-6533info@menomoniemarket.orgmenomoniemarket.org

Nature’sBakeryCo-op1019WilliamsStreetMadison,Wisconsin53703(608)257-3649mail@naturesbakery.coopwww.naturesbakery.coop

OutpostNaturalFoodsCo-op100EastCapitalDriveMilwaukee,Wisconsin53212(414)961-2597questions@outpostnaturalfoods.coopwww.outpostnaturalfoods.coop

OutpostNaturalFoodsCo-op:Wauwatosa

7000WestStateStreetWauwatosa,Wisconsin53213

(414)778-2012questions@outpostnaturalfoods.coopwww.outpostnaturalfoods.coop

People’sFoodCo-op315South5thAvenueLaCrosse,Wisconsin54601(608)784-5798michelles@pfc.coopwww.pfc.coop

RiverwestCo-opGrocery&Café733NorthClarkStreetMilwaukee,Wisconsin53212(414)264-7933beckyh@riverwestcoop.orgwww.riverwestcoop.org

ViroquaFoodCooperative609NorthMainStreetViroqua,Wisconsin54665(608)637-7511marketing@viroquafood.ccpviroquafood.coop

WillyStreetCo-op1221WilliamsonStreetMadison,Wisconsin53703(608)251-6776l.olson@willystreet.coopwww.willystreet.coop

YaharaRiverGroceryCooperative

229EastMainStreetStoughton,Wisconsin53589(608)877-0947info@yaharagrocery.coop

www.yaharagrocery.coop

WyomingSweetGrassFoodCo-op169EsterbrookRoadDouglas,Wyoming82633(307)358-0582sweetgrassclub@yahoo.com

Canning

IntroductiontoCanningOn the next fewpages, youwill find descriptions of proper canningmethods,with details on how canning works and why it is both safe and economical.Much of the information here is from the USDA, which has done extensiveresearchonhomecanningandpreserving.Ifyouarenewtohomecanning,readthis section carefully as it will help to ensure success with the recipes thatfollow.

Cannedjamsandnutbutters.

Whetheryouareaseasonedhomecannerorthisisyourfirstforayintofoodpreservation,itisimportanttofollowdirectionscarefully.Withsomerecipesitis okay to experiment with varied proportions or added ingredients, and withothers it is important to stick towhat’swritten. Inmany instances it is notedwhethercreativelibertyisagoodideaforaparticularrecipe,butifyouarenotsure, play it safe—otherwise youmay end upwith a jam that is too runny, avegetable that is mushy, or a product that is spoiled. Take time to read theDirectionsandprepareyourfoodsandequipmentadequately,andyouwillfindthathomecanningissafe,economical,tremendouslysatisfying,andagreatdealoffun!

WhyCanFoods?

Canningisfunandagoodwaytopreserveyourpreciousproduce.Asmoreandmorefarmers’marketsmaketheirwayintourbancenters,citydwellersarealsodiscovering how rewarding it is to make seasonal treats last all year-round.Besidesthevalueofyourlabor,canninghome-grownorlocallygrownfoodmaysaveyouhalfthecostofbuyingcommerciallycannedfood.Andwhatmakesanicer,more thoughtful gift than a jar of homemade jam, tailored tomatch therecipient’sfavoritefruitsandflavors?

CanningbeganinFrance,attheturnofthenineteenthcentury,whenNapoleon Bonaparte was desperate for a way to keep his troopswell-fedwhileonthemarch.In1800,hedecidedtoholdacontest,offering12,000francstoanyonewhocoulddeviseasuitablemethodof food preservation. Nicolas François Appert, a Frenchconfectioner,rosetothechallenge,consideringthatifwinecouldbepreservedinbottles,perhapsfoodcouldbeaswell.Heexperimenteduntil hewas able to prove that heating food toboiling after it hadbeen sealed in airtight glass bottles prevented the food fromdeteriorating.Interestingly,thisalltookplaceabout100yearsbeforeLouisPasteurfoundthatheatcoulddestroybacteria.Nearly10yearsafterthecontestbegan,NapoleonpersonallypresentedNicolaswiththecashreward.

Cannedapplesauceandpeacheslinethispantry’sshelves.

Thenutritionalvalueofhomecanning isanaddedbenefit.Manyvegetablesbegin to lose their vitamins as soon as they are harvested. Nearly half thevitaminsmaybelostwithinafewdaysunlessthefreshproduceiskeptcoolorpreserved. Within one to two weeks, even refrigerated produce loses half or

moreofcertainvitamins.Theheatingprocessduringcanningdestroysfromone-third to one-half of vitamins A and C, thiamin, and riboflavin. Once canned,foodsmay lose from 5 percent to 20 percent of these sensitive vitamins eachyear.Theamountsofothervitamins,however,areonlyslightlylowerincannedcompared with fresh food. If vegetables are handled properly and cannedpromptly after harvest, they can bemore nutritious than fresh produce sold inlocalstores.

The advantages of home canning are lost when you start with poor qualityfoods; when jars fail to seal properly; when food spoils; and when flavors,texture, color, andnutrientsdeteriorateduringprolonged storage.The tips thatfollowexplainmanyoftheseproblemsandrecommendwaystominimizethem.

HowCanningPreservesFoods

Thehighpercentageofwater inmostfreshfoodsmakes themveryperishable.Theyspoilorlosetheirqualityforseveralreasons:

Growthofundesirablemicroorganisms—bacteria,molds,andyeastsActivityoffoodenzymesReactionswithoxygenMoistureloss

Microorganismsliveandmultiplyquicklyonthesurfacesoffreshfoodandontheinsideofbruised,insect-damaged,anddiseasedfood.Oxygenandenzymesarepresentthroughoutfreshfoodtissues.

Greenbeansshouldbechoppedintosmallpiecesbeforecanning.

Peelpotatoesbeforecanningthem.

Propercanningpracticesinclude:CarefullyselectingandwashingfreshfoodPeelingsomefreshfoodsHotpackingmanyfoodsAddingacids(lemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar)tosomefoodsUsingacceptablejarsandself-sealinglidsProcessingjarsinaboiling-waterorpressurecannerforthecorrectamountoftime

Collectively, these practices remove oxygen; destroy enzymes; prevent thegrowthofundesirablebacteria,yeasts,andmolds;andhelpformahighvacuumin jars. High vacuums form tight seals, which keep liquid in and air andmicroorganismsout.

Alargestockpotwitha lidcanbeused inplaceofaboiling-watercanner for high-acid foods like tomatoes, pickles, apples, peaches,andjams.Simplyplacearackinsidethepotsothatthejarsdonotrestdirectlyonthebottomofthepot.

CanningGlossaryAcid foods—Foods thatcontainenoughacid to result inapHof4.6or lower.Includes most tomatoes; fermented and pickled vegetables; relishes; jams,jellies,andmarmalades;andallfruitsexceptfigs.Acidfoodsmaybeprocessedinboilingwater.

Ascorbicacid—ThechemicalnameforvitaminC.Commonlyusedtopreventbrowningofpeeled,light-coloredfruitsandvegetables.

Blancher—A6-to8-quartliddedpotdesignedwithafitted,perforatedbasketto hold food in boilingwater orwith a fitted rack to steam foods.Useful for

looseningskinsonfruitstobepeeledorforheatingfoodstobehotpacked.

Boiling-water canner—A large, standardsized, lidded kettle with jar rackdesignedforheat-processingsevenquartsoreighttoninepintsinboilingwater.

Botulism—An illness caused by eating a toxin produced by growth ofClostridium botulinum bacteria inmoist, low-acid food containing less than 2percent oxygen and stored between 40 and 120°F. Proper heat processingdestroys thisbacteriumincannedfood.Freezer temperatures inhibit itsgrowthin frozen food. Lowmoisture controls its growth in dried food. High oxygencontrolsitsgrowthinfreshfoods.

Canning—A method of preserving food that employs heat processing inairtight, vacuum-sealed containers so that food can be safely stored at normalhometemperatures.

Canning salt—Also called pickling salt. It is regular table salt without theanti-cakingoriodineadditives.

Citricacid—Aformofacidthatcanbeaddedtocannedfoods.Itincreasestheacidityoflow-acidfoodsandmayimprovetheirflavor.

Coldpack—Canningprocedureinwhichjarsarefilledwithrawfood.“Rawpack”isthepreferredtermfordescribingthispractice.“Coldpack”isoftenusedincorrectly to refer to foods that are open-kettle canned or jars that are heat-processedinboilingwater.

Enzymes—Proteins in food that accelerate many flavor, color, texture, andnutritional changes, especially when food is cut, sliced, crushed, bruised, orexposed toair.Properblanchingorhot-packingpracticesdestroyenzymesandimprovefoodquality.

Exhausting—Removing air fromwithin and around food and from jars andcanners. Exhausting or venting of pressure canners is necessary to preventbotulisminlow-acidcannedfoods.

Headspace—The unfilled space above food or liquid in jars that allows forfoodexpansionasjarsareheatedandforformingvacuumsasjarscool.

Heatprocessing—Treatmentofjarswithsufficientheattoenablestoringfoodatnormalhometemperatures.

Hermeticseal—Anabsolutelyairtightcontainerseal thatprevents reentryofairormicroorganismsintopackagedfoods.

Hotpack—Heatingofrawfoodinboilingwaterorsteamandfillingithotintojars.

Low-acidfoods—FoodsthatcontainverylittleacidandhaveapHabove4.6.The acidity in these foods is insufficient to prevent the growth of botulismbacteria.Vegetables, somevarieties of tomatoes, figs, allmeats, fish, seafood,andsomedairyproductsarelow-acidfoods.Tocontrolallrisksofbotulism,jarsofthesefoodsmustbeeitherheatprocessedinapressurecanneroracidifiedtoapHof4.6orlowerbeforebeingprocessedinboilingwater.

Microorganisms—Independent organisms of microscopic size, includingbacteria,yeast,andmold.Inasuitableenvironment,theygrowrapidlyandmaydivide or reproduce every 10 to 30 minutes. Therefore, they reach highpopulationsveryquickly.Microorganismsaresometimesintentionallyaddedtoferment foods, make antibiotics, and for other reasons. Undesirablemicroorganismscausediseaseandfoodspoilage.

Mold—Afungus-typemicroorganismwhosegrowthonfoodisusuallyvisibleand colorful.Moldsmaygrowonmany foods, including acid foods like jamsand jellies and canned fruits. Recommended heat processing and sealingpracticespreventtheirgrowthonthesefoods.

Mycotoxins—Toxinsproducedbythegrowthofsomemoldsonfoods.

Open-kettle canning—A non-recommended canning method. Food is heat-processed inacoveredkettle, filledwhilehot intosterile jars,and thensealed.Foodscannedthiswayhavelowvacuumsortoomuchair,whichpermitsrapidloss of quality in foods. Also, these foods often spoil because they becomerecontaminatedwhilethejarsarebeingfilled.

Pasteurization—Heatingfoodtotemperatureshighenoughtodestroydisease-causingmicroorganisms.

pH—Ameasureofacidityoralkalinity.Valuesrangefrom0to14.Afoodisneutralwhen its pH is 7.0. Lower values are increasinglymore acidic; highervaluesareincreasinglymorealkaline.

PSIG—Poundspersquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.

Pressurecanner—Aspecificallydesignedmetalkettlewithalockablelidusedfor heat-processing low-acid food. These canners have jar racks, one ormoresafety devices, systems for exhausting air, and a way to measure or controlpressure.Cannerswith20-to21-quartcapacityarecommon.Theminimumsizeofcanner thatshouldbeusedhasa16-quartcapacityandcanholdsevenone-

quartjars.Useofpressuresaucepanswithacapacityoflessthan16quartsisnotrecommended.

Rawpack—Thepracticeof filling jarswith raw,unheated food.Acceptablefor canning low-acid foods,but allowsmore rapidquality losses inacid foodsthatareheat-processedinboilingwater.Alsocalled“coldpack.”

Styleof pack—Formof canned food, such aswhole, sliced, piece, juice, orsauce.The termmayalsobeused to specifywhether food is filled raworhotintojars.

Vacuum—A state of negative pressure that reflects how thoroughly air isremovedfromwithinajarofprocessedfood;thehigherthevacuum,thelessairleftinthejar.

ProperCanningPracticesGrowth of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum in canned food may causebotulism—adeadlyformoffoodpoisoning.Thesebacteriaexisteitherassporesor as vegetative cells. The spores, which are comparable to plant seeds, cansurviveharmlesslyinsoilandwaterformanyyears.Whenidealconditionsexistforgrowth,thesporesproducevegetativecells,whichmultiplyrapidlyandmayproduceadeadlytoxinwithinthreetofourdaysinanenvironmentconsistingof:

Amoist,low-acidfood;Atemperaturebetween40and120°F;andLessthan2percentoxygen.

Botulinumsporesareonmostfreshfoodsurfaces.Becausetheygrowonlyintheabsenceofair, theyareharmlessonfreshfoods.Mostbacteria,yeasts,andmolds aredifficult to remove from food surfaces.Washing fresh food reducestheir numbers only slightly. Peeling root crops, underground stem crops, andtomatoes reduces their numbers greatly. Blanching also helps, but the vitalcontrolsarethemethodofcanninganduseoftherecommendedresearch-basedprocessing times. These processing times ensure destruction of the largestexpectednumberofheat-resistantmicroorganismsinhome-cannedfoods.

Properlysterilizedcannedfoodwillbefreeofspoilageiflidssealandjarsarestoredbelow95°F.Storingjarsat50to70°Fenhancesretentionofquality.

FoodAcidityandProcessingMethods

Whetherfoodshouldbeprocessedinapressurecannerorboiling-watercanner

tocontrolbotulismbacteriadependsontheacidityinthefood.Aciditymaybenatural,as inmost fruits,oradded,as inpickledfood.Low-acidcannedfoodscontaintoolittleaciditytopreventthegrowthofthesebacteria.Otherfoodsmaycontain enough acidity to block their growth or to destroy them rapidlywhenheated. The term “pH” is ameasure of acidity: the lower its value, themoreacidic the food. The acidity level in foods can be increased by adding lemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegar.

Low-acid foods have pH values higher than 4.6. They include red meats,seafood,poultry,milk,andallfreshvegetablesexceptformosttomatoes.Mostproductsthataremixturesoflow-acidandacidfoodsalsohavepHvaluesabove4.6unlesstheiringredientsincludeenoughlemonjuice,citricacid,orvinegartomake them acid foods. Acid foods have a pH of 4.6 or lower. They includefruits,pickles,sauerkraut,jams,jellies,marmalade,andfruitbutters.

Althoughtomatoesusuallyareconsideredanacidfood,somearenowknowntohavepHvalues slightly above4.6.Figs alsohavepHvalues slightly above4.6.Therefore, if they are to be canned as acid foods, these productsmust beacidified to a pH of 4.6 or lower with lemon juice or citric acid. Properlyacidified tomatoes and figs are acid foods and can be safely processed in aboiling-watercanner.

Botulinumsporesareveryhardtodestroyatboiling-water temperatures; thehigherthecannertemperature,themoreeasilytheyaredestroyed.Therefore,alllow-acid foodsshouldbesterilizedat temperaturesof240 to250°F,attainablewith pressure canners operated at 10 to 15 PSIG. (PSIG means pounds persquareinchofpressureasmeasuredbyagauge.)Atthesetemperatures,thetimeneeded to destroy bacteria in low-acid canned foods ranges from 20 to 100minutes.Theexacttimedependsonthekindoffoodbeingcanned,thewayitispackedintojars,andthesizeofjars.Thetimeneededtosafelyprocesslow-acidfoodsinboilingwaterrangesfrom7to11hours;thetimeneededtoprocessacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom5to85minutes.

KnowYourAltitude

Itisimportanttoknowyourapproximateelevationoraltitudeabovesealevelinorder to determine a safe processing time for canned foods. Since the boilingtemperature of liquid is lower at higher elevations, it is critical that additionaltimebegivenforthesafeprocessingoffoodsataltitudesabovesealevel.

WhatNottoDo

Open-kettle canning and the processing of freshly filled jars in conventionalovens,microwaveovens,anddishwashersarenot recommendedbecause thesepractices do not prevent all risks of spoilage. Steam canners are notrecommended because processing times for usewith currentmodels have notbeen adequately researched.Because steamcannersmaynot heat foods in thesamemanner asboiling-water canners, their usewithboiling-waterprocessingtimes may result in spoilage. So-called canning powders are useless aspreservativesanddonotreplacetheneedforproperheatprocessing.

It isnot recommended thatpressures inexcessof15PSIGbeappliedwhenusingnewpressurecanningequipment.

Labelyourjarsafterprocessingwiththecontentsandthedate.

EnsuringHigh-QualityCannedFoods

Examinefoodcarefullyforfreshnessandwholesomeness.Discarddiseasedandmoldyfood.Trimsmalldiseasedlesionsorspotsfromfood.

Canfruitsandvegetablespickedfromyourgardenorpurchasedfromnearbyproducerswhentheproductsareat theirpeakofquality—within6to12hoursafterharvestformostvegetables.However,apricots,nectarines,peaches,pears,andplumsshouldberipenedoneormoredaysbetweenharvestandcanning.Ifyoumustdelaythecanningofotherfreshproduce,keepitinashady,coolplace.

Fresh,home-slaughteredredmeatsandpoultryshouldbechilledandcannedwithout delay.Do not canmeat from sickly or diseased animals. Put fish andseafoodon ice after harvest, eviscerate immediately, and can themwithin twodays.

MaintainingColorandFlavorinCannedFood

Tomaintaingoodnaturalcolorandflavorinstoredcannedfood,youmust:Removeoxygenfromfoodtissuesandjars,Quicklydestroythefoodenzymes,andObtainhighjarvacuumsandairtightjarseals.

Followtheseguidelinestoensurethatyourcannedfoodsretainoptimalcolorsandflavorsduringprocessingandstorage:

Useonlyhigh-qualityfoodsthatareatthepropermaturityandarefreeofdiseasesandbruises.Use the hot-pack method, especially with acid foods to be processed inboilingwater.Don’t unnecessarily expose prepared foods to air; can them as soon aspossible.While preparing a canner load of jars, keep peeled, halved, quartered,sliced,ordicedapples,apricots,nectarines,peaches,andpearsinasolutionof3grams(3,000milligrams)ascorbicacidto1gallonofcoldwater.Thisprocedureisalsousefulinmaintainingthenaturalcolorofmushroomsandpotatoesandforpreventingstem-enddiscoloration incherriesandgrapes.Youcangetascorbicacidinseveralforms:

Pure powdered form—Seasonally available among canning supplies insupermarkets.Onelevelteaspoonofpurepowderweighsabout3grams.Use1teaspoonpergallonofwaterasatreatmentsolution.

VitaminCtablets—Economicalandavailableyear-roundinmanystores.Buy500-milligram tablets; crush and dissolve six tablets per gallon of water as a

treatmentsolution.

Commercially prepared mixes of ascorbic and citric acid—Seasonallyavailable among canning supplies in supermarkets. Sometimes citric acidpowder is sold in supermarkets, but it is less effective in controllingdiscoloration. If you choose to use these products, follow the manufacturer’sDirections:

Fillhotfoodsintojarsandadjustheadspaceasspecifiedinrecipes.Tightenscrewbandssecurely,butifyouareespeciallystrong,notastightlyaspossible.Processandcooljars.Store the jars in a relatively cool, dark place, preferably between 50 and70°F.Cannomorefoodthanyouwillusewithinayear.

AdvantagesofHotPacking

Many fresh foodscontain from10percent tomore than30percent air.Thelengthoftimethatfoodwilllastatpremiumqualitydependsonhowmuchairisremovedfromthefoodbeforejarsaresealed.Themoreairthatisremoved,thehigherthequalityofthecannedproduct.

Raw packing is the practice of filling jars tightlywith freshly prepared butunheatedfood.Suchfoods,especiallyfruit,willfloatinthejars.Theentrappedairinandaroundthefoodmaycausediscolorationwithintwotothreemonthsofstorage. Raw packing is more suitable for vegetables processed in a pressurecanner.

Hot packing is the practice of heating freshly prepared food to boiling,simmering it three to five minutes, and promptly filling jars loosely with theboiledfood.Hotpackingisthebestwaytoremoveairandisthepreferredpackstyle for foods processed in a boiling-water canner.At first, the color of hot-packedfoodsmayappearnobetterthanthatofraw-packedfoods,butwithinashortstorageperiod,bothcolorandflavorofhot-packedfoodswillbesuperior.

Whetherfoodhasbeenhotpackedorrawpacked,thejuice,syrup,orwatertobeaddedtothefoodsshouldbeheatedtoboilingbeforeitisaddedtothejars.Thispracticehelpstoremoveairfromfoodtissues,shrinksfood,helpskeepthefood from floating in the jars, increases vacuum in sealed jars, and improvesshelflife.Preshrinkingfoodallowsyoutoaddmorefoodtoeachjar.

ControllingHeadspace

AMasonjar,lid,screwband,andseal.

Theunfilledspaceabovethefoodinajarandbelowitslidistermedheadspace.Itisbesttoleavea¼-inchheadspaceforjamsandjellies,½-inchforfruitsandtomatoestobeprocessedinboilingwater,andfrom1to1¼inchesinlow-acidfoodstobeprocessedinapressurecanner.

This space is needed for expansion of food as jars are processed and forformingvacuumsincooledjars.Theextentofexpansionisdeterminedbytheaircontentinthefoodandbytheprocessingtemperature.Airexpandsgreatlywhenheated to high temperatures—the higher the temperature, the greater theexpansion.Foodsexpandlessthanairwhenheated.

JarsandLids

Foodmaybecanned inglass jarsormetalcontainers.Metalcontainerscanbeused only once. They require special sealing equipment and are much morecostlythanjars.

Mason-type jarsdesignedforhomecanningare idealforpreservingfoodbypressureor boiling-water canning.Regular andwide-mouthed threadedMasonjarswith self-sealing lids are the best choices.They are available in half-pint,pint, 1½-pint, and quart sizes. The standard jar mouth opening is about 2⅜inches.Wide-mouthedjarshaveopeningsofabout3inches,makingthemmoreeasilyfilledandemptied.Regular-moutheddecorativejellyjarsareavailablein8-ounceand12-ouncesizes.

With careful use and handling, Mason jars may be reused many times,requiring only new lids each time.When lids are used properly, jar seals andvacuumsareexcellent.

JarCleaning

Before reuse, wash empty jars in hot water with detergent and rinse well byhand,orwashinadishwasher.Rinsethoroughly,asdetergentresiduemaycauseunnatural flavors and colors. Scale or hard-water films on jars are easilyremoved by soaking jars for several hours in a solution containing 1 cup ofvinegar(5percentacid)pergallonofwater.

SterilizationofEmptyJars

Usesterilejarsforalljams,jellies,andpickledproductsprocessedlessthan10minutes.Tosterilizeemptyjars,putthemrightsideupontherackinaboiling-watercanner.Fillthecannerandjarswithhot(notboiling)waterto1inchabovethe topsof the jars.Boil for10minutes.Removeanddrainhot, sterilized jarsoneata time.Save thehotwater forprocessingfilled jars.Fill jarswith food,addlids,andtightenscrewbands.

Emptyjarsusedforvegetables,meats,andfruitstobeprocessedinapressurecannerneednotbesterilizedbeforehand. It isalsounnecessary tosterilize jarsfor fruits, tomatoes, and pickled or fermented foods thatwill be processed 10minutesorlongerinaboiling-watercanner.

LidSelection,Preparation,andUse

Thecommonself-sealinglidconsistsofaflatmetallidheldinplacebyametalscrewbandduringprocessing.Theflatlidiscrimpedarounditsbottomedgetoform a trough, which is filled with a colored gasket material. When jars areprocessed, the lid gasket softens and flows slightly to cover the jar-sealingsurface,yetallowsairtoescapefromthejar.Thegasketthenformsanairtightsealasthejarcools.Gasketsinunusedlidsworkwellforatleastfiveyearsfromdateofmanufacture.Thegasketmaterialinolder,unusedlidsmayfailtosealonjars.

It isbesttobuyonlythequantityoflidsyouwilluseinayear.Toensureagood seal, carefully follow themanufacturer’s directions in preparing lids foruse.Examineallmetallidscarefully.Donotuseold,dented,ordeformedlidsorlidswithgapsorotherdefectsinthesealinggasket.

Afterfillingjarswithfood,releaseairbubblesbyinsertingaflat,plastic(notmetal) spatulabetween the foodand the jar.Slowly turn the jar andmove thespatulaupanddown toallowairbubbles toescape.Adjust theheadspaceandthencleanthejarrim(sealingsurface)withadampenedpapertowel.Placethelid, gasket down, onto the cleaned jar-sealing surface. Uncleaned jar-sealingsurfacesmaycausesealfailures.

Then fit the metal screw band over the flat lid. Follow the manufacturer’sguidelinesenclosedwithorontheboxfortighteningthejarlidsproperly:

If screw bands are too tight, air cannot vent during processing, and foodwilldiscolorduringstorage.Overtighteningalsomaycause lids tobuckleandjarstobreak,especiallywithraw-packed,pressure-processedfood.Ifscrewbandsaretooloose,liquidmayescapefromjarsduringprocessing,sealsmayfail,andthefoodwillneedtobereprocessed.

Donotretightenlidsafterprocessingjars.Asjarscool,thecontentsinthejarcontract,pullingtheself-sealinglidfirmlyagainstthejartoformahighvacuum.Screwbandsarenotneededonstoredjars.Theycanberemovedeasilyafterjarsarecooled.Whenremoved,washed,dried,andstoredinadryarea,screwbandsmaybeusedmanytimes.Ifleftonstoredjars,theybecomedifficulttoremove,oftenrust,andmaynotworkproperlyagain.

SelectingtheCorrectProcessingTime

Whenfoodiscannedinboilingwater,moreprocessingtimeisneededformostraw-packedfoodsandforquartjarsthanisneededforhot-packedfoodsandpintjars.

Todestroymicroorganismsinacidfoodsprocessedinaboiling-watercanner,youmust:

Processjarsforthecorrectnumberofminutesinboilingwater.Coolthejarsatroomtemperature.

To destroy microorganisms in low-acid foods processed with a pressurecanner,youmust:

Process the jars for thecorrectnumberofminutesat240°F (10PSIG)or250°F(15PSIG).Allow canner to cool at room temperature until it is completelydepressurized.

Thefoodmayspoilifyoufailtousetheproperprocessingtimes,failtoventsteamfromcannersproperly,processat lowerpressure than specified,processforfewerminutesthanspecified,orcoolthecannerwithwater.

Processingtimesforhaft-pintandpintjarsarethesame,asaretimesfor1½-pintandquartjars.Forsomeproducts,youhaveachoiceofprocessingat5,10,or15PSIG.Inthesecases,choosethecannerpressure(PSIG)youwishtouseandmatch itwithyourpack style (raworhot) and jar size to find the correctprocessingtime.

RecommendedCanners

There are two main types of canners for heat-processing home-canned food:boiling-water canners and pressure canners. Most are designed to hold sevenone-quart jars or eight to nine one-pint jars. Small pressure canners hold fourone-quart jars; some largepressurecannershold18one-pint jars in two layersbut hold only seven quart jars. Pressure saucepans with smaller volumecapacitiesarenotrecommendedforuseincanning.Treatsmallpressurecannersthe same as standard larger canners; they should be vented using the typicalventingprocedures.

Low-acidfoodsmustbeprocessedinapressurecannertobefreeofbotulismrisks. Although pressure canners alsomay be used for processing acid foods,boiling-water canners are recommended because they are faster. A pressurecannerwouldrequirefrom55to100minutestocanaloadofjars;thetotaltimeforcanningmostacidfoodsinboilingwatervariesfrom25to60minutes.

Aboilingwatercanner.

Aboiling-watercannerloadedwithfilledjarsrequiresabout20to30minutesof heating before its water begins to boil. A loaded pressure canner requiresabout12to15minutesofheatingbeforeitbeginstovent,another10minutestovent the canner, another 5 minutes to pressurize the canner, another 8 to 10minutestoprocesstheacidfood,and,finally,another20to60minutestocoolthecannerbeforeremovingjars.

Boiling-WaterCanners

These canners are made of aluminum or porcelaincovered steel. They haveremovableperforatedracksandfittedlids.Thecannermustbedeepenoughsothat at least 1 inch of briskly boilingwaterwill cover the tops of jars duringprocessing.Someboiling-watercannersdonothaveflatbottoms.Aflatbottommustbeusedonanelectricrange.Eitheraflatorridgedbottomcanbeusedonagasburner.Toensureuniformprocessingofall jarswithanelectricrange, thecannershouldbenomorethan4incheswiderindiameter thantheelementonwhichitisheated.

UsingaBoiling-WaterCanner

Followthesestepsforsuccessfulboiling-watercanning:1. Fillthecannerhalfwaywithwater.2. Preheatwaterto140°Fforraw-packedfoodsandto180°Fforhot-packed

foods.3. Loadfilledjars,fittedwithlids,intothecannerrackandusethehandlesto

lowertherackintothewater;orfillthecanner,onejaratatime,withajarlifter.

4. Add more boiling water, if needed, so the water level is at least 1 inchabovejartops.

5. Turnheattoitshighestpositionuntilwaterboilsvigorously.

6. Setatimerfortheminutesrequiredforprocessingthefood.7. Coverwith the canner lid and lower the heat setting tomaintain a gentle

boilthroughouttheprocessingtime.8. Addmoreboilingwater,ifneeded,tokeepthewaterlevelabovethejars.9. When jars have been boiled for the recommended time, turn off the heat

andremovethecannerlid.10. Usingajarlifter,removethejarsandplacethemonatowel,leavingatleast

1inchofspacebetweenthejarsduringcooling.

PressureCanners

Apressurecanner.

Pressurecannersforuseinthehomehavebeenextensivelyredesignedinrecentyears.Modelsmadebeforethe1970swereheavy-walledkettleswithclamp-onlids.Theywerefittedwithadialgauge,aventportintheformofapetcockorcounterweight,andasafetyfuse.Modernpressurecannersarelightweight,thin-walled kettles; most have turn-on lids. They have a jar rack, gasket, dial orweightedgauge,anautomaticventorcoverlock,aventport(steamvent)thatisclosedwithacounterweightorweightedgauge,andasafetyfuse.

Pressuredoesnotdestroymicroorganisms,buthightemperaturesappliedforacertainperiodoftimedo.Thesuccessofdestroyingallmicroorganismscapableofgrowingincannedfoodisbasedonthetemperatureobtainedinpuresteam,freeofair,atsealevel.Atsealevel,acanneroperatedatagaugepressureof10poundsprovidesaninternaltemperatureof240°F.

Air trapped in a canner lowers the inside temperature and results in under-processing.Thehighestvolumeofair trappedinacanneroccurs inprocessingraw-packed foods in dial-gauge canners.These canners do not vent air during

processing.Tobesafe,alltypesofpressurecannersmustbevented10minutesbeforetheyarepressurized.

Toventacanner,leavetheventportuncoveredonnewermodelsormanuallyopen petcocks on some older models. Heating the filled canner with its lidlocked into place boils water and generates steam that escapes through thepetcockorventport.Whensteamfirstescapes,setatimerfor10minutes.Afterventing 10minutes, close the petcock or place the counterweight orweightedgaugeovertheventporttopressurizethecanner.

Weighted-gaugemodelsexhausttinyamountsofairandsteameachtimetheirgauge rocks or jiggles during processing. The sound of theweight rocking orjigglingindicatesthatthecannerismaintainingtherecommendedpressureandneeds no further attention until the load has been processed for the set time.Weighted-gauge canners cannot correct precisely for higher altitudes, and ataltitudesabove1,000feetmustbeoperatedatapressureof15.

Checkdialgaugesforaccuracybeforeuseeachyearandreplaceiftheyreadhigh bymore than 1 pound at 5, 10, or 15 pounds of pressure. Low readingscause overprocessing and may indicate that the accuracy of the gauge isunpredictable. If a gauge is consistently low, you may adjust the processingpressure.Forexample,ifthedirectionscallfor12poundsofpressureandyourdial gauge has tested 1 pound low, you can safely process at 11 pounds ofpressure. If thegauge ismore than2pounds low, it isunpredictable, and it isbest to replace it. Gauges may be checked at most USDA county extensionoffices, which are located in every state across the country. To find one nearyou,visitwww.csrees.usda.gov.

Handle gaskets of canner lids carefully and clean them according to themanufacturer’sdirections.Nickedordriedgasketswillallowsteamleaksduringpressurizationofcanners.Gasketsofoldercannersmayneedtobelightlycoatedwith vegetable oil once per year, but newermodels are pre-lubricated. Checkyourcanner’sinstructions.

Lid safety fuses are thin, metal inserts or rubber plugs designed to relieveexcessive pressure from the canner. Do not pick at or scratch fuses whilecleaning lids. Use only canners that have Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL)approvaltoensuretheirsafety.

Replacementgaugesandotherparts forcannersareoftenavailableat storesoffering canner equipment or from canner manufacturers. To order parts, listcannermodelnumberanddescribethepartsneeded.

UsingaPressureCanner

Followthesestepsforsuccessfulpressurecanning:1. Put2 to3 inchesofhotwater in thecanner.Place filled jarson the rack,

usingajarlifter.Fastencannerlidsecurely.2. Openpetcockorleaveweightoffventport.Heatatthehighestsettinguntil

steamflowsfromthepetcockorventport.3. Maintain high heat setting, exhaust steam 10 minutes, and then place

weightonventportorclosepetcock.Thecannerwillpressurizeduringthenextthreetofiveminutes.

4. Start timing the process when the pressure reading on the dial gaugeindicates that the recommended pressure has been reached or when theweightedgaugebeginstojiggleorrock.

5. Regulateheatunderthecannertomaintainasteadypressureatorslightlyabove the correct gauge pressure. Quick and large pressure variationsduringprocessingmaycauseunnecessaryliquidlossesfromjars.WeightedgaugesonMirrocannersshouldjiggleabouttwoorthreetimesperminute.OnPrestocanners,theyshouldrockslowlythroughouttheprocess.

Usingapressurecanner.

Whenprocessingtimeiscompleted,turnofftheheat,removethecannerfromheatifpossible,andletthecannerdepressurize.Donotforce-coolthecanner.Ifyoucool itwith cold runningwater in a sinkoropen theventportbefore thecannerdepressurizesbyitself,liquidwillspurtfromthejars,causinglowliquidlevelsandjarsealfailures.Force-coolingalsomaywarpthecannerlidofoldermodelcanners,causingsteamleaks.

Depressurizationofoldermodelsshouldbetimed.Standardsizeheavy-walledcanners requireabout30minuteswhen loadedwithpintsand45minuteswithquarts.Newerthin-walledcannerscoolmorerapidlyandareequippedwithventlocks. These canners are depressurizedwhen their vent lock piston drops to anormalposition:1. Aftertheventportorpetcockhasbeenopenfortwominutes,unfastenthe

lid and carefully remove it. Lift the lid away fromyou so that the steamdoesnotburnyourface.

2. Removejarswithalifter,andplaceontowelorcoolingrack,ifdesired.

CoolingJars

Cool the jars at room temperature for 12 to 24 hours. Jarsmay be cooled onracksortowelstominimizeheatdamagetocounters.Thefoodlevelandliquidvolumeofraw-packedjarswillbenoticeablyloweraftercoolingbecauseairisexhausted during processing, and food shrinks. If a jar loses excessive liquidduringprocessing,donotopenittoaddmoreliquid.Aslongasthesealisgood,theproductisstillusable.

Testingjarseals.

TestingJarSeals

Aftercoolingjarsfor12to24hours,removethescrewbandsandtestsealswithoneofthefollowingmethods:

Method1:Pressthemiddleofthelidwithafingerorthumb.Ifthelidspringsupwhen you release your finger, the lid is unsealed and reprocessingwill be

necessary.

Method2:Tapthelidwiththebottomofateaspoon.Ifitmakesadullsound,thelidisnotsealed.Iffoodisincontactwiththeundersideofthelid,itwillalsocause a dull sound. If the jar lid is sealed correctly, it will make a ringing,highpitchedsound.

Method3:Holdthejarateyelevelandlookacrossthelid.Thelidshouldbeconcave(curveddownslightlyinthecenter).Ifcenterofthelidiseitherflatorbulging,itmaynotbesealed.

ReprocessingUnsealedJars

If a jar fails to seal, remove the lid and check the jar-sealing surface for tinynicks. If necessary, change the jar, add a new, properly prepared lid, andreprocesswithin24hoursusingthesameprocessingtime.

Anotheroptionistoadjustheadspaceinunsealedjarsto1½inchesandfreezejarsandcontentsinsteadofreprocessing.However,makesurejarshavestraightsides.Freezingmaycrackjarswith“shoulders.”

Foodsinsingle,unsealedjarscouldbestoredintherefrigeratorandconsumedwithinseveraldays.

StoringCannedFoods

Iflidsaretightlyvacuum-sealedoncooledjars,removescrewbands,washthelidandjartoremovefoodresidue,thenrinseanddryjars.Labelanddatethejarsandstoretheminaclean,cool,dark,dryplace.Donotstorejarsattemperaturesabove95°Fornearhotpipes, a range, a furnace, inanuninsulatedattic,or indirectsunlight.Undertheseconditions,foodwilllosequalityinafewweeksormonthsandmayspoil.Dampnessmaycorrodemetallids,breakseals,andallowrecontaminationandspoilage.

Accidental freezing of canned foods will not cause spoilage unless jarsbecome unsealed and recontaminated. However, freezing and thawing maysoften food. If jars must be stored where they may freeze, wrap them innewspapers,placetheminheavycartons,andcoverthemwithmorenewspapersandblankets.

IdentifyingandHandlingSpoiledCannedFood

Growthofspoilagebacteriaandyeastproducesgas,whichpressurizesthefood,swellslids,andbreaksjarseals.Aseachstoredjarisselectedforuse,examineitslidfortightnessandvacuum.Lidswithconcavecentershavegoodseals.

Next,whileholdingthejaruprightateyelevel,rotatethejarandexamineitsoutsidesurfaceforstreaksofdriedfoodoriginatingatthetopofthejar.Lookatthecontentsforrisingairbubblesandunnaturalcolor.

Whileopeningthejar,smellforunnaturalodorsandlookforspurtingliquidand cotton-like mold growth (white, blue, black, or green) on the top foodsurfaceandundersideoflid.Donottastefoodfromastoredjaryoudiscovertohaveanunsealedlidorthatotherwiseshowssignsofspoilage.

Allsuspectcontainersofspoiled,low-acidfoodsshouldbetreatedashavingproducedbotulinumtoxinandshouldbehandledcarefullyasfollows:

Youcancoverlidswithdecorativeclothandribbonstomakeanattractivegift.

If the suspect glass jars are unsealed, open, or leaking, they should bedetoxifiedbeforedisposal.Ifthesuspectglassjarsaresealed,removelidsanddetoxifytheentirejar,contents,andlids.

DetoxificationProcess

Carefullyplace thesuspectcontainersand lidson theirsides inaneight-quart-volume or larger stockpot, pan, or boiling-water canner. Wash your handsthoroughly.Carefullyaddwater to thepot.Thewatershouldcompletelycoverthecontainerswithaminimumof1 inchofwaterabove thecontainers.Avoidsplashingthewater.Placealidonthepotandheatthewatertoboiling.Boil30minutestoensuredetoxifyingthefoodandallcontainercomponents.Coolanddiscardlidsandfoodinthetrashorburyinsoil.

Thoroughly clean all counters, containers, and equipment including canopener,clothing,andhandsthatmayhavecomeincontactwiththefoodorthecontainers. Discard any sponges or washcloths that were used in the cleanup.Placetheminaplasticbaganddiscardinthetrash.

CannedFoodsforSpecialDiets

The cost of commercially canned, special diet food often prompts interest inpreparing these products at home.Some low-sugar and low-salt foodsmaybeeasilyandsafelycannedathome.However,itmaytakesomeexperimentationtocreate a productwith the desired color, flavor, and texture. Startwith a smallbatchandthenmakeappropriateadjustmentsbeforeproducinglargequantities.

CanningwithoutSugar

Incanning regular fruitswithout sugar, it isvery important to select fully ripebutfirmfruitsofthebestquality.Itisgenerallybesttocanfruitinitsownjuice,butblendsofunsweetenedapple,pineapple,andwhitegrapejuicearealsogoodfor pouring over solid fruit pieces. Adjust headspaces and lids and use theprocessingrecommendationsforregularfruits.Addsugarsubstitutes,ifdesired,whenserving.

Cannedfruitsareperfectforuseinbaking.

FruitThere’s nothing quite like opening a jar of homepreserved strawberries in themiddle of a winter snowstorm. It takes you right back to the warm, early-summersunshine,thesmellofthestrawberrypatch’sdampearth,andthefeelofthe firm berries as you snipped them from the vines. Best of all, you get toindulge in the sweet, summery flavor even as the snow swirls outside thewindows.

Preserving fruit is simple, safe,and itallowsyou toenjoy the fruitsofyoursummer’slaborallyear-round.Onthefollowingpages,youwillfindreferencecharts for processing various fruits and fruit products in a dial-gauge pressurecanner or a weighted-gauge pressure canner. The same information is alsoincludedwith each recipe’sDirections . In somecases, aboiling-water cannerwillservebetter;fortheseinstances,directionsforitsuseareofferedinstead.

Adding syrup to canned fruit helps to retain its flavor, color, and shape,although itdoesnotpreventspoilage.Tomaintain themostnatural flavor,usetheVeryLightSyruplistedinthetablefoundonpage113.Manyfruitsthataretypically packed in heavy syrup are just as good—and a lot better for you—whenpackedinlightersyrups.However,ifyou’represervingfruitthat’sonthesourside, likecherriesor tartapples,youmightwant tosplurgeononeof thesweeterversions.

ProcessTimesforFruitsandFruitProductsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Wait5to10minutesbeforeremovingjars.

Process Times for Fruits and Fruit Products in a Weighted-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Wait5to10minutesbeforeremovingjars.

Syrups

Addingsyruptocannedfruithelpstoretainitsflavor,color,andshape,althoughjarsstillneedtobeprocessedtopreventspoilage.Followthechartontherightforsyrupsofvaryingsweetness.Lightcornsyrupsormild-flavoredhoneymay

beusedtoreplaceuptohalfthetablesugarcalledforinsyrups.

Directions1. Bringwaterandsugartoaboilinamediumsaucepan.2. Pouroverrawfruitsinjars.

TIP

Forhotpacks,bringwaterandsugartoboil,addfruit,reheattoboil,andfillintojarsimmediately.

SugarandWaterinSyrup

*Thisamountisalsoadequateforafour-quartload.

AppleJuice

Thebestapple juice ismade fromablendofvarieties. Ifyoudon’thaveyourownapplepress,trytobuyfreshjuicefromalocalcidermakerwithin24hoursafterithasbeenpressed.

Directions1. Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.2. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidanddiscardsediment.Strain

the clear liquid through a paper coffee filter or double layers of dampcheesecloth.

3. Heatquicklyinasaucepan,stirringoccasionally,untiljuicebeginstoboil.4. Fillimmediatelyintosterilepintorquartjarsorintoclean,half-gallonjars,

leaving¼-inchheadspace.5. Adjust lids andprocess.Seebelow for recommended times for aboiling-

watercanner.

ProcessTimesforAppleJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

AppleButter

The best apple varieties to use for apple butter include Jonathan, Winesap,Stayman, Golden Delicious, and Macintosh apples, but any of your favorite

varietieswillwork.Don’tbother topeel theapples,asyouwillstrain thefruitbeforecookingit.Thisrecipewillyieldeighttoninepints.

Ingredients

8lbsapples2cupsvinegar2¼cupspackedbrownsugar1tbspgroundcloves2cupscider2¼cupswhitesugar2tbspgroundcinnamon

Directions1. Wash,stem,quarter,andcoreapples.2. Cookslowlyinciderandvinegaruntilsoft.Pressfruitthroughacolander,

foodmill,orstrainer.3. Cook fruit pulp with sugar and spices, stirring frequently. To test for

doneness,removeaspoonfulandholditawayfromsteamfor2minutes.Ifthebutterremainsmoundedonthespoon,itisdone.Ifyou’restillnotsure,spoonasmallquantityontoaplate.Whenarimofliquiddoesnotseparatearoundtheedgeofthebutter,itisreadyforcanning.

4. Fillwhilehot into sterilehalf-pintorpint jars, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Quartjarsneednotbepre-sterilized.

ProcessTimesforAppleButterinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Applesauce

Besides being delicious on its own or paired with dishes like pork chops orlatkes,applesaucecanbeusedasabuttersubstituteinmanybakedgoods.Select

applesthataresweet,juicy,andcrisp.Foratartflavor,addonetotwopoundsoftartapplestoeachthreepoundsofsweeterfruit.

Quantity

1. Anaverageof21poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.

2. Anaverageof13½poundsofapplesisneededpercannerloadofninepints.

3. Abushelweighs48poundsandyields14to19quartsofsauce—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash, peel, and core apples. Slice apples into water containing a little

lemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Place drained slices in an 8-to 10-quart pot. Add ½ cup water. Stirring

occasionallytopreventburning,heatquicklyuntiltender(5to20minutes,dependingonmaturityandvariety).

3. Press througha sieveor foodmill,or skip thepressing step ifyoupreferchunky-style sauce. Sauce may be packed without sugar, but if desired,sweetentotaste(startwith⅛cupsugarperquartofsauce).

4. Reheatsaucetoboiling.Filljarswithhotsauce,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforApplesauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Apricots,HalvedorSliced

Apricotsareexcellentinbakedgoods,stuffing,chutney,orontheirown.Choosefirm,well-colored,maturefruitforbestresults.

Quantity

An average of 16 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 10 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 50 pounds and yields 20 to 25 quarts—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Dip fruit in boiling water for 30 to 60 seconds until skins loosen. Dip

quicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.2. Cut in half, removepits, and slice if desired.Toprevent darkening, keep

peeledfruitinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.3. Prepareandboilaverylight,light,ormediumsyrup(seepage113)orpack

apricotsinwater,applejuice,orwhitegrapejuice.

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedApricotsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Process Times for Halved or Sliced Apricots in a Weighted-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Berries,Whole

Preservedberriesareperfectforuseinpies,muffins,pancakes,orinpoultryorpork dressings. Nearly every berry preserves well, including blackberries,blueberries, currants, dewberries, elderberries, gooseberries, huckleberries,loganberries, mulberries, and raspberries. Choose ripe, sweet berries withuniformcolor.

Quantity

An average of 12 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.Anaverageof8poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.A24-quartcrateweighs36poundsandyields18to24quarts—anaverageof1¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash1or2quartsofberriesatatime.Drain,cap,andstemifnecessary.

Forgooseberries,snipoffheadsandtailswithscissors.2. Prepare and boil preferred syrup, if desired (see page 113). Add ½ cup

syrup,juice,orwatertoeachcleanjar.

Hot pack—(Best for blueberries, currants, elderberries, gooseberries, andhuckleberries)Heatberries inboilingwater for30 seconds anddrain.Fill jarsandcoverwithhotjuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Fill jarswithanyof therawberries,shakingdowngentlywhilefilling.Coverwithhotsyrup,juice,orwater,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Chooseripe,freshberriesforcanning.

RecommendedProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforWholeBerriesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

BerrySyrup

Juices from fresh or frozen blueberries, cherries, grapes, raspberries (black orred), and strawberries are easilymade into toppings for use on ice cream andpastries. For an elegant finish to cheesecakes or pound cakes, drizzle a thinstreaminazigzagacrossthetopjustbeforeserving.Berrysyrupsarealsogreatadditionstosmoothiesormilkshakes.Thisrecipemakesaboutninehalf-pints.

Directions1. Select 6½cups of fresh or frozenberries of your choice.Wash, cap, and

stemberriesandcrushinasaucepan.2. Heattoboilingandsimmeruntilsoft(5to10minutes).Strainhotthrougha

colanderplacedinalargepananddrainuntilcoolenoughtohandle.3. Strainthecollectedjuicethroughadoublelayerofcheeseclothorjellybag.

Discardthedrypulp.Theyieldofthepressedjuiceshouldbeabout4½to5cups.

4. Combine the juicewith 6¾ cups of sugar in a large saucepan, bring to aboil,andsimmer1minute.

5. Fill intocleanhalf-pintorpint jars, leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjust lidsandprocess.

TIP

Tomakesyrupwithwholeberries,ratherthancrushed,save1or2cupsofthefreshorfrozenfruit,combinethesewiththesugar,andsimmer until soft.Remove from heat, skim off foam, and fill intocleanjars,followingprocessingDirectionsforregularberrysyrup.

ProcessTimesforBerrySyrupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Wait

fiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

FruitPurées

Almost any fruit can be puréed for use as baby food, in sauces, or just as anutritioussnack.Puréedprunesandapplescanbeusedasabutterreplacementinmanybakedgoods.Usethisrecipeforanyfruitexceptfigsandtomatoes.

Directions1. Stem,wash, drain, peel, and remove pits if necessary.Measure fruit into

largesaucepan,crushingslightlyifdesired.2. Add1cuphotwaterforeachquartoffruit.Cookslowlyuntilfruitissoft,

stirringfrequently.Pressthroughsieveorfoodmill.Ifdesired,addsugartotaste.

3. Reheatpulp toboil,oruntil sugardissolves (ifadded).Fillhot intocleanjars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforFruitPuréesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

GrapeJuice

Purplegrapesarefullofantioxidantsandhelptoreducetheriskofheartdisease,cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease. For juice, select sweet, well-colored, firm,maturefruit.

Quantity

Anaverageof24½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof16poundspercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs26poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofjuice—anaverageof3½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washandstemgrapes.Placegrapesinasaucepanandaddboilingwaterto

cover.Heatandsimmerslowlyuntilskinissoft.2. Strainthroughadampjellybagordoublelayersofcheesecloth,anddiscard

solids.Refrigeratejuicefor24to48hours.3. Withoutmixing,carefullypouroffclearliquidandsave;discardsediment.

Ifdesired,strainthroughapapercoffeefilterforaclearerjuice.4. Add juice to a saucepanand sweeten to taste.Heat and stir until sugar is

dissolved. Continue heating with occasional stirring until juice begins toboil.Fill intojars immediately, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjust lidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGrapeJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Peaches,HalvedorSliced

Peaches are delicious in cobblers, crisps, andmuffins, or grilled for a uniquecaketopping.Chooseripe,maturefruitwithminimalbruising.

Quantity

Anaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 11 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 48 pounds and yields 16 to 24 quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Dip fruit in boiling water for 30 to 60 seconds until skins loosen. Dipquicklyincoldwaterandslipoffskins.Cutinhalf,removepits,andsliceifdesired.Topreventdarkening,keeppeeledfruitinascorbicacidsolution.

2. Prepare and boil a very light, light, ormedium syrup or pack peaches inwater, apple juice, or white grape juice. Raw packs make poor-qualitypeaches.

Hot pack—In a large saucepan, place drained fruit in syrup,water, or juiceandbring to a boil. Fill jarswith hot fruit and cooking liquid, leaving½-inchheadspace.Placehalvesinlayers,cutsidedown.

Rawpack—Filljarswithrawfruit,cutsidedown,andaddhotwater,juice,orsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.3.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforHalvedorSlicedPeachesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Process Times for Halved or Sliced Peaches in a Weighted-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Pears,Halved

Chooseripe,maturefruitforbestresults.Foraspecialtreat,filledhalvedpearswithamixtureofchoppeddriedapricots,pecans,brownsugar,andbutter;bakeormicrowaveuntilwarmandservewithvanillaicecream.

Quantity

Anaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 11 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 50 pounds and yields 16 to 25 quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washandpeelpears.Cutlengthwiseinhalvesandremovecore.Amelon

baller ormetalmeasuring spoonworkswell for coring pears. To preventdiscoloration,keeppearsinwaterwithalittlelemonjuice.

2. Prepare a very light, light, ormedium syrup (see page 113) or use applejuice,whitegrapejuice,orwater.Rawpacksmakepoorqualitypears.Boildrainedpears for fiveminutes in syrup, juice, orwater. Fill jarswith hotfruitandcookingliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforHalvedPearsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Rhubarb,Stewed

Rhubarbinthegardenisasuresignthatspringhassprungandsummeriswellon itsway.Butwhynot enjoy rhubarballyear-round?Thebrilliant red stalksmakeitasappropriateforaholidaytableasforanearlysummerfeast.Rhubarbisalsodeliciousincrisps,cobblers,orservedhotovericecream.

Selectyoung,tender,well-coloredstalksfromthespringor,ifavailable,latefallcrop.

Quantity

Anaverageof10½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.Anaverageof7poundsisneededpercannerloadofninepints.Alugweighs28poundsandyields14to28quarts—anaverageof1½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Trimoffleaves.Washstalksandcutinto½-inchto1-inchpieces.2. Place rhubarb ina largesaucepan,andadd½cupsugar foreachquartof

fruit.Letstanduntiljuiceappears.Heatgentlytoboiling.Filljarswithoutdelay,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcoming

outofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforStewedRhubarbinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

CannedPieFillingsUsing a pre-made pie fillingwill cut your pie preparation time bymore thanhalf,butmostcommerciallyproducedfillingsareoozingwithhighfructosecornsyrupandallmannerofartificialcoloringandflavoring.(Foodcoloringisnotatall necessary, but if you’re really concerned about how the inside of your piewill look, appropriate amounts are added to each recipe as an optionalingredient.)Makingandpreservingyourownpiefillingsmeansthatyoucanuseyourownfreshingredientsandadjustthesweetnesstoyourtaste.Becausesomefolks like their pies rich and sweet and others prefer a natural tart flavor, youmightwanttofirstmakeasinglequart,makeapiewithit,andseehowyoulikeit.Thenyoucanadjust thesugarandspices in therecipe tosuityourpersonalpreferences beforemaking a large batch.Experimentwith combining fruits oraddingdifferentspices,buttheamountoflemonjuiceshouldnotbealtered,asitaidsincontrollingthesafetyandstoragestabilityofthefillings.

These recipes use Clear Jel (sometimes sold as Clear Jel A), a chemicallymodifiedcornstarchthatproducesexcellentsauceconsistencyevenafterfillingsare cannedandbaked.ByusingClear Jel, youcan lower the sugar contentof

yourfillingswithoutsacrificingsafety,flavor,ortexture.(Note:InstantClearJelisnotmeanttobecookedandshouldnotbeusedfortheserecipes.Sure-Gelisanatural fruit pectin and is not a suitable substitute for Clear Jel. Cornstarch,tapioca starch, or arrowroot starch can be used in place of Clear Jel, but thefinishedproduct is likely tobe runny.)OnepoundofClear Jel costs less thanfivedollarsandisenoughtomakefillingsforabout14pies.Itwillkeepforatleast a year if stored in a cool, dry place. Clear Jel is increasingly availableamongcanningandfreezingsuppliesinsomestores.Alternately,youcanorderitbythepoundatanyofthefollowingonlinestores:

www.barryfarm.comwww.kitchenkrafts.comwww.theingredientstore.com

TIP

When using frozen cherries and blueberries, select unsweetenedfruit.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisfrozen.Thawfruit, then collect, measure, and use juice from fruit to partiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.

ApplePieFilling

Usefirm,crispapples,suchasStayman,GoldenDelicious,orRomevarietiesforthebest results. Ifapples lack tartness,useanadditional¼cupof lemonjuiceforeach6quartsofslices.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)oraseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

1Quart 7Quarts

Blanched,slicedfreshapples 3½cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 5½cups

ClearJel® ¼cup 1½cups

Cinnamon ¼tsp 1tbsp

Coldwater ½cup 2½cups

Applejuice ¾cup 5cups

Bottledlemonjuice 2tbsp ¾cup

Nutmeg(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp

Directions1. Wash,peel,andcoreapples.Prepareslices½inchwideandplaceinwater

containingalittlelemonjuicetopreventbrowning.2. Forfreshfruit,place6cupsatatimein1gallonofboilingwater.Boileach

batch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drain,butkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

3. Combine sugar,Clear Jel, and cinnamon in a large kettlewithwater andapple juice. Add nutmeg, if desired. Stir and cook onmedium-high heatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.

4. Add lemon juice and boil 1 minute, stirring constantly. Fold in drainedappleslicesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforApplePieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

BlueberryPieFilling

Selectfresh,ripe,andfirmblueberries.Unsweetenedfrozenblueberriesmaybeused.Ifsugarhasbeenadded,rinseitoffwhilefruitisstillfrozen.Thawfruit,then collect, measure, and use juice from fruit to partially replace the waterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

1Quart 7Quarts

Freshorthawedblueberries 3½cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar ¾cup+2tbsp 6cups

ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 2¼cups

Coldwater 1cup 7cups

Bottledlemonjuice 3½cups ½cup

Bluefoodcoloring(optional) 3drops 20drops

Redfoodcoloring(optional) 1drop 7drops

Directions

1. Washanddrainblueberries.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.Allowwatertoreturntoaboilandcookeachbatchfor1minute.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

2. Combine sugar and Clear Jel in a large kettle. Stir. Addwater and foodcoloring ifdesired.Cookonmedium-highheatuntilmixture thickensandbeginstobubble.

3. Add lemon juice and boil 1 minute, stirring constantly. Fold in drainedberriesimmediatelyandfilljarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforBlueberryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

CherryPieFilling

Select fresh,very ripe,andfirmcherries.Unsweetenedfrozencherriesmaybeused. If sugar has been added, rinse it offwhile the fruit is still frozen.Thawfruit,thencollect,measure,andusejuicefromfruittopartiallyreplacethewaterspecifiedintherecipe.Ingredientsareincludedforaone-quart(enoughforone8-inchpie)orseven-quartrecipe.

Ingredients

1Quart 7Quarts

Freshorthawedsourcherries 3⅓cups 6quarts

Granulatedsugar 1cup 7cups

ClearJel® ¼cup+1tbsp 1¾cups

Coldwater 1⅓cups 9⅓cups

Bottledlemonjuice 1tbsp+1tsp ½cup

Cinnamon(optional) ⅛tsp 1tsp

Almondextract(optional) ¼tsp 2tsp

Redfoodcoloring(optional) 6drops ¼tsp

Directions1. Rinseandpit freshcherries, andhold incoldwater.Toprevent stemend

frombrowning,usewaterwithalittlelemonjuice.Place6cupsatatimein1gallonboilingwater.Boileachbatch1minuteafterthewaterreturnstoaboil.Drainbutkeepheatedfruitinacoveredbowlorpot.

2. CombinesugarandClearJelinalargesaucepanandaddwater.Ifdesired,add cinnamon, almond extract, and food coloring. Stir mixture and cookovermedium-highheatuntilmixturethickensandbeginstobubble.

3. Add lemon juice and boil 1 minute, stirring constantly. Fold in drainedcherries immediately and fill jars withmixture without delay, leaving 1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocessimmediately.

ProcessTimesforCherryPieFillinginaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

FestiveMincemeatPieFilling

Mincemeatpieoriginatedas“ChristmasPie”intheeleventhcentury,whentheEnglish crusaders returned from the Holy Land bearing oriental spices. Theyaddedthreeofthesespices—cinnamon,cloves,andnutmeg—totheirmeatpiestorepresentthethreegiftsthatthemagibroughttotheChristchild.Mincemeatpies are traditionally small and are perfect pairedwith amug of hot buttered

rum.Walnutsorpecans canbeused inplaceofmeat if preferred.This recipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.

Ingredients

2cupsfinelychoppedsuet4lbsgroundbeefor4lbsgroundvenisonand1lbsausage5qtschoppedapples2lbsdark,seedlessraisins1lbwhiteraisins2qtsapplecider2tbspgroundcinnamon2tspgroundnutmeg½tspcloves5cupssugar2tbspsalt

Directions1. Cook suet andmeat in water to avoid browning. Peel, core, and quarter

apples. Put suet, meat, and apples through food grinder using a mediumblade.

2. Combine all ingredients in a large saucepan and simmer 1 hour or untilslightlythickened.Stiroften.

3. Fill jarswithmixturewithoutdelay,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Process Times for Festive Mincemeat Pie Filling in a Dial-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforFestiveMincemeatPieFillinginaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Jams,Jellies,andOtherFruitSpreadsHomemade jams and jellies have lots more flavor than store-bought,overprocessedvarieties.Thecombinationsof fruits and spicesare limitless, sohave fun experimenting with these recipes. If you can bear to part with yourcreationswhenyou’realldone,theymakewonderfulgiftsforanyoccasion.

Pectin iswhatmakes jams and jellies thicken andgel.Many fruits, such ascrabapples,citrusfruits,sourplums,currants,quinces,greenapples,orConcordgrapes,haveplentyoftheirownnaturalpectin,sothere’snoneedtoaddmorepectin toyour recipes.Youcanuse less sugarwhenyoudon’t addpectin,butyouwillhave toboil the fruit for longer.Still, theprocess is relatively simpleandyoudon’thavetoworryabouthavingstore-boughtpectinonhand.

Tousefreshfruitswitha low-pectincontentorcannedor frozenfruit juice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandset properly. Jelly or jam made with added pectin requires less cooking andgenerally gives a larger yield. These products havemore natural fruit flavors,too. In addition, using added pectin eliminates the need to test hot jellies andjamsforpropergelling.

Beginning this section are descriptions of the differences between methodsandtipsforsuccesswithwhicheveryouuse.

MakingJamsandJellieswithoutAddedPectin

Ifyouarenotsureifafruithasenoughofitsownpectin,combine1tablespoon of rubbing alcoholwith 1 tablespoon of extracted fruitjuiceinasmallglass.Letstand2minutes.Ifthemixtureformsintoone solid mass, there’s plenty of pectin. If you see several weakblobs,youneed toaddpectinorcombinewithanotherhigh-pectinfruit.

JellywithoutAddedPectin

Makingjellywithoutaddedpectinisnotanexactscience.Youcanaddalittlemoreorlesssugaraccordingtoyourtaste,substitutehoneyforuptohalfofthesugar, or experiment with combining small amounts of low-pectin fruits withother high-pectin fruits. The Ingredients table below shows you the basics forcommonhigh-pectin fruits.Use it asaguidelineasyouexperimentwithotherfruits.

Asfruitripens,itspectincontentdecreases,sousefruitthathasrecentlybeenpicked,andmix¾ripefruitwith¼under-ripe.Cookingcoresandpeelsalongwith the fruitwillalso increase thepectin level.Avoidusingcannedor frozenfruitastheycontainverylittlepectin.Besuretowashallfruitthoroughlybeforecooking.Onepoundoffruitshouldyieldatleast1cupofclearjuice.

Ingredients

Directions1. Crushsoft fruitsorberries;cut firmer fruits intosmallpieces (there isno

needtopeelorcorethefruits,ascookingallthepartsaddspectin).

2. Addwater tofruits thatrequire it,as listed in theIngredients tableabove.Put fruit and water in large saucepan and bring to a boil. Then simmeraccordingtothetimesinthechartuntilfruitissoft,whilestirringtopreventscorching.

3. Whenfruitistender,strainthroughacolander,thenstrainthroughadoublelayer of cheesecloth or a jelly bag. Allow juice to drip through, using astandorcolander tohold thebag.Avoidpressingorsqueezing thebagorclothasitwillcausecloudyjelly.

4. Usingnomorethan6to8cupsofextractedfruit juiceatatime,measurefruit juice, sugar, and lemon juice according to the Ingredients table, andheattoboiling.

5. Stiruntilthesugarisdissolved.Boiloverhighheattothejellyingpoint.Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:

Temperature test—Use a jelly or candy thermometer and boiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperatures:

Sheetorspoontest—Dipacool,metalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture. Raise the spoon about 12 inches above the pan(out of steam).Turn the spoon so the liquid runs off the side.The jelly is done when the syrup forms two drops that flowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.

6. Remove fromheat and quickly skimoff foam. Fill sterile jarswith jelly.Use a measuring cup or ladle the jelly through a wide-mouthed funnel,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforJellywithoutAddedPectininaBoilingWaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

LemonCurd

Lemon curd is a rich, creamy spread that can be used on (or in) a variety ofteatime treats—crumpets, scones, cake fillings, tartlets, or meringues are allenhancedbyitstangy-sweetflavor.Followtherecipecarefully,asvariancesiningredients, order, and temperaturesmay lead to a poor texture or flavor. ForLimeCurd,usethesamerecipebutsubstitute1cupbottledlimejuiceand¼cupfreshlimezestforthelemonjuiceandzest.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutthreetofourhalf-pints.

Ingredients

2½cupssuperfinesugar1½cuplemonzest(freshlyzested),optional1cupbottledlemonjuice2¾cupunsaltedbutter,chilled,cutintoapproximately¾-inchpieces7largeeggyolks4largewholeeggs

Directions1. Wash4half-pintcanningjarswithwarm,soapywater.Rinsewell;keephot

until ready to fill. Prepare canning lids according to manufacturer’sDirections.

2. Fillboilingwatercannerwithenoughwatertocoverthefilledjarsby1to2inches.Useathermometertopreheatthewaterto180°Fbythetimefilled

jarsarereadytobeadded.Caution:Donotheatthewaterinthecannertomorethan180°Fbeforejarsareadded.Ifthewaterinthecanneristoohotwhenjarsareadded,theprocesstimewillnotbelongenough.Thetimeittakesforthecannertoreachboilingafterthejarsareaddedisexpectedtobe25to30minutesforthisproduct.Processtimestartsafterthewaterinthecannercomestoafullboiloverthetopsofthejars.

3. Combinethesugarandlemonzestinasmallbowl,stirtomix,andsetasideabout 30 minutes. Pre-measure the lemon juice and prepare the chilledbutterpieces.

4. Heatwater in thebottompanofadoubleboiler3until itboilsgently.Thewater should not boil vigorously or touch the bottom of the top doubleboilerpanorbowlinwhichthecurdistobecooked.Steamproducedwillbesufficientforthecookingprocesstooccur.

5. In the topof thedoubleboiler, on the countertopor table,whisk the eggyolksandwholeeggstogetheruntilthoroughlymixed.Slowlywhiskinthesugarandzest,blendinguntilwell-mixedandsmooth.Blendinthelemonjuiceandthenaddthebutterpiecestothemixture.

6. Placethetopofthedoubleboileroverboilingwaterinthebottompan.Stirgentlybutcontinuouslywithasiliconespatulaorcookingspoon,topreventthemixturefromstickingtothebottomofthepan.Continuecookinguntilthe mixture reaches a temperature of 170°F. Use a food thermometer tomonitorthetemperature.

7. Remove the double boiler pan from the stove and place on a protectedsurface, such as a dishcloth or towel on the countertop. Continue to stirgentlyuntilthecurdthickens(about5minutes).Straincurdthroughameshstrainerintoaglassorstainlesssteelbowl;discardcollectedzest.

8. Fill hot, strained curd into the clean, hot half-pint jars, leaving ½-inchheadspace.Removeairbubblesandadjustheadspaceifneeded.Wiperimsofjarswithadampened,cleanpapertowel;applytwo-piecemetalcanninglids.Process.Letcool,undisturbed,for12to24hoursandcheckforseals.

ProcessTimesforLemonCurdinaBoiling-WaterCanner1

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

JamwithoutAddedPectin

Making jam is even easier thanmaking jelly, as you don’t have to strain thefruit.However,you’llwant tobe sure to removeall stems, skins, andpits.Besure towashand rinseall fruits thoroughlybeforecooking,butdon’t let themsoak.Forbest flavor,use fully ripe fruit.Use the Ingredients tablebelowasaguidelineasyouexperimentwithlesscommonfruits.

Ingredients

* Includes blackberries, boysenberries, dewberries, gooseberries, loganberries,raspberries,andstrawberries.1. Removestems,skins,seeds,andpits;cutintopiecesandcrush.Forberries,

removestemsandblossomsandcrush.Seedyberriesmaybeputthroughasieve or food mill. Measure crushed fruit into large saucepan using theingredientquantitiesspecifiedabove.

2. Add sugar and bring to a boil while stirring rapidly and constantly.Continue toboil untilmixture thickens.Useoneof the following tests todeterminewhen jamsand jellies are ready to fill.Remember that the jamwillthickenasitcools.

Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthetemperatureforyouraltitude.

Refrigerator test—Remove the jam mixture from the heat.Pourasmallamountofboilingjamonacoldplateandputitinthe freezercompartmentof a refrigerator for a fewminutes. Ifthemixturegels,itisreadytofill.

3. Removefromheatandskimofffoamquickly.Fillsterilejarswithjam.Use

ameasuringcupor ladle the jamthroughawide-mouthedfunnel, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforJamswithoutAddedPectininaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

JamsandJellieswithAddedPectin

To use fresh fruits with a low-pectin content or canned or frozen fruit juice,powderedorliquidpectinmustbeaddedforyourjamsandjelliestothickenandset properly. Jelly or jam made with added pectin requires less cooking andgenerally gives a larger yield. These products havemore natural fruit flavors,too. In addition, using added pectin eliminates the need to test hot jellies andjamsforpropergelling.

Commercially produced pectin is a natural ingredient, usually made fromapples and available atmost grocery stores. There are several types of pectinnowcommonlyavailable;liquid,powder,low-sugar,andno-sugarpectinseachhave their own advantages and downsides. Pomona’s Universal Pectin® is acitrus pectin that allows you tomake jams and jellies with little or no sugar.Becausetheorderofcombiningingredientsdependsonthetypeofpectinused,itisbesttofollowthecommonjamandjellyrecipesthatareincludedrightonmostpectinpackages.However, ifyouwant to trysomethinga littledifferent,

follow one of the following recipes formixed fruit and spiced fruit jams andjellies.

TIPS

Adding½ teaspoon of butter ormargarinewith the juice andpectin will reduce foaming. However, these may cause off-flavorinalong-termstorageofjelliesandjams.Purchasefreshfruitpectineachyear.Oldpectinmayresult inpoorgels.BesuretouseMasoncanningjars,self-sealingtwo-piecelids,andafive-minuteprocess(correctedforaltitude,asnecessary)inboilingwater.

Process Times for Jams and Jellies with Added Pectin in a Boiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Pear-AppleJam

Thisisadeliciousjamperfectformakingattheendofautumn,justbeforethefrost gets the last apples.For awarming, spicy twist, add a teaspoonof fresh,gratedginger alongwith the cinnamon.This recipeyields seven to eight half-pints.

Ingredients

2cupspeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedpears(about2lbs)1cuppeeled,cored,andfinelychoppedapples¼tspgroundcinnamon

6½cupssugar⅓cupbottledlemonjuice6ozliquidpectin

Directions1. Peel, core, and slice apples and pears into a large saucepan and stir in

cinnamon.Thoroughlymixsugarandlemonjuicewithfruitsandbringtoaboil over high heat, stirring constantly and crushing fruit with a potatomasherasitsoftens.

2. Onceboiling,immediatelystirinpectin.Bringtoafullrollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.

3. Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterile jars, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPear-AppleJaminaBoilingWaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Strawberry-RhubarbJelly

Strawberry-rhubarb jellywill turnanyordinarypieceofbread intoadelightfultreat.Youcanalsospreaditonshortcakeorpoundcakeforasimpleanduniquedessert.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutsevenhalf-pints.

Ingredients

1½lbsredstalksofrhubarb1½qtsripestrawberries½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)6cupssugar6ozliquidpectin

Directions1. Washandcut rhubarb into1-inchpiecesandblendorgrind.Wash, stem,

andcrushstrawberries,onelayeratatime,inasaucepan.Placebothfruitsinajellybagordoublelayerofcheeseclothandgentlysqueezejuiceintoalargemeasuringcuporbowl.

2. Measure 3½ cups of juice into a large saucepan. Add butter and sugar,thoroughly mixing into juice. Bring to a boil over high heat, stirringconstantly.

3. Assoonasmixturebeginstoboil,stirinpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboilandboilhard1minute,stirringconstantly.Removefromheat,quicklyskimoff foam, and fill sterile jars, leaving ¼-inch headspace. Adjust lids andprocess.

ProcessTimesforStrawberry-RhubarbJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Blueberry-SpiceJam

Thisisasummerytreatthatisdeliciousspreadoverwaffleswithalittlebutter.Usingwildblueberriesresultsinastrongerflavor,butcultivatedblueberriesalsoworkwell.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivehalf-pints.

Ingredients

2½pintsripeblueberries1tbsplemonjuice½tspgroundnutmegorcinnamon¾cupwater5½cupssugar1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin

Directions1. Wash and thoroughly crush blueberries, adding one layer at a time, in a

saucepan.Addlemonjuice,spice,andwater.Stirpectinandbringtoafull,rollingboiloverhighheat,stirringfrequently.

2. Add the sugar and return to a full, rolling boil. Boil hard for 1 minute,stirring constantly. Remove from heat, quickly skim off foam, and fillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBlueberry-SpiceJaminaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Grape-PlumJelly

Ifyouthinkpeanutbutterandjellysandwichesareonlyforkids,trygrape-plumjelly spreadwith a natural nut butter over a thick slice ofwholewheat bread.You’llchangeyourmind.Thisrecipeyieldsabout10half-pints.

Ingredients

3½lbsripeplums3lbsripeConcordgrapes8½cupssugar1cupwater½tspbutterormargarinetoreducefoaming(optional)1box(1¾oz)powderedpectin

Directions

1. Washandpitplums;donotpeel.Thoroughlycrushtheplumsandgrapes,addingonelayeratatime,inasaucepanwithwater.Bringtoaboil,cover,andsimmer10minutes.

2. Strain juice through a jelly bag or double layer of cheesecloth.Measuresugar and set aside. Combine 6½ cups of juicewith butter and pectin inlargesaucepan.Bringtoahardboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.

3. Add the sugar and return to a full, rolling boil. Boil hard for 1 minute,stirring constantly. Remove from heat, quickly skim off foam, and fillsterilejars,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGrape-PlumJellyinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

MakingReduced-SugarFruitSpreads

Avarietyoffruitspreadsmaybemadethataretasteful,yetlowerinsugarsandcalories than regular jams and jellies. The most straightforward method isprobablytobuylow-sugarpectinandfollowthedirectionsonthepackage,butthe following recipes show alternatemethods of using gelatin or fruit pulp asthickening agents. Gelatin recipes should not be processed and should berefrigeratedandusedwithinfourweeks.

Peach-PineappleSpread

Thisrecipemaybemadewithanycombinationofpeaches,nectarines,apricots,andplums.Youcanusenosugar,uptotwocupsofsugar,oracombinationofsugarandanothersweetener(suchashoney,Splenda,oragavenectar).Notethatif you use aspartame, the spread may lose its sweetness within three to fourweeks.Addcinnamonorstaraniseifdesired.Thisrecipeyieldsfivetosixhalf-pints.

Ingredients

4cupsdrainedpeachpulp(followdirectionsbelow)

2cupsdrainedunsweetenedcrushedpineapple¼cupbottledlemonjuice2cupssugar(optional)

Directions1. Thoroughlywash4to6poundsoffirm,ripepeaches.Drainwell.Peeland

removepits.Grindfruitfleshwithamediumorcoarseblade,orcrushwithafork(donotuseablender).

2. Placegroundorcrushedpeachpulpina2-quartsaucepan.Heatslowlytoreleasejuice,stirringconstantly,untilfruitistender.Placecookedfruitinajelly bag or strainer linedwith four layers of cheesecloth.Allow juice todripabout15minutes.Savethejuiceforjellyorotheruses.

3. Measure4cupsofdrainedpeachpulp formaking spread.Combine the4cupsofpulp,pineapple,andlemonjuiceina4-quartsaucepan.Addupto2cupsofsugarorothersweetener,ifdesired,andmixwell.

4. Heat and boil gently for 10 to 15 minutes, stirring enough to preventsticking. Fill jars quickly, leaving ¼-inch headspace. Adjust lids andprocess.

ProcessTimesforPeach-PineappleSpreadinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

RefrigeratedAppleSpread

This recipeusesgelatinasa thickener, so itdoesnot requireprocessingbut itshouldbe refrigeratedandusedwithin fourweeks.For spicedapple jelly, addtwo sticks of cinnamon and four whole cloves to mixture before boiling.Removebothspicesbeforeaddingthesweetenerandfoodcoloring(ifdesired).Thisrecipeyieldsfourhalf-pints.

Ingredients

2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder1qtbottleunsweetenedapplejuice2tbspbottledlemonjuice2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)

Directions1. Inasaucepan,softenthegelatinintheappleandlemonjuices.Todissolve

gelatin,bringtoafull,rollingboilandboil2minutes.Removefromheat.2. Stir in sweetener and food coloring (if desired). Fill jars, leaving¼-inch

headspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).

Canning

RefrigeratedGrapeSpread

This is a simple, tasty recipe that doesn’t require processing. Be sure torefrigerateandusewithinfourweeks.Thisrecipemakesthreehalf-pints.

Ingredients

2tbspunflavoredgelatinpowder1bottle(24oz)unsweetenedgrapejuice2tbspbottledlemonjuice2tbspliquidlow-caloriesweetener(e.g.,sucralose,honey,or1–2tspliquidstevia)

Directions1. Inasaucepan,heatthegelatininthegrapeandlemonjuicesuntilmixtureis

soft. Bring to a full, rolling boil to dissolve gelatin. Boil 1 minute andremovefromheat.Stirinsweetener.

2. Filljarsquickly,leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlids.Refrigerate(donotprocessorfreeze).

RemakingSoftJellies

Sometimesjellyjustdoesn’tturnoutrightthefirsttime.Jellythatistoosoftcanbeused as a sweet sauce to drizzle over ice cream, cheesecake, or angel foodcake,butitcanalsobere-cookedintotheproperconsistency.

ToRemakewithPowderedPectin1. Measure jelly to be re-cooked.Workwith nomore than 4 to 6 cups at a

time. For each quart (4 cups) of jelly,mix¼ cup sugar,½ cupwater, 2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and4teaspoonspowderedpectin.Bringtoaboilwhilestirring.

2. Addjellyandbringtoarollingboiloverhighheat,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor½minute.Removefromheat,quicklyskimfoamoffjelly,andfillsterile jars, leaving ¼-inch headspace. Adjust new lids and process asrecommended(seefacingcolumn).

ToRemakewithLiquidPectin1. Measure jelly to be re-cooked.Workwith nomore than 4 to 6 cups at a

time.Foreachquart(4cups)ofjelly,measureintoabowl¾cupsugar,2tablespoonsbottledlemonjuice,and2tablespoonsliquidpectin.

2. Bring jelly only to boil over high heat,while stirring.Remove fromheatandquicklyaddthesugar,lemonjuice,andpectin.Bringtoafull,rollingboil,stirringconstantly.Boilhardfor1minute.Quicklyskimofffoamandfill sterile jars, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnew lids andprocess asrecommended(seebelow).

ToRemakewithoutAddedPectin1. For each quart of jelly, add 2 tablespoons bottled lemon juice. Heat to

boilingandcontinuetoboilfor3to4minutes.2. Totestjellyfordoneness,useoneofthefollowingmethods:

Temperaturetest—Useajellyorcandythermometerandboiluntilmixturereachesthefollowingtemperaturesatthealtitudesbelow:

Sheetorspoontest—Dipacoolmetalspoonintotheboilingjellymixture. Raise the spoon about 12 inches above the pan(out of steam).Turn the spoon so the liquid runs off the side.The jelly is done when the syrup forms two drops that flowtogetherandsheetorhangofftheedgeofthespoon.

3. Removefromheat,quicklyskimofffoam,andfillsterile jars, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustnewlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforRemadeSoftJelliesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Vegetables,Pickles,andTomatoes

BeansorPeas,ShelledorDried(AllVarieties)

Shelledordriedbeansandpeasareinexpensiveandeasytobuyorstoreinbulk,but they are not very convenient when it comes to preparing them to eat.Hydratingandcanningbeansorpeasenableyoutosimplyopenacanandusethem rather than waiting for them to soak. Sort and discard discolored seedsbeforerehydrating.

Quantity

Anaverageoffivepoundsisneededpercanner loadofsevenquarts.An average of 3¼ pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Placedriedbeansorpeasinalargepotandcoverwithwater.Soak12to18

hours in a cool place. Drain water. To quickly hydrate beans, you maycover sorted andwashed beans with boiling water in a saucepan. Boil 2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.

2. Coverbeanssoakedbyeithermethodwithfreshwaterandboil30minutes.Add ½ teaspoon of salt per pint or 1 teaspoon per quart to each jar, ifdesired. Fill jars with beans or peas and cooking water, leaving 1-inch

headspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforBeansorPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

BakedBeans

Baked beans are an oldNewEngland favorite, but every cook has his or herfavoritevariation.Tworecipesare includedhere,but feel free toalter them toyourowntaste.

Quantity

Anaverageoffivepoundsofbeansisneededpercanner loadofsevenquarts.An average of 3¼ pounds is needed per canner load of nine

pints—anaverageof¾poundsperquart.

Directions1.Sortandwashdrybeans.Add3cupsofwaterforeachcupofdriedbeans.Boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,anddrain.

2.Heattoboilinginfreshwater,andsaveliquidformakingsauce.Makeyourchoiceofthefollowingsauces:

TomatoSauce—Mix1quart tomato juice, 3 tablespoons sugar, 2 teaspoonssalt, 1 tablespoon chopped onion, and ¼ teaspoon each of ground cloves,allspice,mace,andcayennepepper.Heattoboiling.Add3quartscookingliquidfrombeansandbringbacktoboiling.

Molasses Sauce—Mix 4 cups water or cooking liquid from beans, 3tablespoons dark molasses, 1 tablespoon vinegar, 2 teaspoons salt, and ¾teaspoonpowdereddrymustard.Heattoboiling.3.Placeseven¾-inchpiecesofpork,ham,orbaconinanearthenwarecrock,alargecasserole,orapan.Addbeansandenoughmolassessaucetocoverbeans.

4.Coverandbake4to5hoursat350°F.Addwaterasneeded—abouteveryhour.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforBakedBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

GreenBeans

Thisprocesswillworkequallywellforsnap,Italian,orwaxbeans.Selectfilledbuttender,crisppods,removinganydiseasedorrustypods.

Quantity

An average of 14 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An averageof nine pounds is neededper canner loadof ninepints.A bushel weighs 30 pounds and yields 12 to 20 quarts—anaverageof2poundsperquart.

Directions1.Washbeansandtrimends.Leavewhole,orcutorbreakinto1-inchpieces.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;boil5minutes.Filljarsloosely,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawbeans,leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquart toeach jar, ifdesired.Addboilingwater, leaving1-inchheadspace.2.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforGreenBeansinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Beets

You can preserve beetswhole, cubed, or sliced, according to your preference.Beetsthatare1to2inchesindiameterarethebest,aslargeronestendtobetoofibrous.

Quantity

Anaverageof 21pounds (without tops) is neededper cannerloadofsevenquarts.An averageof 13½pounds is neededper canner loadof ninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs52poundsandyields15to20quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Trimoffbeettops,leavinganinchofstemandrootstoreducebleedingof

color.Scrubwell.Coverwithboilingwater.Boiluntilskinsslipoffeasily,about15to25minutesdependingonsize.

2. Cool,removeskins,andtrimoffstemsandroots.Leavebabybeetswhole.Cutmedium or large beets into½-inch cubes or slices. Halve or quarterverylargeslices.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.

3. Fill jars with hot beets and fresh hot water, leaving 1-inch headspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforBeetsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes, thenunfastenthe lidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforBeetsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Carrots

Carrotscanbepreserved slicedordicedaccording toyourpreference.Choosesmallcarrots,preferably1to1¼inchesindiameter,aslargeronesareoftentoofibrous.

Quantity

Anaverageof17½pounds(withouttops)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 11 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.Abushel(withouttops)weighs50poundsandyields17to25quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions1.Wash,peel,andrewashcarrots.Sliceordice.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater;bringtoboilandsimmerfor5minutes.Filljarswithcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarstightlywithrawcarrots,leaving1-inchheadspace.2. Add 1 teaspoon of salt per quart to the jar, if desired. Add hot cookingliquidorwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforCarrotsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Corn,CreamStyle

Thecreamytexturecomesfromscrapingthecorncobsthoroughlyandincludingthe juicesandcornpieceswith thekernels. Ifyouwant toaddmilkorcream,butter,orotheringredients,dosojustbeforeserving(donotadddairyproductsbeforecanning).Selectearscontainingslightlyimmaturekernelsforthisrecipe.

Quantity

Anaverageof20pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofninepints.A bushel weighs 35 pounds and yields 12 to 20 pints—anaverageof2¼poundsperpint.

Directions1.Husk corn, remove silk, and wash ears. Cut corn from cob at about thecenterofkernel.Scraperemainingcornfromcobswithatableknife.

Hotpack—Toeachquartofcornandscrapingsinasaucepan,add2cupsofboilingwater.Heat toboiling.Add½ teaspoonsalt toeach jar, ifdesired.Fillpintjarswithhotcornmixture,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Raw pack—Fill pint jars with raw corn, leaving 1-inch headspace. Do notshake or press down. Add ½ teaspoon salt to each jar, if desired. Add freshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.2.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforCream-StyleCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Corn,WholeKernel

Select ears containing slightly immature kernels. Canning of some sweetervarieties or kernels that are too immaturemay causebrowning.Try canning asmallamounttotestcolorandflavorbeforecanninglargequantities.

Quantity

Anaverageof31½pounds(inhusks)ofsweetcornisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 20 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 35 pounds and yields 6 to 11 quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.

Directions1.Huskcorn, removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutes inboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.

Hot pack—Toeachquart of kernels in a saucepan, add1 cupof hotwater,heattoboiling,andsimmer5minutes.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Filljarswithcornandcookingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithrawkernels,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdown.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejar,ifdesired.2.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforWholeKernelCorninaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

MixedVegetables

Usemixedvegetablesinsoups,casseroles,potpies,orasaquicksidedish.Youcanchangethesuggestedproportionsorsubstituteotherfavoritevegetables,butavoid leafy greens, dried beans, cream-style corn, winter squash, and sweetpotatoes as theywill ruin the consistency of the other vegetables. This recipeyieldsaboutsevenquarts.

Ingredients

6cupsslicedcarrots6cupscut,whole-kernelsweetcorn6cupscutgreenbeans6cupsshelledlimabeans4cupsdicedorcrushedtomatoes4cupsdicedzucchini

Directions1. Carefullywash,peel,de-shell,andcutvegetablesasnecessary.Combineall

vegetablesinalargepotorkettle,andaddenoughwatertocoverpieces.2. Add1teaspoonsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.Boil5minutesandfill

jarswithhotpieces and liquid, leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjust lids andprocess.

ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforMixedVegetablesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Peas,GreenorEnglish,Shelled

GreenandEnglishpeaspreservewellwhencanned,butsugarsnapandChineseediblepodsarebetterfrozen.Selectfilledpodscontainingyoung,tender,sweet

seeds,anddiscardanydiseasedpods.

Quantity

Anaverageof31½pounds(inpods)isneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 20 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 30 pounds and yields 5 to 10 quarts—anaverageof4½poundsperquart.

Directions1.Shellandwashpeas.Add1teaspoonofsaltperquarttoeachjar,ifdesired.

Hotpack—Coverwithboilingwater.Bringtoaboilinasaucepan,andboil2minutes.Fill jars looselywithhotpeas,andaddcookingliquid, leaving1-inchheadspace.

Raw pack—Fill jars with raw peas, and add boiling water, leaving 1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownonpeas.2.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPeasinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforPeasinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Potatoes,Sweet

Sweetpotatoescanbepreservedwhole,inchunks,orinslices,accordingtoyourpreference.Choosesmalltomedium-sizedpotatoesthatarematureandnottoofibrous.Canwithinonetotwomonthsafterharvest.

Quantity

Anaverageof17½poundsisneededpercannerloadofsevenquarts.An average of 11 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 50 pounds and yields 17 to 25 quarts—anaverageof2½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash potatoes and boil or steam until partially soft (15 to 20 minutes).

Removeskins.Cutmediumpotatoes,ifneeded,sothatpiecesareuniforminsize.Donotmashorpuréepieces.

2. Fill jars, leaving1-inchheadspace.Add1 teaspoon salt perquart to eachjar, if desired. Cover with your choice of fresh boiling water or syrup,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforSweetPotatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

PumpkinandWinterSquash

Pumpkin and squash are great to have on hand for use in pies, soups, quickbreads, or as side dishes.They should have a hard rind and stringless,maturepulp. Small pumpkins (sugar or pie varieties) are best. Before using for pies,drainjarsandstrainorsievepumpkinorsquashcubes.

Quantity

An average of 16 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 10 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints—anaverageof2¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash,removeseeds,cutinto1-inchwideslices,andpeel.Cutfleshinto1-

inchcubes.Boil2minutesinwater.Donotmashorpurée.2. Fill jarswith cubes and cooking liquid, leaving 1-inch headspace.Adjust

lidsandprocess.

Process Times for Pumpkin and Winter Squash in a Dial-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimes forPumpkinandWinterSquash inaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Succotash

Tospiceupthissimple,satisfyingdish,addalittlepaprikaandcelerysaltbeforeserving.Itisalsodeliciousmadeintoapotpie,withorwithoutaddedchicken,turkey,orbeef.Thisrecipeyieldssevenquarts.

Ingredients

1lbunhuskedsweetcornor3qtscutwholekernels14lbsmaturegreenpoddedlimabeansor4qtsshelledlimabeans2qtscrushedorwholetomatoes(optional)

Directions1.Huskcorn, removesilk,andwash.Blanch3minutes inboilingwater.Cutcornfromcobataboutthree-fourthsthedepthofkernel.Donotscrapecob,asitwillcreateacreamytexture.Shelllimabeansandwashthoroughly.

Hot pack—Combine all prepared vegetables in a large kettle with enoughwatertocoverthepieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Boilgently 5 minutes and fill jars with pieces and cooking liquid, leaving 1-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljarswithequalpartsofallpreparedvegetables,leaving1-inchheadspace.Donotshakeorpressdownpieces.Add1teaspoonsalttoeachquartjar,ifdesired.Addfreshboilingwater,leaving1-inchheadspace.2.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromthevent

portoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforSuccotashinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Soups

Vegetable,driedbeanorpea,meat,poultry,orseafoodsoupscanallbecanned.Addpasta,rice,orothergrainstosoupjustpriortoserving,asgrainstendtogetsoggy when canned. If dried beans or peas are used, they must be fullyrehydratedfirst.Dairyproductsshouldalsobeavoidedinthecanningprocess.

Directions1. Select,wash,andpreparevegetables.2. Cookvegetables.Foreachcupofdriedbeansorpeas,add3cupsofwater,

boil2minutes,removefromheat,soak1hour,andheattoboil.Drainandcombinewithmeatbroth,tomatoes,orwatertocover.Boil5minutes.

3. Salttotaste,ifdesired.Filljarshalfwaywithsolidmixture.Addremainingliquid,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSoupsinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveit

carefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforSoupsinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

MeatStock(Broth)

“Good broth will resurrect the dead,” says a South American proverb. Bonescontain calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and other trace minerals, whilecartilageandtendonsholdglucosamine,whichisimportantforjointsandmusclehealth.When simmered for extended periods, these nutrients are released intothe water and broken down into a form that our bodies can absorb. Not tomention that good broth is the secret to delicious risotto, reduction sauces,gravies,anddozensofothergourmetdishes.

Beef1. Saw or crack fresh, trimmed beef bones to enhance extraction of flavor.

Rinsebonesandplaceinalargestockpotorkettle,coverboneswithwater,addpotcover,andsimmer3to4hours.

2. Remove bones, cool broth, and pick off meat. Skim off fat, add meatremovedfrombonestobroth,andreheattoboiling.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ChickenorTurkey1. Place large carcass bones in a large stockpot, add enoughwater to cover

bones,coverpot,andsimmer30to45minutesoruntilmeatcanbeeasilystrippedfrombones.

2. Remove bones and pieces, cool broth, stripmeat, discard excess fat, andreturn meat to broth. Reheat to boiling and fill jars, leaving 1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforMeatStockinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

FermentedFoodsandPickledVegetables

PickledvegetablesplayavitalroleinItalianantipastodishes,Chinesestir-fries,Britishpiccalilli,andmuchofRussianandFinnishcuisine.And,ofcourse,theGermanslovetheirsauerkraut,kimcheeisfoundonnearlyeveryKoreandinnertable,andmanyanAmericanwon’teatasandwichwithoutagood,strongdillpickleontheside.

Fermentingvegetablesisnotcomplicated,butyou’llwanttohavethepropercontainers,covers,andweightsreadybeforeyoubegin.Forcontainers,keepthefollowinginmind:

Aone-galloncontainerisneededforeachfivepoundsoffreshvegetables.Therefore,afive-gallonstonecrockisofidealsizeforfermentingabout25poundsoffreshcabbageorcucumbers.Food-grade plastic andglass containers are excellent substitutes for stone

crocks.Otherone-tothree-gallonnon-food-gradeplasticcontainersmaybeusediflinedinsidewithacleanfood-gradeplasticbag.Caution:Becertainthat foods contact only food-grade plastics. Do not use garbage bags ortrashliners.Fermentingsauerkrautinquartandhalf-gallonMasonjarsisanacceptablepractice,butmayresultinmorespoilagelosses.

Some vegetables, like cabbage and cucumbers, need to be kept 1 to 2 inchesunderbrinewhilefermenting.Ifyoufindthemfloatingtotopofthecontainer,herearesomesuggestions:

After addingpreparedvegetables andbrine, insert a suitably sizeddinnerplateorglasspieplateinsidethefermentationcontainer.Theplatemustbeslightlysmallerthanthecontaineropening,yetlargeenoughtocovermostoftheshreddedcabbageorcucumbers.Tokeeptheplateunderthebrine,weightitdownwithtwotothreesealedquart jars filledwithwater.Covering the container openingwith a clean,heavy bath towel helps to prevent contamination from insects andmoldswhilethevegetablesarefermenting.Fine quality fermented vegetables are also obtained when the plate isweighteddownwithaverylarge,clean,plasticbagfilledwiththreequartsofwatercontaining4½tablespoonsofsalt.Besuretosealtheplasticbag.Freezerbagssoldforpackagingturkeysaresuitableforusewithfive-galloncontainers.

Besuretowashthefermentationcontainer,plate,andjarsinhot,sudsywater,andrinsewellwithveryhotwaterbeforeuse.

DillPickles

Feel free to alter the spices in this recipe, but stick to the same proportion of

cucumbers, vinegar, and water. Check the label of your vinegar to be sure itcontains 5 percent acetic acid. Fully fermented pickles may be stored in theoriginal container for about four to sixmonths, provided they are refrigeratedandsurfacescumandmoldsareremovedregularly,butcanningisabetterwaytostorefullyfermentedpickles.

Ingredients

Use the following quantities for each gallon capacity of yourcontainer:4lbsof4-inchpicklingcucumbers2tbspdillseedor4to5headsfreshordrydillweed½cupsalt¼cupvinegar(5percentaceticacid)8cupswaterandoneormoreofthefollowingingredients:2clovesgarlic(optional)2driedredpeppers(optional)2tspwholemixedpicklingspices(optional)

Directions1. Wash cucumbers.Cut -inch sliceoff blossomend anddiscard.Leave¼

inchof stemattached.Placehalf of dill and spices onbottomof a clean,suitable container (see page 133 for suggestions on containers, lids, andweights).

2. Add cucumbers, remaining dill, and spices. Dissolve salt in vinegar andwater and pour over cucumbers. Add suitable cover and weight. Storewhere temperature is between 70 and 75°F for about 3 to 4weekswhilefermenting.Temperaturesof55to65°Fareacceptable,butthefermentationwill take 5 to 6 weeks. Avoid temperatures above 80°F, or pickles willbecome too soft during fermentation. Fermenting pickles cure slowly.Check the container several times a week and promptly remove surface

scum or mold. Caution: If the pickles become soft, slimy, or develop adisagreeableodor,discardthem.

3. Oncefullyfermented,pourthebrineintoapan,heatslowlytoaboil,andsimmer 5 minutes. Filter brine through paper coffee filters to reducecloudiness, if desired.Fill jarswithpickles andhotbrine, leaving½-inchheadspace. Adjust lids and process in a boiling water canner, or use thelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedhere:

Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment

The following treatment results in a better product texture but must becarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120to140°F)water.Then,

addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heat thewaterenoughtomaintain180to185°Fwatertemperaturefor30

minutes. Check with a candy or jelly thermometer to be certain that thewater temperature is at least 180°F during the entire 30 minutes.Temperatures higher than 185°F may cause unnecessary softening ofpickles.

ProcessTimesforDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Sauerkraut

Forthebestsauerkraut,usefirmheadsoffreshcabbage.Shredcabbageandstartkraut between 24 and 48 hours after harvest. This recipe yields about ninequarts.

Ingredients

25lbscabbage¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt

Directions1.Workwithabout5poundsofcabbageatatime.Discardouterleaves.Rinseheads under cold running water and drain. Cut heads in quarters andremovecores.Shredorslicetothethicknessofaquarter.

2.Put cabbage in a suitable fermentation container (see page 133 forsuggestionsoncontainers,lids,andweights),andadd3tablespoonsofsalt.Mixthoroughly,usingcleanhands.Packfirmlyuntilsaltdrawsjuicesfromcabbage.

3.Repeatshredding,salting,andpackinguntilallcabbageisinthecontainer.Besureitisdeepenoughsothatitsrimisatleast4or5inchesabovethecabbage.Ifjuicedoesnotcovercabbage,addboiledandcooledbrine(1½tablespoonsofsaltperquartofwater).

4.Addplateandweights;covercontainerwithacleanbathtowel.Storeat70to75°Fwhilefermenting.Attemperaturesbetween70and75°F,krautwillbefullyfermentedinabout3to4weeks;at60to65°F,fermentationmaytake5to6weeks.Attemperatureslowerthan60°F,krautmaynotferment.Above75°F,krautmaybecomesoft.

Note: Ifyouweighthecabbagedownwithabrine-filledbag,donotdisturbthecrockuntilnormalfermentationiscompleted(whenbubblingceases).Ifyouusejarsasweight,youwillhavetocheckthekraut2to3timeseachweekandremovescumif it forms.Fullyfermentedkrautmaybekept tightlycovered intherefrigeratorforseveralmonthsoritmaybecannedasfollows:

Hot pack—Bring kraut and liquid slowly to a boil in a large kettle, stirringfrequently.Remove fromheat and fill jars rather firmlywithkraut and juices,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Fill jars firmlywithkrautandcoverwith juices, leaving½-inchheadspace.5.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforSauerkrautinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

PickledThree-BeanSalad

Thisisagreatsidedishtobringtoasummerpicnicorpotluck.Feelfreetoaddoradjustspicestoyourtaste.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfivetosixhalf-pints.

Ingredients

1½cupscutandblanchedgreenoryellowbeans(preparedasbelow)1½cupscanned,drainedredkidneybeans1cupcanned,drainedgarbanzobeans½cuppeeledandthinlyslicedonion(about1mediumonion)½cuptrimmedandthinlyslicedcelery(1½mediumstalks)½cupslicedgreenpeppers(½mediumpepper)½cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)¼cupbottledlemonjuice¾cupsugar1¼cupswater¼cupoil½tspcanningorpicklingsalt

Directions1. Washandsnapoffendsoffreshbeans.Cutorsnapinto1-to2-inchpieces.

Blanch3minutesandcoolimmediately.Rinsekidneybeanswithtapwateranddrainagain.Prepareandmeasureallothervegetables.

2. Combine vinegar, lemon juice, sugar, and water and bring to a boil.Remove from heat. Add oil and salt and mix well. Add beans, onions,celery,andgreenpeppertosolutionandbringtoasimmer.

3. Marinate12 to14hours inrefrigerator, thenheatentiremixture toaboil.Fillcleanjarswithsolids.Addhotliquid,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPickledThree-BeanSaladinaBoilingWaterCanner*

PickledHorseradishSauce

Select horseradish roots that are firm and have no mold, soft spots, or greenspots.Avoidrootsthathavebeguntosprout.Thepungencyoffreshhorseradishfades within one to twomonths, even when refrigerated, somake only smallquantitiesatatime.Thisrecipeyieldsabouttwohalf-pints.

Ingredients

2cups(¾lb)freshlygratedhorseradish1cupwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)½tspcanningorpicklingsalt¼tsppowderedascorbicacid

Directions1. Washhorseradishrootsthoroughlyandpeeloffbrownouterskin.Gratethe

peeled roots in a food processor or cut them into small cubes and putthroughafoodgrinder.

2. Combine ingredients and fill into sterile jars, leaving ¼-inch headspace.Sealjarstightlyandstoreinarefrigerator.

MarinatedPeppers

Anycombinationofbell,Hungarian,banana,orjalapeñopepperscanbeusedinthis recipe. Use more jalapeño peppers if you want your mix to be hot, butremember towearrubberorplasticgloveswhilehandlingthemorwashhandsthoroughlywith soap andwater before touching your face. This recipe yieldsaboutninehalf-pints.

Ingredients

4lbsfirmpeppers1cupbottledlemonjuice2cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)1tbsporeganoleaves1cupoliveorsaladoil½cupchoppedonions2tbsppreparedhorseradish(optional)2clovesgarlic,quartered(optional)2¼tspsalt(optional)

Directions1.Selectyourfavoritepepper.Peppersmaybeleftwholeorquartered.Wash,slashtwotofourslitsineachpepper,andblanchinboilingwaterorblisterto peel tough-skinned hot peppers. Blister peppers using one of thefollowingmethods:

Ovenorbroilermethod—Placepeppersinahotoven(400°F)orbroilerfor6to8minutesoruntilskinsblister.

Range-topmethod—Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh.Placepeppersonburnerforseveralminutesuntilskinsblister.2.Allowpepperstocool.Placeinpanandcoverwithadampcloth.Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutesofcooling,peeleachpepper.Flattenwholepeppers.

3.Mixallremainingingredientsexceptgarlicandsaltinasaucepanandheattoboiling.Place¼garlicclove(optional)and¼teaspoonsaltineachhalf-

pintor½teaspoonperpint.Filljarswithpeppers,andaddhot,well-mixedoil/pickling solution over peppers, leaving½-inch headspace. Adjust lidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforMarinatedPeppersinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Piccalilli

PiccalilliisaniceaccompanimenttoroastedorbraisedmeatsandiscommoninBritishandIndianmeals.ItcanalsobemixedwithmayonnaiseorcrèmefraîcheasthebasisofaFrenchremoulade.Thisrecipeyieldsninehalf-pints.

Ingredients

6cupschoppedgreentomatoes1½cupschoppedsweetredpeppers1½cupschoppedgreenpeppers2¼cupschoppedonions7½cupschoppedcabbage½cupcanningorpicklingsalt3tbspwholemixedpicklingspice4½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)3cupsbrownsugar

Directions1. Wash,chop,andcombinevegetableswithsalt.Coverwithhotwaterandlet

stand 12 hours. Drain and press in a clean, white cloth to remove allpossibleliquid.

2. Tiespices loosely inaspicebagandadd tocombinedvinegarandbrownsugarandheat toaboil inasaucepan.Addvegetablesandboilgently30minutesoruntilthevolumeofthemixtureisreducedbyone-half.Remove

spicebag.3. Fillhotsterilejarswithhotmixture,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlids

andprocess.

ProcessTimesforPiccalilliinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Bread-and-ButterPickles

Theseslightlysweet,spicedpickleswilladdflavorandcrunchtoanysandwich.If desired, slender (1 to 1½ inches in diameter) zucchini or yellow summersquash can be substituted for cucumbers. After processing and cooling, jarsshouldbe stored four to fiveweeks todevelop ideal flavor.This recipeyieldsabouteightpints.

Ingredients

6lbsof4-to5-inchpicklingcucumbers8cupsthinlyslicedonions(about3pounds)½cupcanningorpicklingsalt4cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)4½cupssugar2tbspmustardseed1½tbspceleryseed1tbspgroundturmeric1cuppicklinglime(optional—foruseinvariationbelowformakingfirmerpickles)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inch

slices. Combine cucumbers and onions in a large bowl. Add salt. Coverwith2inchescrushedorcubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours,addingmoreiceasneeded.

2. Combine remaining ingredients in a large pot. Boil 10 minutes. Draincucumbers and onions, add to pot, and slowly reheat to boiling. Fill jarswithslicesandcookingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.

3. Adjustlidsandprocessinboiling-watercanner,orusethelow-temperaturepasteurizationtreatmentdescribedbelow:

Low-TemperaturePasteurizationTreatment

Thefollowingtreatmentresultsinabetterproducttexturebutmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidpossiblespoilage.1. Placejarsinacannerfilledhalfwaywithwarm(120to140°F)water.Then,

addhotwatertoalevel1inchabovejars.2. Heat thewaterenoughtomaintain180to185°Fwatertemperaturefor30

minutes. Check with a candy or jelly thermometer to be certain that thewater temperature is at least 180°F during the entire 30 minutes.Temperatures higher than 185°F may cause unnecessary softening ofpickles.

Variation for firmer pickles: Wash cucumbers. Cut inch offblossomendanddiscard.Cutinto -inchslices.Mix1cuppicklinglime and½ cup salt to 1 gallonwater in a 2-to 3-gallon crock orenamelware container. Avoid inhaling lime dust while mixing thelime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesinlimewaterfor12to24hours, stirringoccasionally.Remove from limesolution, rinse,andresoak 1 hour in fresh coldwater. Repeat the rinsing and soakingsteps two more times. Handle carefully, as slices will be brittle.Drainwell.

ProcessTimesforBread-and-ButterPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

QuickFresh-PackDillPickles

Forbestresults,picklecucumberswithin24hoursofharvesting,orimmediatelyafterpurchasing.Thisrecipeyieldsseventoninepints.

Ingredients

8lbsof3-to5-inchpicklingcucumbers2gallonswater1¼to1½cupscanningorpicklingsalt1½qtsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)¼cupsugar2to2¼quartswater2tbspwholemixedpicklingspice3to5tbspwholemustardseed(2tspto1tspperpintjar)14to21headsoffreshdill(1½to3headsperpintjar)or4½to7tbspdillseed(1-½tspto1tbspperpintjar)

Directions1. Washcucumbers.Cut -inch sliceoffblossomendanddiscard,but leave

¼-inchofstemattached.Dissolve¾cupsaltin2gallonswater.Pourovercucumbersandletstand12hours.Drain.

2. Combinevinegar,½cupsalt,sugarand2quartswater.Addmixedpicklingspicestiedinacleanwhitecloth.Heattoboiling.Filljarswithcucumbers.Add1tspmustardseedand1½headsfreshdillperpint.

3. Coverwithboilingpicklingsolution,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

PickleRelish

A food processor will make quick work of chopping the vegetables in thisrecipe.Yieldsaboutninepints.

Ingredients

3qtschoppedcucumbers3cupseachofchoppedsweetgreenandredpeppers1cupchoppedonions¾cupcanningorpicklingsalt4cupsice8cupswater4 tsp each of mustard seed, turmeric, whole allspice, and wholecloves2cupssugar6cupswhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)

Directions

1. Add cucumbers, peppers, onions, salt, and ice to water and let stand 4hours.Drainandre-covervegetableswithfreshicewaterforanotherhour.Drainagain.

2. Combine spices in a spice or cheesecloth bag. Add spices to sugar andvinegar. Heat to boiling and pour mixture over vegetables. Cover andrefrigerate24hours.

3. Heat mixture to boiling and fill hot into clean jars, leaving ½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforPickleRelishinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

QuickSweetPickles

Quickandsimple toprepare, theseare thesweetpickles tomakewhenyou’reshort on time.After processing and cooling, jars should be stored four to fiveweekstodevelopidealflavor.Ifdesired,addtwoslicesofrawwholeoniontoeach jar before fillingwith cucumbers. This recipe yields about seven to ninepints.

Ingredients

8lbsof3-to4-inchpicklingcucumbers⅓cupcanningorpicklingsalt4½cupssugar3½cupsvinegar(5percentaceticacid)2tspceleryseed1tbspwholeallspice2tbspmustardseed1cuppicklinglime(optional)

Directions1.Washcucumbers.Cut inchoffblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inch

ofstemattached.Sliceorcutinstrips,ifdesired.2. Place in bowl and sprinklewith salt. Coverwith 2 inches of crushed orcubedice.Refrigerate3to4hours.Addmoreiceasneeded.Drainwell.

3.Combinesugar,vinegar,celeryseed,allspice,andmustardseedin6-quartkettle.Heattoboiling.

Hotpack—Addcucumbers andheat slowlyuntil vinegar solution returns toboil.Stiroccasionallytomakesuremixtureheatsevenly.Fillsterilejars,leaving½-inchheadspace.

Rawpack—Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.4.Addhotpicklingsyrup,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Variation for firmer pickles: Wash cucumbers. Cut inch offblossomendanddiscard,butleave¼inchofstemattached.Sliceorstrip cucumbers.Mix 1 cup pickling lime and⅓ cup salt with 1gallon water in a 2-to 3-gallon crock or enamelware container.Caution: Avoid inhaling lime dust while mixing the lime-watersolution.Soakcucumberslicesorstripsinlime-watersolutionfor12to24hours,stirringoccasionally.Removefromlimesolution,rinse,andsoak1hourinfreshcoldwater.Repeattherinsingandsoakingtwomore times. Handle carefully, because slices or strips will bebrittle.Drainwell.

ProcessTimesforQuickSweetPicklesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Reduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPickles

Wholeallspicecanbe tricky to find. If it’snot availableatyour localgrocerystore, it can be ordered atwww.spicebarn.com or atwww.gourmetsleuth.com.

Thisrecipeyieldsaboutfourtofivepints.

Ingredients

4lbs(3-to4-inch)picklingcucumbersCanning syrup: 1⅔ cups distilled white vinegar (5 percent aceticacid)3cupssugar1tbspwholeallspice2¼tspceleryseedBriningsolution:1qtdistilledwhitevinegar(5percentaceticacid)1tbspcanningorpicklingsalt1tbspmustardseed½cupsugar

Directions1. Wash cucumbers and cut -inch off blossom end, and discard. Cut

cucumbersinto¼-inchslices.Combineallingredientsforcanningsyrupinasaucepanandbringtoboiling.Keepsyruphotuntilused.

2. Ina largekettle,mix the ingredients for thebriningsolution.Add thecutcucumbers, cover, and simmer until the cucumbers change color frombrighttodullgreen(about5to7minutes).Drainthecucumberslices.

3. Fill jars, and cover with hot canning syrup leaving ½-inch headspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Process Times for Reduced-Sodium Sliced Sweet Pickles in a Boiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Tomatoes

Canned tomatoes should be a staple in every cook’s pantry. They are easy to

prepareand,whenmadewithgarden-freshproduce,makeordinarysoups,pizza,or pastas into five-star meals. Be sure to select only disease-free, preferablyvine-ripened,firmfruit.Donotcantomatoesfromdeadorfrost-killedvines.

Green tomatoesaremoreacidic than ripened fruit andcanbecanned safelywiththefollowingrecommendations:

To ensure safe acidity in whole, crushed, or juiced tomatoes, add twotablespoonsofbottledlemonjuiceor½teaspoonofcitricacidperquartoftomatoes.Forpints,useonetablespoonbottledlemonjuiceor¼teaspooncitricacid.Acidcanbeaddeddirectlytothejarsbeforefillingwithproduct.Addsugartooffsetacidtaste,ifdesired.Fourtablespoonsof5percentacidityvinegarper quart may be used instead of lemon juice or citric acid. However,vinegarmaycauseundesirableflavorchanges.Using a pressure cannerwill result in higher quality andmore nutritiouscannedtomatoproducts.Ifyourpressurecannercannotbeoperatedabove15PSI,selectaprocesstimeatalowerpressure.

TomatoJuice

TomatojuiceisagoodsourceofvitaminAandCandistastyonitsownorinacocktail.It’salsothesecretingredientinsomeverydeliciouscakes.Ifdesired,addcarrots,celery,andonions,ortossinafewjalapeñosforalittlekick.

Quantity

An average of 23 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts, or an average of 14 pounds per canner load of ninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields15to18quartsofjuice—anaverageof3¼poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washtomatoes,removestems,andtrimoffbruisedordiscoloredportions.

To prevent juice from separating, quickly cut about 1 pound of fruit intoquartersandputdirectlyintosaucepan.Heatimmediatelytoboilingwhilecrushing.

2. Continuetoslowlyaddandcrushfreshlycuttomatoquarterstotheboilingmixture.Makesurethemixtureboilsconstantlyandvigorouslywhileyouaddtheremainingtomatoes.Simmer5minutesafteryouaddallpieces.

3. Pressheatedjuicethroughasieveorfoodmilltoremoveskinsandseeds.Add bottled lemon juice or citric acid to jars (see page 105). Heat juiceagaintoboiling.

4. Add 1 teaspoon of salt per quart to the jars, if desired. Fill jarswith hottomatojuice,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromthevent

portoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforTomatoJuiceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

CrushedTomatoeswithNoAddedLiquid

Crushedtomatoesaregreatforuseinsoups,stews,thicksauces,andcasseroles.Simmercrushedtomatoeswithkidneybeans,chilipowder,sautéedonions,andgarlictomakeaneasypotofchili.

Quantity

An average of 22 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 14 fresh pounds is needed per canner load ofninepints.A bushel weighs 53 pounds and yields 17 to 20 quarts ofcrushedtomatoes—anaverageof2¾poundsperquart.

Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split.Thendipincoldwater,slipoffskins,andremovecores.Trimoffanybruisedordiscoloredportionsandquarter.

2. Heat⅙ofthequartersquicklyinalargepot,crushingthemwithawoodenmalletorspoonastheyareaddedtothepot.Thiswillexudejuice.Continueheatingthetomatoes,stirringtopreventburning.

3. Oncethetomatoesareboiling,graduallyaddremainingquarteredtomatoes,

stirring constantly. These remaining tomatoes do not need to be crushed;theywill softenwith heating and stirring.Continue until all tomatoes areadded.Thenboilgently5minutes.

4. Add bottled lemon juice or citric acid to jars (see page 105). Add 1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars, ifdesired.Fill jarsimmediatelywithhottomatoes,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforCrushedTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

TomatoSauce

Thisplaintomatosaucecanbespicedupbeforeusinginsoupsorinpinkorredsauces.Thethickeryouwantyoursauce,themoretomatoesyou’llneed.

Quantity

Forthinsauce:An average of 35 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 21 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyields10to12quartsofsauce—anaverageoffivepoundsperquart.

Forthicksauce:An average of 46 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 28 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.Abushelweighs53poundsandyieldsseventoninequartsofsauce—anaverageof6½poundsperquart.

Directions1. Prepareandpressasformakingtomatojuice(seepage149).Simmerina

largesaucepanuntilsaucereachesdesiredconsistency.Boiluntilvolumeisreducedbyaboutone-thirdforthinsauce,orbyone-halfforthicksauce.

2. Add bottled lemon juice or citric acid to jars (see page 105). Add 1teaspoon of salt per quart to the jars, if desired. Fill jars, leaving¼-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaDial-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforTomatoSauceinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Tomatoes,WholeorHalved,PackedinWater

Wholeorhalvedtomatoesareusedforscallopedtomatoes,savorypies(bakedina pastry crust with parmesan cheese, mayonnaise, and seasonings), or stewedtomatoes.

Quantity

An average of 21 pounds is needed per canner load of sevenquarts.An average of 13 pounds is needed per canner load of ninepints.A bushel weighs 53 pounds and yields 15 to 21 quarts—anaverageofthreepoundsperquart.

Directions1. Wash tomatoes.Dip in boilingwater for 30 to 60 seconds or until skins

split;thendipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Leavewholeorhalve.

2. Add bottled lemon juice or citric acid to jars (see page 105). Add 1teaspoonofsaltperquarttothejars,ifdesired.Forhotpackproducts,addenoughwatertocoverthetomatoesandboilthemgentlyfor5minutes.

3. Fill jars with hot tomatoes or with raw peeled tomatoes. Add the hotcookingliquidtothehotpack,orhotwaterforrawpacktocover,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforWater-PackedWholeTomatoesinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Process Times for Water-Packed Whole Tomatoes in a Dial-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

Process Times for Water-Packed Whole Tomatoes in a Weighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

SpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat

Homemadespaghettisauceislikeacompletelydifferentfoodthanstore-boughtvarieties—it tastesfresher, ismoreflavorful,and is farmorenutritious.Adjust

spices to taste, but do not increase proportions of onions, peppers, ormushrooms.Thisrecipeyieldsaboutninepints.

Ingredients

30lbstomatoes1cupchoppedonions5clovesgarlic,minced1cupchoppedceleryorgreenpepper1lbfreshmushrooms,sliced(optional)4½tspsalt2tbsporegano4tbspmincedparsley2tspblackpepper¼cupbrownsugar¼cupvegetableoil

Directions1. Washtomatoesanddipinboilingwaterfor30to60secondsoruntilskins

split. Dip in cold water and slip off skins. Remove cores and quartertomatoes.Boil20minutes,uncovered,inlargesaucepan.Putthroughfoodmillorsieve.

2. Sauté onions, garlic, celery, or peppers, and mushrooms (if desired) invegetable oil until tender. Combine sautéed vegetables and tomatoes andaddspices,salt,andsugar.Bringtoaboil.

3. Simmeruncovered,untilthickenoughforserving.Stirfrequentlytoavoidburning.Filljars,leaving1-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

Process Times for Spaghetti Sauce without Meat in a Dial-Gauge PressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcoming

outofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

ProcessTimesforSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatinaWeighted-GaugePressureCanner*

*Afterthecanneriscompletelydepressurized,removetheweightfromtheventportoropenthepetcock.Wait10minutes; thenunfastenthelidandremoveitcarefully.Liftthelidwiththeundersideawayfromyousothatthesteamcomingoutofthecannerdoesnotburnyourface.

TomatoKetchup

Ketchup forms the base of several condiments, including Thousand Islanddressing, fry sauce, and barbecue sauce. And, of course, it’s an Americanfavoriteinitsownright.Thisrecipeyieldssixtosevenpints.

Ingredients

24lbsripetomatoes3cupschoppedonions¾tspgroundredpepper(cayenne)4tspwholecloves3stickscinnamon,crushed1½tspwholeallspice3tbspceleryseeds3cupscidervinegar(5percentaceticacid)1½cupssugar¼cupsalt

Directions1. Wash tomatoes.Dip in boilingwater for 30 to 60 seconds or until skins

split.Dipincoldwater.Slipoffskinsandremovecores.Quartertomatoesinto4-gallonstockpotoralargekettle.Addonionsandredpepper.Bringtoboilandsimmer20minutes,uncovered.

2. Combine remaining spices in a spicebag and add tovinegar in a 2-quartsaucepan.Bringtoboil.Turnoffheatandletstanduntiltomatomixturehasbeencooked20minutes.Then,removespicebagandcombinevinegarandtomatomixture.Boilabout30minutes.

3. Putboiledmixture throughafoodmillorsieve.Return topot.Addsugarandsalt,boilgently,andstirfrequentlyuntilvolumeisreducedbyone-halfor until mixture rounds up on spoon without separation. Fill pint jars,leaving⅛-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforTomatoKetchupinaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)

Forfantasticnachos,covercornchipswithchilesalsa,addshreddedMontereyjackorcheddarcheese,bakeunderbroilerforaboutfiveminutes,andservewithguacamoleandsourcream.Besuretowearrubbergloveswhilehandlingchilesorwashhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforetouchingyourface.Thisrecipeyieldssixtoeightpints.

Ingredients

5lbstomatoes2lbschilepeppers1lbonions1cupvinegar(5percent)3tspsalt½tsppepper

Directions1.Washanddrychiles.Sliteachpepperonitssidetoallowsteamtoescape.Peelpeppersusingoneofthefollowingmethods:

Oven or broiler method: Place chiles in oven (400°F) or broiler for 6 to 8minutesuntilskinsblister.Coolandslipoffskins.

Range-topmethod:Coverhotburner,eithergasorelectric,withheavywiremesh. Place chiles on burner for several minutes until skins blister. Allowpeppers to cool. Place in a pan and coverwith a damp cloth. Thiswillmakepeelingthepepperseasier.Afterseveralminutes,peeleachpepper.2.Discardseedsandchoppeppers.Wash tomatoesanddip inboilingwaterfor30 to60secondsoruntil skinssplit.Dip incoldwater, slipoff skins,andremovecores.

3. Coarsely chop tomatoes and combine chopped peppers, onions, andremaining ingredients in a large saucepan. Heat to boil, and simmer 10minutes.Filljars,leaving½-inchheadspace.Adjustlidsandprocess.

ProcessTimesforChileSalsainaBoiling-WaterCanner*

*Aftertheprocessiscomplete,turnofftheheatandremovethecannerlid.Waitfiveminutesbeforeremovingjars.

Cornchipsandhomemadesalsamakeagreatpartysnack.

Addmoreorfewerchilestomakeyoursalsahotterormilder.

DryingandFreezing

DryingDryingfruits,vegetables,herbs,andevenmeatisagreatwaytopreservefoodsfor longer-term storage, especially if your pantry or freezer space is limited.Dried foods take up much less space than their fresh, frozen, or cannedcounterparts. Drying requires relatively little preparation time and is simpleenoughthatkidswillenjoyhelping.Dryingwithafooddehydratorwillensurethefastest,safest,andbest-qualityresults.However,youcanalsodryproduceinthesunshine,inyouroven,orstrungupoverawoodstove.

Orangeslicesdryonafooddehydratortray.

Formoreinformationonfooddrying,checkoutSoEasytoPreserve,5thed.fromtheCooperativeExtensionService,theUniversityofGeorgia.Muchoftheinformationthatfollowsisadaptedfromthisexcellentsource.

DryingwithaFoodDehydrator

Fooddehydratorsuseelectricitytoproduceheatandhaveafanandventsforaircirculation. Dehydrators are efficiently designed to dry foods fast at around

140°F. Look for food dehydrators in discount department stores, mail-ordercatalogs, thesmallappliancesectionofadepartmentstore,naturalfoodstores,and seed or garden supply catalogs. Costs vary depending on features. Somemodels are expandable and additional trays can be purchased later. Twelvesquarefeetofdryingspacedriesaboutahalf-bushelofproduce.

DehydratorFeaturestoLookForDouble-wall construction of metal or highgrade plastic. Wood is notrecommended,becauseitisafirehazardandisdifficulttoclean.EnclosedheatingelementsCountertopdesignAnenclosedthermostatfrom85to160°FFanorblowerFour to 10 openmesh traysmade of sturdy, lightweight plastic for easywashingUnderwritersLaboratory(UL)sealofapprovalAone-yearguaranteeConvenientserviceAdialforregulatingtemperatureAtimer.Oftenthecompleteddryingtimemayoccurduringthenight,andatimerturnsthedehydratorofftopreventscorching.

TypesofDehydrators

Therearetwobasicdesignsfordehydrators.Onehashorizontalairflowandtheotherhasverticalairflow.Inunitswithhorizontalflow,theheatingelementandfanarelocatedonthesideoftheunit.Themajoradvantagesofhorizontalfloware:itreducesflavormixturesoseveraldifferentfoodscanbedriedatonetime;all trays receiveequalheatpenetration;and juicesor liquidsdonotdripdown

intotheheatingelement.Verticalairflowdehydratorshavetheheatingelementand fan located at the base. If different foods are dried, flavors can mix andliquidscandripintotheheatingelement.

FruitDryingProcedures

Apples—Selectmature,firmapples.Washwell.Pare,ifdesired,andcore.Cutinringsorslices⅛to¼inchthickorcutinquartersoreighths.Soakinascorbicacid, vinegar, or lemon juice for 10minutes.Remove from solution anddrainwell.Arrange in single layer on trays, pit side up.Dry until soft, pliable, andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.

Apricots—Selectfirm,fullyripefruit.Washwell.Cutinhalfandremovepit.Do not peel. Soak in ascorbic acid, vinegar, or lemon juice for 10 minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideupwithcavitypoppeduptoexposemorefleshtotheair.Dryuntilsoft,pliable,andleathery;thereshouldbenomoistareaincenterwhencut.

Bananas—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Peel.Cutin⅛-inchslices.Soakinascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays.Dryuntiltoughandleathery.

Berries—Selectfirm,ripefruit.Washwell.Leavewholeorcutinhalf.Dipinboilingwater30secondstocrackskins.Arrangeondryingtraysnotmorethantwoberriesdeep.Dryuntilhardandberriesrattlewhenshakenontrays.

Cherries—Select fully ripe fruit. Wash well. Remove stems and pits. Dipwhole cherries in boiling water 30 seconds to crack skins. Arrange in singlelayerontrays.Dryuntiltough,leathery,andslightlysticky.

Citruspeel—Selectthick-skinnedorangeswithnosignsofmoldordecayandnocoloraddedtoskin.Scruborangeswellwithbrushundercoolrunningwater.Thinly peel outer to ⅛ inch of the peel; avoid white bitter part. Soak inascorbicacid,vinegar,orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removefromsolutionanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayersontrays.Dryat130°Ffor1to2hours,thenat120°Funtilcrisp.

Figs—Selectfullyripefruit.Washorcleanwellwithdamptowel.Peeldark-skinned varieties if desired. Leave whole if small or partly dried on tree; cutlarge figs in halves or slices. If drying whole figs, crack skins by dipping inboiling water for 30 seconds. For cut figs, soak in ascorbic acid, vinegar, orlemonjuicefor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Arrangeinsinglelayerson

trays.Dryuntilleatheryandpliable.

Grapesandblackcurrants—Selectseedlessvarieties.Wash,sort,andremovestems.Cut in half or leavewhole. If dryingwhole, crack skins by dipping inboiling water for 30 seconds. If halved, dip in ascorbic acid or otherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrainwell.Dryuntilpliableandleatherywithnomoistcenter.

Melons—Selectmature, firm fruits that are heavy for their size; cantaloupedries better than watermelon. Scrub outer surface well with brush under coolrunningwater.Removeouterskin,anyfibroustissue,andseeds.Cut into¼-to½-inch-thick slices. Soak in ascorbic acid, vinegar, or lemon juice for 10minutes. Remove and drain well. Arrange in single layer on trays. Dry untilleatheryandpliablewithnopocketsofmoisture.

Nectarines and peaches—Select ripe, firm fruit.Wash and peel.Cut in halfand remove pit. Cut in quarters or slices if desired. Soak in ascorbic acid,vinegar, or lemon juice for 10 minutes. Remove and drain well. Arrange insinglelayerontrays,pitsideup.Turnhalvesoverwhenvisiblejuicedisappears.Dryuntilleatheryandsomewhatpliable.

Pears—Select ripe, firm fruit. Bartlett variety is recommended. Wash fruitwell.Pare,ifdesired.Cutinhalflengthwiseandcore.Cutinquarters,eighths,orslices⅛ to¼ inch thick.Soak inascorbicacid,vinegar,or lemon juice for10minutes.Remove anddrain.Arrange in single layer on trays, pit side up.Dryuntilspringyandsuede-likewithnopocketsofmoisture.

Plums and prunes—Wash well. Leave whole if small; cut large fruit intohalves(pitremoved)orslices.Ifleftwhole,crackskinsinboilingwater1to2minutes.Ifcutinhalf,dipinascorbicacidorotherantimicrobialsolutionfor10minutes.Removeanddrain.Arrangeinsinglelayerontrays,pitsideup,cavitypoppedout.Dryuntilpliableandleathery; inwholeprunes,pitshouldnotslipwhensqueezed.

FruitLeathers

Fruit leathers are a tasty andnutritious alternative to store-bought candies thatare full of artificial sweeteners andpreservatives.Blend the leftover fruit pulpfrommakingjellyorusefresh,frozen,ordrainedcannedfruit.Ripeorslightlyoverripefruitworksbest.

Chances are the fruit leather will get eaten before it makes it into the

cupboard,butitcankeepuptoonemonthatroomtemperature.Forstorageuptooneyear,placetightlywrappedrollsinthefreezer.

Ingredients

2cupsfruit2tsplemonjuiceor⅛tspascorbicacid(optional)¼to½cupsugar,cornsyrup,orhoney(optional)

Directions1. Washfreshfruitorberriesincoolwater.Removepeel,seeds,andstem.2. Cut fruit intochunks.Use2cupsof fruit foreach13x15-inch inchfruit

leather.Puréefruituntilsmooth.3. Add2teaspoonsoflemonjuiceor⅛teaspoonascorbicacid(375mg)for

each2cupslight-coloredfruittopreventdarkening.4. Optional:Tosweeten,addcornsyrup,honey,orsugar.Cornsyruporhoney

isbestfor longerstoragebecausethesesweetenerspreventcrystals.Sugaris fine for immediate use or short storage. Use ¼ to ½ cup sugar, cornsyrup, or honey for each 2 cups of fruit. Avoid aspartame sweeteners astheymaylosesweetnessduringdrying.

Hints:

Applesaucecanbedriedaloneoradded toany fresh fruitpurée as an extender; it decreases tartness andmakes the

leathersmootherandmorepliable.To dry fruit in the oven, a 13 x 15-inch cookie panwithedgesworkswell.Linepanwithplasticwrap,beingcarefulto smooth out wrinkles. Do not use waxed paper oraluminumfoil.

5. Pourtheleather.Fruitleatherscanbepouredintoasinglelargesheet(13x15inches)orintoseveralsmallersizes.Spreadpuréeevenly,about⅛inchthick, onto drying tray.Avoid pouring purée too close to the edge of thecookiesheet.

6. Drytheleather.Dryfruitleathersat140°F.Leatherdriesfromtheoutsideedge toward the center. Larger fruit leathers take longer to dry.Approximatedryingtimesare6to8hoursinadehydrator,upto18hoursinanoven,and1to2daysinthesun.Testfordrynessbytouchingcenterofleather;noindentationshouldbeevident.Whilewarm,peelfromplasticandroll,allowtocool,andrewraptherollinplastic.Cookiecutterscanbeusedtocutoutshapesthatchildrenwillenjoy.Roll,andwrapinplastic.

Spices,Flavors,andGarnishes

Toadd interest toyour fruit leathers, include spices, flavorings,orgarnishes.

Spices to try—Allspice, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, ginger,mace,mint,nutmeg,orpumpkinpiespice.Usesparingly;startwith⅛teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.Flavorings to try—Almond extract, lemon juice, lemon peel,limejuice,limepeel,orangeextract,orangejuice,orangepeel,orvanillaextract.Usesparingly;try⅛to¼teaspoonforeach2cupsofpurée.

Delicious additions to try—Shredded coconut, chopped dates,other dried chopped fruits, granola, miniature marshmallows,choppednuts, chopped raisins, poppy seeds, sesame seeds, orsunflowerseeds.Fillings to try—Melted chocolate, softened cream cheese,cheese spreads, jam, preserves, marmalade, marshmallowcream, or peanut butter. Spread one or more of these on theleatherafteritisdriedandthenroll.Storeinrefrigerator.

VegetableLeathers

Pumpkin, mixed vegetables, and tomatoes make great leathers. Just puréecooked vegetables, strain, spread on a tray lined with plastic wrap, and dry.Spicescanbeaddedforflavoring.

Mixed-VegetableLeather

2cupscored,cut-uptomatoes1smallonion,chopped¼cupchoppedcelerySalttotaste

Combineallingredientsinacoveredsaucepanandcookoverlowheat15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolander.Returntosaucepanandcookuntil thickened.Spreadonacookiesheetor tray linedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140°F.

PumpkinLeather

2cupscannedpumpkinor2cupsfreshpumpkin,cookedandpuréed½cuphoney¼tspcinnamon

⅛tspnutmeg⅛tsppowderedcloves

Blendingredientswell.Spreadontrayorcookiesheetlinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140°F.

TomatoLeather

Core ripe tomatoes and cut into quarters. Cook over low heat in a coveredsaucepan,15to20minutes.Puréeorforcethroughasieveorcolanderandpourinto electric fry pan or shallowpan.Add salt to taste and cook over lowheatuntilthickened.Spreadonacookiesheetortraylinedwithplasticwrap.Dryat140°F.

VineDrying

Onemethodofdryingoutdoorsisvinedrying.Todrybeans(navy,kidney,butter,greatnorthern,lima,lentils,andsoybeans)leavebeanpodsonthevineinthegardenuntilthebeansinsiderattle.Whenthevinesandpodsaredryandshriveled,pickthebeansandshellthem.No pretreatment is necessary. If beans are still moist, the dryingprocess is not complete and the beans will mold if not morethoroughlydried.Ifneeded,dryingcanbecompletedinthesun,anoven,oradehydrator.

HowtoMakeaWoodstoveFoodDehydrator

1. Collectpliablewiremeshorscreens(availableathardwarestores)andusewire cutters to trim to squares 12 to 16 inches on each side. The traysshouldbeofthesamesizeandshape.Benduptheedgesofeachsquaretocreateahalf-inchlip.

2. AttachoneShookfromthehardwarestoreoralargepapercliptoeachsideofeachsquare(fourclipspertray)toattachthetraystogether.

3. Cutfourequallengthsofchainortwinethatwillreachfromtheceilingtothelevelofthetoptray.Useawireormetallooptoattachthefourpiecestogetheratthetopandsecuretoahookintheceilingabovethewoodstove.Attachthechainortwinetothehooksonthetoptray.

4. To use, fill trays with food to dry, starting with the top tray. Link traystogetherusingtheShooksorstrongpaperclips.Whenthefoodsaredried,removetheentirestackanddisassemble.Removethedriedfoodandstore.

Woodstovefooddehydrator.

Herbs

Drying is the easiest method of preserving herbs. Simply expose the leaves,flowers,orseedstowarm,dryair.Leavetheherbsinawell-ventilatedareauntilthemoistureevaporates.Sundryingisnotrecommendedbecausetheherbscanloseflavorandcolor.

Thebesttimetoharvestmostherbsfordryingisjustbeforetheflowersfirstopen when they are in the bursting, bud stage. Gather the herbs in the earlymorningafter thedewhas evaporated tominimizewilting.Avoidbruising theleaves.Theyshouldnotlieinthesunorunattendedafterharvesting.Rinseherbsincoolwaterandgentlyshaketoremoveexcessmoisture.Discardallbruised,soiled,orimperfectleavesandstems.

Dehydrator drying is another fast and easy way to dry high-quality herbsbecause temperature and air circulation can be controlled. Preheat dehydrator

with the thermostat set to 95 to 115°F. In areas with higher humidity,temperaturesashighas125°Fmaybeneeded.Afterrinsingundercool,runningwaterandshaking toremoveexcessmoisture,place theherbs inasingle layeron dehydrator trays. Drying times may vary from one to four hours. Checkperiodically. Herbs are dry when they crumble, and stems break when bent.Checkyourdehydratorinstructionbookletforspecificdetails.

Less-tender herbs—Themore sturdy herbs, such as rosemary, sage, thyme,summer savory, and parsley, are the easiest to dry without a dehydrator. Tiethemintosmallbundlesandhangthemtoairdry.Airdryingoutdoorsisoftenpossible;however,bettercolorandflavor retentionusuallyresults fromdryingindoors.

Tender-leafherbs—Basil,oregano,tarragon,lemonbalm,andthemintshavea high moisture content and will mold if not dried quickly. Try hanging thetender-leaf herbs or thosewith seeds inside paper bags to dry. Tear or punchholesinthesidesofthebag.Suspendasmallbunch(largeamountswillmold)ofherbsinabagandclosethetopwitharubberband.Placewhereaircurrentswillcirculatethroughthebag.Anyleavesandseedsthatfalloffwillbecaughtinthebottomofthebag.

Anothermethod,especiallyniceformint,sage,orbayleaf,istodrytheleavesseparately. Inareasofhighhumidity, itwillworkbetter thanairdryingwholestems.Removethebestleavesfromthestems.Laytheleavesonapapertowel,withoutallowingleavestotouch.Coverwithanothertowelandlayerofleaves.Fivelayersmaybedriedatonetimeusingthismethod.Dryinaverycooloven.The oven light of an electric range or the pilot light of a gas range furnishesenoughheatforovernightdrying.Leavesdryflatandretainagoodcolor.

Microwaveovensareafastwaytodryherbswhenonlysmallquantitiesaretobeprepared.Followthedirectionsthatcomewithyourmicrowaveoven.

Whentheleavesarecrispy,dry,andcrumbleeasilybetweenthefingers,theyare ready to be packaged and stored. Dried leaves may be left whole andcrumbledasused,orcoarselycrumbledbeforestorage.Huskscanberemovedfromseedsbyrubbingtheseedsbetweenthehandsandblowingawaythechaff.Placeherbs in airtight containers and store in a cool, dry, dark area to protectcolorandfragrance.

Driedherbsareusually three to four timesstronger than the freshherbs.Tosubstitute driedherbs in a recipe that calls for freshherbs, use¼ to⅓ of theamountlistedintherecipe.

Jerky

Jerky is great for hiking or camping because it supplies protein in a verylightweightform—nottomentionthefactthatitcanbeverytasty.Apoundofmeat or poultry weighs about four ounces after being made into jerky. Inaddition, becausemostof themoisture is removed, it canbe stored forone totwomonthswithoutrefrigeration.

JerkyhasbeenaroundsincetheancientEgyptiansbegandryinganimalmeatthatwastoobigtoeatallatonce.NativeAmericansmixedgrounddriedmeatwithdriedfruitorsuettomakepemmican.BiltongisdriedmeatorgameusedinmanyAfrican countries.TheEnglishword jerky came from theSpanishwordcharque,whichmeans“dried,saltedmeat.”

Dryingistheworld’soldestandmostcommonmethodoffoodpreservation.Enzymesrequiremoistureinordertoreactwithfood.Byremovingthemoisture,youpreventthisbiologicalaction.

Jerkycanbemadefromgroundmeat,whichisoftenlessexpensivethanstripsofmeatandallowsyoutocombinedifferentkindsofmeatifdesired.Youcanalso make it into any shape you want! As with strips of meat, an internaltemperatureof160°Fisnecessarytoeliminatedisease-causingbacteriasuchasE.coli,ifpresent.

Jerkymakesagreatsnacktotakealongwhenhikingorcamping.

FoodSafety

The USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline’s current recommendation for makingjerkysafelyistoheatmeatto160°Fandpoultryto165°Fbeforethedehydrating

process. This ensures that any bacteria present are destroyed by heat. If yourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,it’simportanttocookmeatslightlyinthe oven or by steaming before drying. After heating, maintain a constantdehydratortemperatureof130to140°Fduringthedryingprocess.

AccordingtotheUSDA,youshouldalways:Washhandsthoroughlywithsoapandwaterbeforeandafterworkingwithmeatproducts.Usecleanequipmentandutensils.Keepmeatandpoultryrefrigeratedat40°Forslightlybelow;useorfreezegroundbeefandpoultrywithintwodays,andwholeredmeatswithinthreetofivedays.Defrostfrozenmeatintherefrigerator,notonthekitchencounter.Marinatemeatintherefrigerator.Don’tsavemarinadetore-use.Marinadesareusedtotenderizeandflavorthejerkybeforedehydratingit.If your food dehydrator doesn’t heat up to 160°F (or 165°F for poultry),steamorroastmeatbeforedehydratingit.Drymeatsinafooddehydratorthathasanadjustabletemperaturedialandwillmaintainatemperatureofatleast130to140°Fthroughoutthedryingprocess.

PreparingtheMeat1. Partiallyfreezemeattomakeslicingeasier.Slicemeatacrossthegrain⅛to

¼inchthick.Trimanddiscardallfat,gristle,andmembranesorconnectivetissue.

2. Marinatethemeatinacombinationofoil,salt,spices,vinegar,lemonjuice,teriyaki,soysauce,beer,orwine.

MarinatedJerky

¼cupsoysauce1tbspWorcestershiresauce1tspbrownsugar¼tspblackpepper½tspfreshginger,finelygrated1tspsalt1½to2lbsofleanmeatstrips(beef,pork,orvenison)

1. Combineallingredientsexceptthestrips,andblend.Addmeat,stir,cover,andrefrigerateatleastonehour.

2. Ifyourfooddehydratordoesn’theatupto160°F,bringstripsandmarinadetoaboilandcookfor5minutes.

3. Drainmeat inacolanderandabsorbextramoisturewithclean, absorbentpaper towels. Arrange strips in a single layer on dehydrator trays, or oncakeracksplacedonbakingsheetsforovendrying.

4. Placetheracksinadehydratororovenpreheatedto140°F,or160°Fifthemeat wasn’t precooked. Dry until a test piece cracks but does not breakwhenitisbent(10to24hoursforsamplesnotheatedinmarinade,3to6hoursforpreheatedmeat).Useapapertoweltopatoffanyexcessoilfromstrips,andpackinsealedjars,plasticbags,orplasticcontainers.

FreezingFoodsMany foods preserve well in the freezer and can make preparing meals easywhenyouareshortontime.Ifyoumakeabigpotofsoup,serveitfordinner,putasmallcontainerintherefrigeratorforlunchthenextday,andthensticktherestinthefreezer.Afewweekslater,you’llbereadytoeatitagainanditwillonlytakeafewminutestothawoutandserve.Manyfruitsalsofreezewellandareperfectforuseinsmoothiesanddesserts,orservedwithyogurtforbreakfastordessert.Vegetablesfrozenshortlyafterharvestingkeepmanyofthenutrientsfoundinfreshvegetablesandwilltastedeliciouswhencooked.

ContainersforFreezing

Thebestpackagingmaterials for freezing includerigidcontainerssuchas jars,bottles, or Tupperware, and freezer bags or aluminum foil. Sturdy containerswithrigidsidesareespeciallygoodforliquidssuchassouporjuicebecausetheymake the frozen contents much easier to get out. They are also generallyreusableandmakeiteasiertostackfoodsintherefrigerator.Whenusingrigidcontainers,besuretoleaveheadspacesothatthecontainerwon’texplodewhenthecontentsexpandwithfreezing.Coversforrigidcontainersshouldfittightly.If they do not, reinforce the seal with freezer tape. Freezer tape is speciallydesigned to stick at freezing temperatures. Freezer bags or aluminum foil aregood for meats, breads and baked goods, or fruits and vegetables that don’tcontainmuchliquid.Besuretoremoveasmuchairaspossiblefrombagsbeforeclosing.

Frozenfruitisperfectformakingsmoothies.

Plasticcontainerswithlidsareidealforfreezingfood.

HeadspacetoAllowBetweenPackedFoodandClosure

Headspace is the amount of empty air left between the food and the lid.Headspaceisnecessarybecausefoodsexpandwhenfrozen.

*Fruitpackedinjuice,sugarsyrup,orwater;crushedorpuréedfruit

**Fruitorvegetablepackedwithoutaddedsugarorliquid

FoodsThatDoNotFreezeWell

Food Usual Use Condit ionAfterThawing

Thawing

Cabbage*,celery,cress,cucumbers*,endive,lettuce,parsley,radishes

Asrawsalad Limp,waterlogged;quicklydevelopsoxidizedcolor,aroma,andflavor

Irishpotatoes,bakedorboiled

Insoups,salads,sauces,orwithbutter

Soft,crumbly,waterlogged,mealy

Cookedmacaroni,spaghetti,orrice

Whenfrozenaloneforlateruse

Mushy,tasteswarmedover

Eggwhites,cooked Insalads,creamedfoods,sandwiches,sauces,gravy,ordesserts

Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy

Meringue Indesserts Soft,tough,rubbery,spongy

Icingsmadefromeggwhites

Cakes,cookies Frothy,weeps

Creamorcustardfillings

Pies,bakedgoods Separates,watery,lumpy

Milksauces Forcasserolesorgravies

Maycurdleorseparate

Sourcream Astopping,insalads Separates,watery

Cheeseorcrumbtoppings

Oncasseroles Soggy

Mayonnaiseorsaladdressing

Onsandwiches(notinsalads)

Separates

Gelatin Insaladsordesserts Weeps

Fruitjelly Sandwiches Maysoakbread

Fruitjelly Sandwiches Maysoakbread

Friedfoods AllexceptFrenchfriedpotatoesandonionrings

Losecrispness,becomesoggy

*Cucumbersandcabbagecanbefrozenasmarinatedproductssuchas“freezerslaw”or“freezerpickles.”Thesedonothavethesametextureasregularslaworpickles.

EffectofFreezingonSpicesandSeasoningsPepper,cloves,garlic,greenpepper,imitationvanilla,andsomeherbstendtogetstrongandbitter.Onionandpaprikachangeflavorduringfreezing.Celeryseasoningsbecomestronger.Currydevelopsamustyoff-flavor.Salt loses flavor and has the tendency to increase rancidity of any itemcontainingfat.Whenusingseasoningsandspices,seasonlightlybeforefreezing,andaddadditionalseasoningswhenreheatingorserving.

HowtoFreezeVegetables

Becausemany vegetables contain enzymes that will cause them to lose colorwhenfrozen,youmaywant toblancheyourvegetablesbeforeputting theminthefreezer.Todothis,firstwashthevegetablesthoroughly,peelifdesired,andchopthemintobite-sizepieces.Thenpourthemintoboilingwaterforacoupleofminutes(orcooklongerforverydensevegetables,suchasbeets),drain,andimmediatelydunkthevegetablesinicewatertostopthemfromcookingfurther.Useapapertowelorclothtoabsorbexcesswaterfromthevegetables,andthenpackinresealableairtightbagsorplasticcontainers.

BlanchingTimesforVegetables

Artichokes 3–6minutes

Asparagus 2–3minutes

Beans 2–3minutes

Beets 30–40minutes

Broccoli 3minutes

Brusselssprouts 4–5minutes

Cabbage 3–4minutes

Carrots 2–5minutes

Cauliflower 6minutes

Celery 3minutes

Corn(offthecob) 2–3minutes

Eggplant 4minutes

Okra 3–4minutes

Peas 1–2minutes

Peppers 2–3minutes

Squash 2–3minutes

TurnipsorParsnips 2minutes

HowtoFreezeFruits

Manyfruitsfreezeeasilyandareperfectforuseinbaking,smoothies,orsauces.Wash,peel,andcorefruitbeforefreezing.Toeasilypeelpeaches,nectarines,orapricots,diptheminboilingwaterfor15to20secondstoloosentheskins.Thenchillandremovetheskinsandstones.

Berriesshouldbefrozenimmediatelyafterharvestingandcanbefrozeninasingle layer on a paper towel-–lined tray or cookie sheet to keep them fromclumpingtogether.Allowthemtofreezeuntilhard(about3hours)andthenpourthemintoaresealableplasticbagforlong-termstorage.

Somefruitshaveatendencytoturnbrownwhenfrozen.Topreventthis,youcan add ascorbic acid (crush a vitamin C in a little water), citrus juice, plainsugar, or a sweet syrup (1 part sugar and 2 parts water) to the fruit beforefreezing.Apples,pears,andbananasarebestfrozenwithascorbicacidorcitrusjuice,whileberries,peaches,nectarines,apricots,pineapple,melons,andberriesarebetterfrozenwithasugarysyrup.

HowtoFreezeMeat

Be sure your meat is fresh before freezing. Trim off excess fats and removebones,ifdesired.Separatethemeatintoportionsthatwillbeeasytousewhenpreparingmeals andwrap in foil or place in resealable plastic bags or plasticcontainers.Refertothecharttodeterminehowlongyourmeatwilllastatbest

qualityinyourfreezer.

Meat Months

Baconandsausage 1to2

Ham,hotdogs,andlunchmeats 1to2

Meat,uncookedroasts 4to12

Meat,uncookedsteaksorchops 4to12

Meat,uncookedground 3to4

Meat,cooked 2to3

Poultry,uncookedwhole 12

Poultry,uncookedparts 9

Poultry,uncookedgiblets 3to4

Poultry,cooked 4

Wildgame,uncooked 8to12

Frozenberriesareperfectforuseinpies,muffins,pancakes,orsmoothies.

Hamburgerfreezesespeciallywell.Thawintherefrigeratorbeforecooking.

EdibleWildPlantsandMushrooms

WildVegetables,Fruits,andNuts

Agave

Description:Agaveplantshave largeclustersof thick leaves thatgrowaroundonestalk.Theygrowclosetothegroundandonlyfloweroncebeforedying.

Location: Agave like dry, open areas and are found in the deserts of theAmericanwest.

Edible Parts and Preparing: Only agave flowers and buds are edible. Boilthese before consuming. The juice can be collected from the flower stalk fordrinking.

OtherUses:Mostagaveplantshave thickneedleson the tipsof their leavesthatcanbeusedforsewing.

Asparagus

Description: When first growing, asparagus looks like a collection of greenfingers.Oncemature, theplant has fernlike foliage and redberries (which aretoxicifeaten).Theflowersaresmallandgreenandseveralspecieshavesharp,thornlikeprojections.

Location:Itcanbefoundgrowingwildinfieldsandalongfences.AsparagusisfoundintemperateareasintheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Itisbesttoeattheyoungstems,beforeanyleavesgrow.Steamorboilthemfor10to15minutesbeforeconsuming.Therootsareagoodsourceofstarch,butdon’teatanypartoftheplantraw,asitcouldcausenauseaordiarrhea.

Beech

Description: Beech trees are large forest trees. They have smooth, light graybark,verydarkleaves,andclustersofpricklyseedpods.

Location:Beechtreesprefertogrowinmoist,forestedareas.ThesetreesarefoundintheTemperateZoneintheeasternUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Eatmaturebeechnutsbybreakingthethinshellswithyourfingersandremovingthesweet,whitekernelfoundinside.Thesenutscanalsobeusedasasubstituteforcoffeebyroastingthemuntilthekernelturnshardandgoldenbrown.Mashupthekernelandboilorsteepinhotwater.

BlackberryandRaspberry

Description: These plants have prickly stems that grow upright and then archback toward the ground. They have alternating leaves and grow red or blackfruit.

Location:Blackberryandraspberryplantsprefertogrowinwide,sunnyareasnearwoods,lakes,androads.Theygrowintemperateareas.

EdibleParts andPreparing:Both the fruits and peeled young shoots can beeaten.Theleavescanbeusedtomaketea.

Burdock

Description:Burdockhaswavyedged,arrow-shapedleaves.Itsflowersgrowinburrlikeclustersandarepurpleorpink.Therootsarelargeandfleshy.

Location:Thisplantpreferstogrowinopenwasteareasduringthespringandsummer.ItcanbefoundintheTemperateZoneinthenorth.

EdibleParts andPreparing:The tender leaves growing on the stalks can beeatenraworcooked.Therootscanbeboiledorbaked.

Cattail

Description:Theseplantsaregrasslikeandhaveleavesshapedlikestraps.Themale flowers grow above the female flowers; have abundant, bright yellowpollen;anddieoffquickly.Thefemaleflowersbecomethebrowncattails.

Location:Cattailsliketogrowinfull-sunareasnearlakes,streams,rivers,andbrackishwater.Theycanbefoundalloverthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thetender,youngshootscanbeeateneitherraworcooked.Therhizome(rootstalk)canbepoundedandmadeintoflour.Whenthecattailisimmature,thefemaleflowercanbeharvested,boiled,andeatenlikecornonthecob.

Other Uses: The cottony seeds of the cattail plant are great for stuffingpillows.Burningdriedcattailshelpsrepelinsects.

Chicory

Description:This isquitea tallplant,withclustersof leavesat thebaseof thestemandvery few leaveson thestem itself.The flowersareskyblue incolorandopenonlyonsunnydays.Itproducesamilkyjuice.

Location:Chicorygrowsinfields,wasteareas,andalongsideroads.Itgrowsprimarilyasaweedallthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theentireplantisedible.Theyoungleavescanbeeateninasalad.Theleavesandrootsmayalsobeboiledasyouwouldregularvegetables.Roast the roots until they are dark brown,mash themup, and usethemasasubstituteforcoffee.

Cranberry

Description: The cranberry plant has tiny, alternating leaves. Its stems crawlalongthegroundanditproducesredberryfruits.

Location:Cranberriesonlygrowinopen,sunny,wetareas.Theythriveinthecolderareasinthenorthernstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theberriescanbeeatenraw,thoughtheyarebestwhencookedinasmallamountofwater,addingalittlebitofsugarifdesired.

Dandelion

Description:Theseplantshavejaggedleavesandgrowclosetotheground.Theyhavebrightyellowflowers.

Location: Dandelions grow in almost any open, sunny space in the UnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsof thisplantareedible.Theleavescanbeeatenraworcookedandtherootsboiled.Roastedandgroundrootscanmakeagoodsubstituteforcoffee.

OtherUses:Thewhitejuiceintheflowerstemcanbeusedasglue.

Elderberry

Description:Thisshrubhasmanystemscontainingopposite,compoundleaves.Its flower is white, fragrant, and grows in large clusters. Its fruits are berry-shapedandaretypicallydarkblueorblack.

Location: Found in open, wet areas near rivers, ditches, and lakes, theelderberrygrowsmainlyintheeasternstates.

Edible Parts and Preparing: The flowers can be soaked in water for eight

hoursandthentheliquidcanbedrunk.Thefruitisalsoediblebutdon’teatanyotherpartsoftheplant—theyarepoisonous.

Hazelnut

Description:Thenutsgrowonbushesinverybristlyhusks.

Location:HazelnutgrowsindensethicketsnearstreambedsandinopenareasandcanbefoundallovertheUnitedStates.

Edible Parts and Preparing: In the autumn, the hazelnut ripens and can becrackedopenandthekerneleaten.Eatingdriednutsisalsotasty.

Juniper

Description:Alsoknownas cedar, this shrubhasvery small, scaly leaves thataredenselycrowdedon thebranches.Berrylikeconeson theplant areusuallyblueandarecoveredwithawhitishwax.

Location:Theygrowinopen,dry,sunnyplacesthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Bothberriesandtwigsareedible.Theberriescanbeconsumed rawor the seedsmaybe roasted tomakea substitute for coffee.Driedandcrushedberriesaregoodtoseasonmeat.Twigscanbemadeintotea.

Lotus

Description: This plant has large, yellow flowers and leaves that float on orabovethesurfaceofthewater.Thelotusfruithasadistinct,flattenedshapeandpossessesaround20hardseeds.

Location: Found on fresh water in quiet areas, the lotus plant is native toNorthAmerica.

Edible Parts and Preparing: All parts of the lotus plant are edible, raw orcooked. Bake or boil the fleshy parts that grow underwater and boil youngleaves.Theseedsarequitenutritiousandcanbeeatenrawortheycanbegroundintoflour.

MarshMarigold

Description:Marshmarigoldhas round,darkgreen leavesanda short stem. Italsohasbrightyellowflowers.

Location:Theplantcanbefoundinbogsandlakesinthenortheasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartscanbeboiledandeaten.Donotconsumeanyportionraw.

Mulberry

Description:Themulberry treehas alternate, lobed leaveswith rough surfacesandblueorblackseededfruits.

Location: These trees are found in forested areas and near roadsides in

temperateandtropicalregionsoftheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherraworcookedanditcanalsobedried.Makesurethefruitisripeoritcancausehallucinationsandextremenausea.

Nettle

Description:Nettle plants grow several feet high and have small flowers. Thestems, leafstalks, andundersidesof the leavesall contain fine,hairlikebristlesthatcauseastingingsensationontheskin.

Location: This plant grows in moist areas near streams or on the edges offorests.ItcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Theyoungshootsand leavesareedible.Toeat,boiltheplantfor10to15minutes.

Oak

Description: These trees have alternating leaves and acorns. Red oaks havebristlyleavesandsmoothbarkontheupperpartofthetreeandtheiracornsneedtwoyearstoreachmaturity.Whiteoakshaveleaveswithnobristlesandroughbarkontheupperpartofthetree.Theiracornsonlytakeoneyeartomature.

Location:Foundinvariouslocationsandhabitatsthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthetreeareedible,butmostareverybitter.Shell theacornsandsoak them inwater foroneor twodays to removetheirtannicacid.Boiltheacornstoeatorgrindthemintoflourforbaking.

PalmettoPalm

Description:Thisisatalltreewithnobranchesandhasacontinualleafbaseonthetrunk.Theleavesarelarge,simple,andlobedandithasdarkblueorblackfruitsthatcontainahardseed.

Location:Thistreeisfoundthroughoutthesoutheasterncoast.

Edible Parts and Preparing: The palmetto palm fruit can be eaten raw. Theseeds can also be ground into flour, and the heart of the palm is a nutritioussourceoffood,butthetopofthetreemustbecutdowninordertoreachit.

Persimmon

Description:Thepersimmon treehas alternating, elliptical leaves that aredarkgreen in color, and inconspicuous flowers. It has orange fruits that are verystickyandcontainmanyseeds.

Location:Growingonthemarginsofforests, itresidesintheeasternpartofthecountry.

EdibleParts andPreparing:The leaves provide a good source of vitaminCandcanbedriedandsoakedinhotwatertomaketea.Thefruitcanbeconsumedeitherbakedorrawandtheseedsmaybeeatenonceroasted.

Pine

Description:Pine treeshaveneedlelike leaves thataregrouped intobundlesofonetofiveneedles.Theyhaveaverypungent,distinguishingodor.

Location: Pines grow best in sunny, open areas and are found all over theUnitedStates.

Edible Parts and Preparing: The seeds are completely edible and can beconsumed either rawor cooked.Also, the youngmale cones can be boiled orbakedandeaten.Peelthebarkoffofthintwigsandchewthejuicyinnerbark.Theneedlescanbedriedandbrewedtomaketeathat’shighinvitaminC.

OtherUses:Pinetreeresincanbeusedtowaterproofitems.Collecttheresinfromthetree,putitinacontainer,heatit,anduseitasglueor,whencool,rubitonitemstowaterproofthem.

Plantain

Description: The broad-leafed plantain grows close to the ground and theflowersaresituatedonaspikethatrisesfromthemiddleoftheleafcluster.Thenarrow-leaf species has leaves covered with hairs that form a rosette. Theflowersareverysmall.

Location: Plantains grow in lawns and along the side of the road in thenorthernTemperateZone.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Young,tenderleavescanbeeatenraw,andolderleavesshouldbecookedbeforeconsumption.Theseedsmayalsobeeateneitherraworroasted.Teacanalsobemadebyboiling1ounceoftheplantleavesinafewcupsofwater.

Pokeweed

Description: A rather tall plant, pokeweed has elliptical leaves and producesmanylargeclustersofpurplefruitsinthelatespring.

Location: Pokeweed grows in open and sunny areas in fields and alongroadsidesintheeasternUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Ifcooked,theyoungleavesandstemsareedible.Besuretoboilthemtwiceanddiscardthewaterfromthefirstboiling.Thefruitisalsoedibleifcooked.Nevereatanypartofthisplantraw,asitispoisonous.

PricklyPearCactus

Description:Thisplanthas flat,padlikegreenstemsandround, furrydots thatcontainsharp-pointedhairs.

Location:Found inarid regionsand indry, sandyareas inwetter regions, itcanbefoundthroughouttheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsofthisplantareedible.Toeatthefruit,peel it or crush it tomake a juice. The seeds can be roasted and ground intoflour.

ReindeerMoss

Description:Thisisalowplantthatdoesnotflower.However,itdoesproducebrightredstructuresusedforreproduction.

Location:Itgrowsindry,openareasinmuchofthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Whilehavingacrunchy,brittletexture,thewholeplantcanbeeaten.Toremovesomeofthebitterness,soakitinwaterandthendryandcrushit,addingittomilkorotherfoods.

Sassafras

Description: This shrub has different leaves—some have one lobe, others twolobes,andothershavenoneatall.Theflowersaresmallandyellowandappearintheearlyspring.Theplanthasdarkbluefruit.

Location: Sassafras grows near roads and forests in sunny, open areas. It iscommonthroughouttheeasternstates.

EdibleParts andPreparing:Theyoung twigs and leaves canbeeateneitherfreshordried—addthemtosoups.Digouttheundergroundportionoftheshrub,peeloffthebark,anddryit.Boilitinwatertomaketea.

OtherUses:Shreddingthetendertwigswillmakeahandytoothbrush.

Spatterdock

Description:Theleavesofthisplantarequitelongandhaveatriangularnotchatthebase.Spatterdockhasyellowflowersthatbecomebottleshapedfruits,whicharegreenwhenripe.

Location:Spatterdockisfoundinfresh,shallowwaterthroughoutthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Allpartsoftheplantareedibleandthefruitshavebrownseedsthatcanberoastedandgroundintoflour.Therootstockcanbedugoutofthemud,peeled,andboiled.

Strawberry

Description: This is a small plant with a three-leaved pattern. Small, whiteflowersappearinthespringtimeandthefruitisredandveryfleshy.

Location:Theseplantsprefersunny,openspaces,arecommonlyplanted,andappearinthenorthernTemperateZone.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thefruitcanbeeatenraw,cooked,ordried.Theplantleavesmayalsobeeatenordriedtomaketea.

Thistle

Description: This plant may grow very high and has long-pointed, pricklyleaves.

Location:Thistlegrowsinwoodsandfieldsalloverthecountry.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Peelthestalks,cutthemintosmallersections,andboilthemtoconsume.Therootmaybeeatenraworcooked.

Walnut

Description:Walnutsgrowon large treesandhavedivided leaves.Thewalnuthasathick,outerhuskthatneedstoberemovedbeforegettingtothehard,innershell.

Location:Theblackwalnuttreeiscommonintheeasternstates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Nutkernelsbecomeripeinthefallandthemeatcanbeobtainedbycrackingtheshell.

WaterLily

Description:With large, triangular leaves that floatonwater, theseplantshavefragrantflowersthatarewhiteorred.Theyalsohavethickrhizomesthatgrowinthemud.

Location:Waterliliesarefoundinmanytemperateareas.

Edible Parts and Preparing: The flowers, seeds, and rhizomes can be eateneither rawor cooked.Peel the corky rindoff of the rhizomeandeat it raworsliceitthinly,dryit,andgrindintoflour.Theseedscanalsobemadeintoflourafterdrying,parching,andgrinding.

WildGrapevine

Description:Thisvinewillclimbontendrils,andmostof theseplantsproducedeeplylobedleaves.Thegrapesgrowinpyramidalbunchesandareblack-blue,amber,orwhitewhenripe.

Location:Climbingoverothervegetationontheedgesofforestedareas,theycanbefoundintheeasternandsouthwesternpartsoftheUnitedStates.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Onlytheripegrapecanbeeaten.

WildOnionandGarlic

Description:Thesearerecognizedbytheirdistinctiveodors.

Location: They are found in open areas that get lots of sun throughouttemperateareas.

EdiblePartsandPreparing:Thebulbsandyoungleavesareedibleandcanbeconsumedeitherraworcooked.

WildRose

Description: This shrub has alternating leaves and sharp prickles. It has red,pink,oryellowflowersandfruit(rosehip)thatremainsontheshruballyear.

Location:Theseshrubsoccurindryfieldsthroughoutthecountry.

Edible Parts and Preparing: The flowers and buds are edible raw or boiled.Boil fresh, young leaves to make tea. The rose hips can be eaten once theflowersfallandtheycanbecrushedoncedriedtomakeflour.

TIP

Violets can be candied and used to decorate cakes, cookies, orpastries.Picktheflowerswithatinybitofstem,wash,andallowtodrythoroughlyonapapertowelorarack.Heat½cupwater,1cupsugar,and¼teaspoonalmondextractinasaucepan.Usetweezerstocarefully dip each flower in the hot liquid. Set onwax paper anddustwith sugaruntil every flower is thoroughlycoated. Ifdesired,snipoff remainingstemswithsmall scissors.Allowflowers todry

forafewhoursinawarm,dryplace.

EdibleWildMushroomsAwalkthroughthewoodswilllikelyrevealseveralvarietiesofmushrooms,andchances are that some are the types that are edible. However, because somemushroomsareverypoisonous,itisimportantnevertotryamushroomofwhichyou are unsure. Never eat a mushroom with gills, or, for that matter, anymushroom that you cannot positively identify as edible. Also, never eatmushroomsthatappearwilted,damaged,orrotten.

Chanterelles.

Here are some common ediblemushrooms that you can easily identify andenjoy.

Chanterelles

These trumpet-shapedmushrooms havewavy edges and interconnected blunt-ridgedgillsunderthecaps.Theyarevariedshadesofyellowandhaveafruityfragrance. They grow in summer and fall on the ground of hardwood forests.Because chanterelles tend to be tough, they are best when slowly sautéed oraddedtostewsorsoups.

Notes:BewareofJackO’Lanternmushrooms,whichlookandsmellsimilarlytochanterelles.JackO’Lanternshavesharp,knifelikegills insteadof theblunt

gillsofchanterelles,andgenerallygrowinlargeclustersatthebaseoftreesorondecayingwood.

CoralFungi

These fungi are aptly named for their bunches of upward-facing branchingstems, which look strikingly like coral. They are whitish, tan, yellowish, orsometimespinkishorpurple.Theymayreach8inchesinheight.Theygrowinthesummerandfallinshady,woodedareas.

Notes:Avoid coral fungi that are bitter, have soft, gelatinous bases, or turnbrown when you poke or squeeze them. These may have a laxative effect,thougharenotlife-threatening.

Coralfungi.

Morels

Morels are sometimes called sponge, pinecone, or honeycomb mushroomsbecauseof thepatternofpitsandridges thatappearsonthecaps.Theycanbeanywhere from2 to 12 inches tall. Theymay be yellow, brown, or black andgrow in spring and early summer in wooded areas and on river bottoms. Tocook,cutinhalftocheckforinsects,wash,andsauté,bake,orstew.

Morels.

Notes:Falsemorelscanbepoisonousandappearsimilartomorelsbecauseoftheirbrainlike,irregularlyshapedcaps.However,theycanbedistinguishedfromtruemorelsbecausefalsemorelcapsbulgeinwardinsteadofoutward.Thecapshavelobes,folds,flaps,orwrinkles,butnotpitsandridgeslikeatruemorel.

Puffballs

These round or pear-shaped mushrooms are often mistaken for golf balls oreggs.They are alwayswhitish, tan, or gray and sometimes have a thick stem.Youngpuffballstendtobewhiteandolderonesyelloworbrown.Fullymaturedpuffballshavedarksporesscatteredoverthecaps.Puffballsaregenerallyfoundin latesummerandfallon lawns, in thewoods,oronold treestumps.Toeat,peelofftheouterskinandeatraworbatter-fried.

Puffballs.

Notes:Sliceeachpuffballopenbeforeeatingtobesureitiscompletelywhiteinside. If there is any yellow, brown, or black, or if there is a developingmushroom insidewith a stalk, gills, and cap, donot eat!Amanitas,which areverypoisonous,canappearsimilartopuffballswhentheyareyoung.Donoteatifthemushroomgivesoffanunpleasantodor.

Poisonousamanitamushroom.

Shaggymanemushroom.

ShaggyManeMushrooms

Thismushroomgotitsnamefromitscap,whichisawhitecylinderwithshaggy,upturned, brownish scales. As the mushroom matures, the bottom outsidecircumference of the cap becomes black. Shaggy manes are generally 4 to 6inchestallandgrowinallthewarmseasonsinfieldsandonlawns.

Shaggymanes are tastiest eatenwhen young, but they’re easiest to identifyoncethebottomsofthecapsbegintoturnblack.Theyaredelicioussautéedinbutteroroliveoilandlightlyseasonedwithsalt,garlic,ornutmeg.

MakeYourOwnFoods

MakeYourOwnButterMaking butter the old-fashionedway is incredibly simple and very gratifying.It’s agreat project todowithkids, too.All youneed is a jar, amarble, somefreshcream,andabout20minutes.1. Startwithabouttwiceasmuchheavywhippingcreamasyou’llwantbutter.

Pour it into the jar, drop in the marble, close the lid tightly, and startshaking.

2. Checktheconsistencyofthecreameverythreetofourminutes.Theliquidwillturnintowhippedcream,andtheneventuallyyou’llseelittleclumpsofbutter forming in the jar.Keep shaking for another fewminutes and thenbegin tostrainout the liquid intoanother jar.This isbuttermilk,which isgreatforuseinmakingpancakes,waffles,biscuits,andmuffins.

3. The butter is now ready, but itwill store better if youwash andwork it.Add ½ cup of ice-cold water and continue to shake for two or threeminutes.Strainoutthewaterandrepeat.Whenthestrainedwaterisclear,mashthebuttertoextractthelastofthewater,andstrain.

4. Scoopthebutterintoaramekin,mold,orwaxpaper.

Ifdesired,addsaltorchoppedfreshherbstoyourbutterjustbeforestoringorserving.Buttercanalsobemadeinafoodprocessororblendertospeeduptheprocessingtime.

Stepsformakingbutter.

MakeYourOwnYogurtYogurt is simple to make and is delicious on its own, as a dessert, in bakedgoods,or inplaceofsourcream.Yogurt isbasically fermentedmilk.Youcanmake it by adding the active cultures Streptococcus thermophilus andLactobacillusbulgaricustoheatedmilk,whichwillproducelacticacid,creatingyogurt’startflavorandthickconsistency.

YogurtisthoughttohaveoriginatedmanycenturiesagoamongthenomadictribesofEasternEuropeandWesternAsia.Milkstored inanimalskinswouldacidifyandcoagulate.Theacidhelpedpreserve themilk fromfurtherspoilageandfromthegrowthofpathogens(disease-causingmicroorganisms).

Ingredients

Makes4to5cupsofyogurt1 quartmilk (cream,whole, low-fat, or skim)—In general the higher themilkfatlevelintheyogurt,thecreamierandsmootheritwilltaste.Note:Ifyou use home-produced milk it must be pasteurized before preparingyogurt.Seethecenterboxfortipsonpasteurizingmilk.Nonfatdrymilkpowder—Use⅓cuppowderwhenusingwholeorlow-fatmilk, or use⅔ cup powder when using skimmilk. The higher themilksolids, the firmer the yogurtwill be. For evenmore firmness add gelatin(directionsbelow).Commercial,unflavored,culturedyogurt—Use¼cup.Besuretheproductlabel indicates that it contains a live culture.Alsonote the contentof theculture.L.bulgaricusandS.thermophilusarerequiredinyogurt,butsomemanufacturers may add L. acidophilus or B. bifidum. The latter two areusedforslightvariationsinflavor,butmorecommonlyforhealthreasonsattributedtotheseorganisms.Allculturevariationswillmakeasuccessfulyogurt.2to4tablespoonssugarorhoney(optional)1teaspoonunflavoredgelatin(optional)—Forathick,firmyogurt,swell1teaspoon gelatin in a little milk for 5minutes. Add this to themilk andnonfatdrymilkmixturebeforecooking.

SuppliesDoubleboilerorregularsaucepan—1to2quartsincapacitylargerthanthevolumeofyogurtyouwishtomake.Cookingorjellythermometer—Athermometerthatcancliptothesideofthesaucepanandremaininthemilkworksbest.Accuratetemperaturesarecriticalforsuccessfulprocessing.MixingspoonYogurtcontainers—cupswithlidsorcanningjarswithlids.Incubator—a yogurt-maker, oven, heating pad, or warm spot in yourkitchen.Touseyouroven,placeyogurtcontainersintodeeppansof110°Fwater. Water should come at least halfway up the containers. Set oventemperature at lowest point to maintain water temperature at 110°F.Monitor temperature throughout incubation, making adjustments asnecessary.

HowtoPasteurizeRawMilk

If you are using fresh milk that hasn’t been processed, you canpasteurizeityourself.Heatwater inthebottomsectionofadoubleboilerandpourmilkintothetopsection.Coverthemilkandheatto165°F while stirring constantly for uniform heating. Coolimmediately by setting the top section of the double boiler in icewaterorcold runningwater.Storemilk in the refrigerator incleancontainersuntilreadyformakingyogurt.

Processing

1.Combineingredientsandheat.Heatingthemilkisnecessarytochangethemilkproteinssothattheysettogetherratherthanformcurdsandwhey.Donotsubstitute thisheatingstep forpasteurization.Placecold,pasteurizedmilk inadouble boiler and stir in nonfat, drymilk powder.Adding nonfat, drymilk toheatedmilkwill cause somemilkproteins to coagulate and form strings.Addsugar or honey if a sweeter, less tart yogurt is desired. Heat milk to 200°F,stirringgentlyandholdfor10minutesforthinneryogurt,orhold20minutesforthickeryogurt.Donotboil.Becarefulandstirconstantlytoavoidscorchingifnotusingadoubleboiler.

2.Coolandinoculate.Placethetopofthedoubleboilerincoldwatertocoolmilk rapidly to112 to115°F.Removeonecupof thewarmmilkandblend itwith the yogurt starter culture. Add this to the rest of the warm milk. Thetemperatureofthemixtureshouldnowbe110to112°F.

3.Incubate.Pourimmediatelyintoclean,warmcontainers;coverandplaceinprepared incubator. Close the incubator and incubate about 4 to 7 hours at110°F,±5°F.Yogurtshouldsetfirmwhentheproperacidlevelisachieved(pH4.6). Incubatingyogurt for several hourspast the time after theyogurt has setwill producemore acidity. Thiswill result in amore tart or acidic flavor andeventuallycausethewheytoseparate.

4.Refrigerate.Rapidcoolingstopsthedevelopmentofacid.Yogurtwillkeepforabout10to21daysifheldintherefrigeratorat40°Forlower.

YogurtTypes

Set yogurt: A solid set where the yogurt firms in a container and is notdisturbed.

Stirred yogurt:Yogurtmade in a large container then spooned or otherwisedispensed into secondary serving containers. The consistency of the “set” isbrokenandthetextureislessfirmthansetyogurt.Thisisthemostpopularformofcommercialyogurt.

Drinking yogurt: Stirred yogurt into which additional milk and flavors aremixed. Add fruit or fruit syrups to taste. Mix in milk to achieve the desiredthickness.Theshelflifeofthisproductisfourto10days,sincethepHisraisedby theadditionof freshmilk.Somewheyseparationwilloccurand isnatural.Commercialproductsrecommendathoroughshakingbeforeconsumption.

Fruityogurt:Fruit,fruitsyrups,orpiefillingcanbeaddedtotheyogurt.Placethemontop,onbottom,orstirthemintotheyogurt.

TroubleshootingIfmilk forms some clumps or strings during the heating step, somemilkproteinsmay have jelled. Take the solids outwith a slotted spoon or, indifficultcases,aftercookingpourthemilkmixturethroughacleancolanderorcheeseclothbeforeinoculation.When yogurt fails to coagulate properly, it’s because the pH is not lowenough.MilkproteinswillcoagulatewhenthepHhasdroppedto4.6.Thisisdonebytheculturegrowingandproducingacids.Addingculturetoveryhotmilk(+115°F)cankillbacteria.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Ifyogurttakestoolongtomake,itmaybebecausethetemperatureisoff.Too hot or too cold of an incubation temperature can slow down culturegrowth.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.If yogurt just isn’tworking, itmay be because the starter culturewas ofpoorquality.Useafresh,recentlypurchasedculturefromthegrocerystoreeachtimeyoumakeyogurt.If yogurt tastes or smells bad, it’s likely because the starter culture iscontaminated.Obtainnewcultureforthenextbatch.Ifyogurthasover-setorincubatedtoolong,refrigerateyogurtimmediatelyafterafirmcoagulumhasformed.

Ifyogurttastesalittleodd,itcouldbeduetooverheatingorboilingofthemilk.Useathermometertocarefullycontroltemperature.Whenwheycollectsonthesurfaceoftheyogurt,it’scalledsyneresis.Somesyneresisisnatural.Excessiveseparationofwhey,however,canbecausedbyincubatingyogurttoolongorbyagitatingtheyogurtwhileitissetting.

StoringYourYogurtAlways pasteurize milk or use commercially pasteurized milk to makeyogurt.Discard batches that fail to set properly, especially those due to cultureerrors.Yogurt generally has a 10-to 21-day shelf life when made and storedproperlyintherefrigeratorbelow40°F.Alwaysusecleanandsanitizedequipmentandcontainerstoensurealongshelflifeforyouryogurt.Cleanequipmentandcontainersinhotwaterwithdetergent,thenrinsewell.Allowtoairdry.

MakeYourOwnCheeseThere are endless varieties of cheese you canmake, but they all fall into twomain categories: soft and hard. Soft cheeses (like cream cheese) are easier tomakebecausetheydon’trequireacheesepress.Thecurdsinhardcheeses(likecheddar) are pressed together to form a solid block or wheel, which requiresmore timeandeffort,buthardcheeseswillkeep longer thansoft cheeses, andgenerallyhaveamuchstrongerflavor.

Cheeseisbasicallycurdledmilkandismadebyaddinganenzyme(typicallyrennet) tomilk, allowing curds to form, heating themixture, straining out thewhey,andfinallypressing thecurds together.Cheesessuchasqueso frescoorqueso blanco (traditionally eaten in Latin American countries) and paneer(traditionally eaten in India), aremadewith an acid such as vinegar or lemon

juiceinsteadofbacterialculturesorrennet.

Youcanuseanykindofmilk tomakecheese, includingcow’smilk,goat’smilk,sheep’smilk,andevenbuffalo’smilk(usedfortraditionalmozzarella).Fortherichestflavor,trytogetrawmilkfromalocalfarmer.Ifyoudon’tknowofonenearyou,visitrealmilk.com/where.htmlforalistingofrawmilksuppliersinyourstate.Youcanusehomogenizedmilk,butitwillproduceweakercurdsandamilderflavor.Ifyourmilkispasteurized,you’llneedto“ripen”itbyheatingitinadoubleboileruntilitreaches86°Fandthenadding1cupofunpasteurized,preservative-free,culturedbuttermilkpergallonofmilkand letting it stand30minutestothreehours(thelongeryouleaveit,thesharpertheflavorwillbe).Ifyoucannotfindunpasteurizedbuttermilk,diluting⅛teaspooncalciumchloride(availablefromonlinecheesemakersuppliers)in¼cupofwaterandaddingittoyourmilkwillcreateasimilareffect.

Rennet(alsocalledrenninorchymosin) issoldonlineatcheesemakingsitesintabletorliquidform.YoumayalsobeabletofindJunketrennettabletsnearthepuddingandgelatin inyourgrocerystore.Oneteaspoonof liquidrennet istheequivalentofonerennettablet,whichisenoughtoturn5gallonsofmilkintocheese(estimatefourdropsofliquidrennetpergallonofmilk).Microbialrennetisavegetarianalternativethatisavailableforpurchaseonline.

Preparation

It’s important tokeepyourhandscleanandallequipmentsterilewhenmakingcheese.1. Washhandsandallequipmentwithsoapydetergentbeforeandafteruse.2. Rinseallequipmentwithcleanwater,removingallsoapyresidue.3. Boilallcheesemakingequipmentbetweenuses.4. Forbest-qualitycheese,usenewcheeseclotheach timeyoumakecheese.

(Sterilizecheeseclothbyfirstwashing,thenboiling.)5. Squeakycleanisclean.Ifyoucanfeelaresidueontheequipment,itisnot

clean.

YogurtCheese

This soft cheese has a flavor similar to sour cream and a texture like creamcheese.Apintofyogurtwillyieldapproximately¼poundofcheese.Theyogurtcheese has a shelf life of approximately seven to 14 dayswhenwrapped andplacedintherefrigeratorandkeptatlessthan40°F.

Ingredients

Plain,whole-milkyogurt

Directions1. Linealargestrainerorcolanderwithcheesecloth.2. Place the lined strainer over a bowl and pour in the yogurt. Do not use

yogurt made with the addition of gelatin, as gelatin will inhibit wheyseparation.

3. Let yogurt drain overnight, covered with plastic wrap. Empty the wheyfromthebowl.

4. Fillastrong,plasticstoragebagwithsomewater,seal,andplaceoverthecheese to weigh it down. Let the cheese stand another 8 hours and thenenjoy!

QuesoBlanco

Quesoblancoisawhite,semi-hardcheesemadewithoutcultureorrennet.Itiseatenfreshandmaybeflavoredwithpeppers,herbs,andspices.Itisconsidereda “frying cheese,”meaning it does notmelt andmay be deep-fried or grilled.Quesoblancoisbesteatenfresh,sotrythissmallrecipethefirsttimeyoumakeit.Ifitdisappearsquickly,nexttimedoubleortripletherecipe.Thisrecipewillyieldabout½cupofcheese.

Ingredients

2cupsmilk4tspwhitevinegarSalt

Mincedjalapeño,blackpepper,chives,orotherherbstotaste

Directions1. Heatmilkto176°Ffor20minutes.2. Addvinegarslowlytothehotmilkuntilthewheyissemi-clearandthecurd

particlesbegintoformstretchyclumps.Stirfor5to10minutes.Whenit’sready,youshouldbeabletostretchapieceofcurdabout⅓inchbeforeitbreaks.

3. Allow tocool,andstrainoff thewheyby filtering throughacheesecloth-linedcolanderoraclothbag.

4. Workinsaltandspicestotaste.5. Pressthecurdinamoldorsimplyleaveinaball.6. Quesoblancomaykeepforseveralweeksifstoredinarefrigerator,butis

besteatenfresh.

RicottaCheese

Making ricotta is very similar to making queso blanco, though it takes a bitlonger.Start thecheeseinthemorningforuseatdinner,ormakeadayahead.

Useitinlasagna,indesserts,orallonitsown.

Ingredients

1gallonmilk⅓cupplus1tspwhitevinegar¼tspsalt

Directions1. Pourmilkintoalargepot,addsalt,andheatslowlywhilestirringuntilthe

milkreaches180°F.2. Removefromheatandaddvinegar.Stir foroneminuteascurdsbegin to

form.3. Coverandallowtositundisturbedfortwohours.4. Pourmixtureintoacolanderlinedwithcheesecloth,andallowtodrainfor

twoormorehours.5. Storeinasealedcontainerforuptoaweek.

Mozzarella

Thismildcheesewillmakeyourhomemadepizzaespeciallydelicious.Orsliceit and eatwith fresh tomatoes andbasil from the garden.Fresh cheese canbestoredinsaltwaterbutmustbeeatenwithintwodays.

Ingredients

1gallon2percentmilk¼cupfresh,plainyogurt(seerecipeonpage174)Onetabletrennetor1tspliquidrennetdissolvedin½cuptapwater

Brine:use2poundsofsaltpergallonofwater

Directions1. Heatmilkto90°Fandaddyogurt.Stirslowlyfor15minuteswhilekeeping

thetemperatureconstant.2. Addrennetmixtureandstirfor3to5minutes.3. Cover, remove from heat, and allow to stand until coagulated, about 30

minutes.4. Cutcurdinto½-inchcubes.Allowtostandfor15minuteswithoccasional

stirring.5. Returntoheatandslowlyincreasetemperatureto118°Foveraperiodof45

minutes.Holdthistemperatureforanadditional15minutes.6. Drain off the whey by transferring the mixture to a cheesecloth-lined

colander.Useaspoontopresstheliquidoutofthecurds.Transferthematofcurdtoaflatpanthatcanbekeptwarminalowoven.Donotcutmat,but turnitoverevery15minutesfora2-hourperiod.Matshouldbetightwhenfinished.

7. Cut the mat into long strips 1 to 2 inches wide and place in hot water(180°F).Usingwooden spoons, tumble and stretch it underwater until itbecomeselastic,about15minutes.

8. Remove curd from hot water and shape it by hand into a ball or a loaf,kneadinginthesalt.Placecheeseincoldwater(40°F)forapproximately1hour.

9. Storeinasolutionof2teaspoonssaltto1cupwater.

CheddarCheese

Cheddar is aNewEnglandandWisconsin favorite.The longeryouage it, thesharpertheflavorwillbe.Tryaslicewithawedgeofhomemadeapplepie.

Ingredients

1gallonmilk¼cupbuttermilk1tabletrennet,or1tspliquidrennet1½tspsalt

Directions1. Combinemilkandbuttermilkandallowthemixturetoripenovernight.2. Thenextday,heatmilkto90°Finadoubleboilerandaddrennet.3. Afterabout45minutes,cutcurdsintosmallcubesandletsit15minutes.4. Heat very slowly to 100°F and cook for about an hour or until a cooled

pieceofcurdwillkeepitsshapewhensqueezed.5. Draincurdsandrinseoutthedoubleboiler.6. Placearacklinedwithcheeseclothinsidethedoubleboilerandspreadthe

curds on the cloth.Cover and reheat at about 98°F for 30 to 40minutes.Thecurdswillbecomeonesolidmass.

7. Removethecurds,cuttheminto1-inchwidestrips,andreturnthemtothepan.Turnthestripsevery15to20minutesforonehour.

8. Cutthestripsintocubesandmixinsalt.9. Letthecurdsstandfor10minutes,placethemincheesecloth,andpressina

cheese presswith 15 pounds for 10minutes, thenwith 30 pounds for anhour.

10. Removethecheesefromthepress,unwrapit,dipinwarmwater,andfillinanycracks.

11. Wrapagainincheeseclothandpresswith40poundsfor24hours.12. Remove from the press and let the cheese dry about five days in a cool,

well-ventilated area, turning the cheese twice a day andwiping itwith acleancloth.Whenahard skinhas formed, rubwithoil or sealwithwax.Youcaneat thecheeseaftersixweeks,butfor thestrongestflavor,allowcheesetoageforsixmonthsormore.

MakeYourOwnSimpleCheesePress

1. Removebothendsofalargecoffeecanorthoroughlycleanedpaint can, savingone end.Use an awl or a hammer and longnail to pierce the sides in several places, piercing from theinsideout.

2. Placethecanonacoolingrackinsidealargerbasin.Leavethebottomofthecaninplace.

3. Use a saw to cut a ¾-inch-thick circle of wood to create a“cheesefollower.”Itshouldbesmallenoughindiametertofiteasilyinthecan.

4. Placecheesecurdsinthecan,andtopwiththecheesefollower.Place several bricks wrapped in cloth or foil on top of thecheesefollowertoweighdowncurds.

5. Oncethecheeseisfullypressed,removethebricksandbottomof the can.Use the cheese follower topush the cheeseoutofthecan.

MakeYourOwnIceCreamSuppliesIngredients1-poundcoffeecan2cupshalfandhalf3-poundcoffeecan½cupsugarDucttape1tspvanillaIce1cupsalt

Directions1. Mixall the ingredients in the1-poundcoffeecan.Cover the lidwithduct

tapetoensureitistightlysealed.2. Place the smaller can inside the larger can and fill the spacebetween the

twowithiceandsalt.3. Coverthelargecanandsealwithducttape.Rollthecanbackandforthfor

15minutes. To reduce noise, place a towel on your working surface, orworkonarug.

4. Dumpout ice andwater. Stir contents of small can. Store ice cream in aglassorplasticcontainer(ifyouleaveitinthecanitmaytakeonametallicflavor).

If desired, add cocoapowder, coffee granules, crushedpeppermint sticks orothercandy,orfruit.

BrewYourOwnBeerMaking your own brew is not difficult, but be sure to use water that is notheavily chlorinated or that has a strongmineral flavor.The sweetness ofmalt(from barley) and the bitterness of hops (the female flower of the hop vine)balanceeachothertocreatebeer’srichflavor.Thefermentationiscausedbytheyeastconsumingthesugar,whichproducescarbondioxideandalcohol.

Maltisbarleythathasbeguntogerminate,whichcreatesenzymesnecessaryfor converting starch to sugar.When you’re first experimentingwith brewingbeer,usestore-boughtmaltandhops,astheywillhavemorepredictableresults.Ifyouwanttomakeyourownmalt,letthebarleygrainssprout.Oncetheshootsare the same length as the kernels, stop the growth by heating the barley tobetween185and230°F.Atthatpoint,thebarleyismaltedandmustbecrackedandsoakedin150°Fwaterforaboutsixhours.Finally,strainthebarleyandusetheliquidforyourbeer.

Supplies

10-gallonpailHydrometerSiphonandclamp122-literbottles,sterilized

Ingredients

Water40-ozcanpre-hoppedmaltextract6to7cupswhitesugaror8to9cupscornsugar1tspbrewer’syeast24tspwhitegranulatedsugar

Directions1. Clean pail, hydrometer, and siphon with warm, soapy water and rinse

thoroughly.Thensterilizebyrinsingwithamixof1tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.

2. Pour2½to3gallonscoldwaterinthepail.3. Bring 7½ quarts ofwater to a boil in a large pot.Addmalt extract very

slowly,stirring,andthensimmeruncoveredfor20minutes.4. Addsugarandstiruntildissolved.5. Dumpthehotmixtureintothepailcontainingthecoldwater,splashingitin

toincreasetheoxygenintheliquid(yeastneedsoxygentodoitsjob).6. Addicewateruntilmixtureisabout70°F(waterthatistoohotcankillthe

yeast).7. Addtheyeastandstirwell.8. Coverloosely(ifthelidistootight,thepailcouldexplode)andallowtosit

in amoderate to cool place (around 62 to 68°F) for 6 to 10 days.Don’topenthepail,tipit,orshakeitforatleast6days.

9. Place thehydrometer in thebeerandgive ita spin to releaseairbubbles.Thehydrometershouldreadabout1.008fordarkbeersand1.010to1.105forlightbeers.

10. When the beer is ready, place the bucket on a bench or sturdy table andplace the sterilized bottles on the floor below.Add about 2 teaspoons ofwhitegranulatedsugartoeachbottletohelpcarbonatethebeer.

11. Usethesiphonandclamptosiphonthebeerintothebottles,screwonthelids, give thebottles aquick shake, and store thebottles in awarm,darkareaforafewdays,andthenmoveintocool,darkarea.Storeatleastthreeweeksbeforedrinking.

MakeYourOwnWineSupplies

ColanderorstrainerLargebowlorpot1-galloncontainerwithasecurelidSpoonPotatomasherFunnel

Ingredients

1qtfruit2cupssugar

1gallonwater,divided1packageactiveyeast

Directions1. Thoroughly clean all your cooking utensils with warm, soapy water and

rinse thoroughly. Then sterilize by rinsing with a mix of 1 tablespoonhouseholdbleachand1gallonwater.Rinseafinaltimewithcleanwater.

2. In a bowl, crush the fruitwith a potatomasher (or use a food processor)untilsmooth.

3. Dissolvethesugarin1cupofhotwater.Allowtocooltoroomtemperatureandaddtothefruit.

4. Dissolvetheyeastin2cupsofwarmwaterandaddtothefruit,alongwiththeremainingwater.Stironceeverydayforaweek.

5. Strain through a colander intoyour 1-gallon container, close lid securely,andallowtorestinacool,darkplacefor6weeks.

6. Strain thewine into your sterilized bottles (leaving one empty) and corklightly.Afterthreedays,strainthewinefromonebottleintotheemptyone,leavingabout1inchheadspacebelowthecork.Repeatuntilbottlesarefull.

7. Soaknewcorksinwarmwaterforabout2hours,rinseseveraltimes,placesecurelyinbottles,andsealwithparaffin.

DandelionWine

Ingredients

4qtsdandelionblossoms(usethefulldandelionheads—notjustthepetals)4qtsboilingwater2oranges2lemons4lbssugar2tbspyeast

Directions1. Washdandelionblossomsandplace themina largepot.Pour4quartsof

boilingwateroverthemandletstand24hours.2. Strainthroughcheeseclothandaddgratedrindandjuiceoftwoorangesand

twolemons,fourpoundsofgranulatedsugar,andtwotablespoonfulsyeast.3. Letstandoneweek,thenstrainandfillbottles.

SharingYourBounty

PlantaRowfortheHungry(PAR)ProgramOne in ten households in the United States experience hunger or the risk ofhungereveryyear.Thisisanastoundingnumberofadultsandchildrenwhoarenot receiving theproper foods,nutrients, and sustenance tomaintainahealthylifestyle.What can you do as a gardener to help provide fresh produce to thehungryinyourcommunity?Churches,schools,andotherlocalorganizationstryto provide food for those who are hungry by giving to local food banks andsheltersandbyestablishingsoupkitchensandotherprograms.Oftenthesefooddrivescanonlyacceptnonperishable items,but, recognizing theneedforfreshfruitsandvegetablesinahealthydiet,manyorganizationsarebeginningtotakeproduce on a conditional basis. If they can use the produce in their preparedmealsordistributethemtoneedyfamiliesbeforethefoodbeginstoperish,theywillacceptit.

Started in1995inAnchorage,Alaska,byJeffLowenfelsasapublicserviceprogramof theGardenWritersAssociation (GWA)andFoundation,PAR is away for those who garden and grow their own vegetables and fruit to helpcombat hunger and poverty in their local communities. PAR encourages localgardenerstoplantoneextrarowofproduceintheirgardensandthentodonatethat harvest to neighbors or others in the community who struggle to feed

themselvesandtheirfamilies.Donatingexcessvegetablesandfruittoyourlocalfoodbank,soupkitchen,shelter,orotherfoodagencytohelpfeedthehungryinyourlocalareaisawonderfulwaytoshareyourloveofgardeningandtobeanactiveandimportantmemberofyourcommunity.

Anyone in the U.S. or Canada can participate in the PAR program, andmembers grow and donate over onemillion tons of food a year to help fighthunger in their localcommunities.Somepeopleestablishacommunitygardenthatsolelygrowsfoodtogivetolocalpantriesandsoupkitchens.Otherssimplygrowadditionalcropsandgiveindividuallytothoseinneed.

Ifyouwant tobecome involved in thePARprogram, it isbest tocallore-mailtheGWAtoreceivemoreinformationaboutPARprogramsinyourarea.Itisalsobeneficialtocallorvisitlocalfoodagenciesandseewhatcropstheyneedmostorwhattypesoffruitsandvegetablestheywouldliketoprovidefortheircustomers.Most agencies seek out food that can be shelved for a fewdays ifnecessaryandalsofoodsthatarehighinnutritionalvalue.Theyalsoacceptfreshherbs that they can use when making foods such as soups. Flowers are alsoacceptabledonations.

Whenthinkingaboutgrowingexcessvegetablesandfruit inyourgardenfordonation,itisgoodtoselecteasilygrowncropsthatwillhelptomaximizeyourharvestandencourageenthusiasmaboutgrowingandtendingtheplants.Someeasilygrownandhighlydesirableplantsare:beans,cucumbers,peas, radishes,summersquash,andtomatoes.Onceyourproduceisreadyforharvesting,gatherup the excess and take it to a selected PAR drop-off site or, if acceptable,directlytothefoodagency.

There are some guidelines for growing fruits and vegetables that areacceptable for donation.Always be sure to contact your local food banks andsoupkitchensfor informationonwhat theyneedin termsoffreshproduce.Besure to spaceyour plantings apart so that your growing season andharvestingseason are extendedover a longer period of time.Thatway, you’ll be able todonatelonger.Choosetogrowproducethatlastswellandstaysfresherlonger.Pickyour ripeproducepromptly andbe sure to clean it of anydirt (but don’twashit).And,ofcourse,don’tevergiveawayoverripeorspoiledproduce.

HowtoStartYourOwnPARProgram

Whatifyour localcommunitydoesnotyethaveaPARprogram?It iseasytoestablishyourownprogrambycontactingPAR(eitherbye-mail,byvisitingtheGWAwebsite,orbycallingtollfree).Thisway,youwillbeabletogainaccessto informationoncreatinga successfulPARprogram.Next,you should try torecruit volunteers (neighbors, community gardeners, garden clubs, gardencenters,andnurseries)tobeapartoftheprogram.Itisimportanttoestablishalocal coordinatorwhocanbeago-toperson for anyquestionsvolunteersmayhaveabouttheprogram,growingtips,anddrop-offsites.

In addition togatheringvolunteers, it is essential to find a fooddistributionagencypartnerwhowants to collect thedonatedproduce.Thismaybea foodbank,foodpantry,soupkitchen,orlocalshelter.Itisalsowisetofindsomeoneto market and publicize your local program. Getting the word out about theprogramwillhelpgathersupportandmoregardenerswhowant tohelp.Thereshouldalsobe someoneappointed tohelpcoordinateandoversee thedrop-offsitesandtotakefoodtothedesignatedareaifneedbe.

ForaPARprogramtobeasuccess,itisagoodideatoreachouttoyourlocalextension services; community, church, and school gardens; businesses; andlocalfoodagenciestoseeifaspecificPARgardencanbeestablished.Itisalsowise to ask farmers todonate theirunsoldproduce from farmers’markets andtrucks in the area. All of these various elements will help you to create asuccessful freshfooddonationprograminyourareaandwillensure that thosewhoarehungryinyourcommunitywillnotbelackinginfreshproduce.

FormoreinformationonPlantaRowfor theHungry,pleasecall,e-mail,orvisittheGardenWritersAssociationat:

1-877-GWAA-PAR

PAR@gwaa.orgwww.gwaa.org

TofindalocalPARcontactinyourarea,pleasecalltheFoodchainat:1-800-845-3008.

DinnerPartiesInviting friends and family over for a feast is awonderfulway to share yourgarden’sbounty.Whetheryouarecelebratingaholidayorarejustinthemoodforsomecompany,adinnerpartyisachancetoconnectwithothers,experimentwithexcitingrecipes,andshowcasethefruitsofyourlabor.

Planyourmenuaroundtheproducethatisinseason.Foraspringcelebration,serve an asparagus feta quichewith strawberry iced tea and rhubarb crisp fordessert. For a harvest feast, serve a hearty stew in a carved-out pumpkin andbaked apples. Be creative with your place settings, utilizing dried berries,pinecones,gourds,andothernaturaldecorationstosetawelcomingtable.Lightacoupleofhomemadecandlesandyourmealissuretobeamemorabletreat.

Followingaresomepossiblemenus,inspiredbytheseasons.Iftheingredientsused in these recipes are not available in-season in your area, get creative bysubstitutingwithlocalflavors.

SpringMenu

Forspringmenus, think lightandfresh.Yourgarden isnot likely tobe in fullbloomyet,buttakeadvantageofearlyriserslikeartichokes,asparagus,rhubarb,and some berries. Pick fresh daffodils, tulips, or pussy willows, and arrangetheminavaseforacenterpiece.Makethepieinthemorningoradayaheadtofree up your time closer towhen guests arrive. The artichoke dip can also be

madeaheadandreheatedbeforeserving.

HotArtichokeDipwithHomemadeCrackersCitrusChickenSteamedAsparaguswithTarragonButterRhubarbCustardPie

HotArtichokeDipwithHomemadeCrackers

HotArtichokeDip

1poundcreamcheese1choppedjalapeño¼cupgratedParmesancheese

Crackers

1cupflour,plussomefordustingtheworksurface(anyflourwillwork;trymixingwhite,spelt,andrye)½tspsalt2to3tbspbutteroroliveoil4to6tbspwaterDriedoregano,basil,garlic,orotherherbsasdesired

Directions1. Tomake the artichokedip, combine all ingredients in anovenproof dish.

Bakeat350°Funtilhotandbubbly.2. To make the crackers, combine all dry ingredients. Add water slowly,

mixingwelluntildoughformsastretchyball.Itshouldnotbetoosticky.3. Rolldoughto⅛inchthickonalightlyflouredsurface.Transfertolightly

flouredbakingsheetandbakeat400°Ffor10to15minutes.4. Oncecrackersarelightlybrowned,removefromoven,cool,andbreakinto

pieces.

CitrusChicken

Ingredients

3to4poundschickenthighsandlegswithbones,trimmedofexcessfatJuiceandzestfrom1largelemonJuiceandzestfrom1orange1to2clovesgarlic,crushed

1tbspfresh,finelychoppedthyme(or1tspdried)1tbspfresh,finelychoppedrosemary(or1tspdried)2tspfresh,finelychoppedparsley(or1tspdried)1tspseasalt1tspblackpepper

Directions1. Cut½-inch-deep slits into chicken pieces to allow themarinade to better

soak into the meat. Combine all marinade ingredients in a bowl. Placechickenandmarinadeinafreezerbagorcovereddish,placeinrefrigerator,andallowtomarinatefor2hours.

2. Removethechickenfromthemarinade(reservingthemarinade)andplaceinasinglelayerinaroastingpanorlargebakingdish.Bakeat425°Ffor50minutes,bastingonceortwicewithreservedmarinade.Whenthechickenis

lightlybrownedandtheinsidesarenolongerpink,it’sreadytoserve.

SteamedAsparaguswithTarragonButter

Ingredients

1largebunchasparagusButter(seerecipeonpage174)withfinelychoppedfreshordriedtarragonmixedin

Directions1. Cutoffthewoodybottompartoftheasparagusstems(usuallyabout1inch)2. Boilabout3minutes,oruntiljusttender3. Servewithpatsoftarragonbutter

RhubarbCustardPie

PieCrust

2cupsflour1tspsalt1tspsugar1¼cupsbutter,chilled¼cupicewater

CustardFilling

1cupsugar2tbspflour1cupeachmilkandcream(or2cupshalfandhalf)2eggs,beaten1tbspvanilla½tspgratednutmeg2cupsdicedrhubarb

Directions1. Forthepiecrust,combineflour,salt,andsugar.2. Cutbutterintodrymixture,crumblingwithfingersorapastrycutteruntil

themixtureresemblessmallpeas.3. Add the water slowly, mixing until the dough holds together in a ball.

Divideintotwoballs.Keepdoughchilledifyoudon’tuseitimmediately.4. Flouralargecuttingboard,orcoverboardwithwaxpaper.Rollthedough

toabout⅛inchthick.5. Forthecustardfilling,beattogetherallingredientsexcepttherhubarb.Add

therhubarbandpour intopastry-lined9-inchpieplate.Bakeat425°Fforabout10minutes.Reduceheatandcontinuebakingat350°Funtilfillingisset,about24to30minutes.Coolbeforeslicing.

SummerMenu

Here’samenuthathighlightssummer’sfreshflavors: tomatoes,herbs,berries,andmore.Makethecookiesaheadof timetoensure theyhavetimetochill inthefreezerandsoyoudon’thavetoworryaboutbakingthemwhilethepotatoesandBrussels sprouts are roasting.The porkmedallionswith blackberry creamsauceareafavoriterecipeofMarieLawrence,whopickstheblackberriesfromher yard inVermont.You can also pan-fry the porkmedallions, and grill thepotatoesandsproutsonanoutdoorgrill,ifyou’dprefer.

FreshTomato,Basil,andMozzarellaSalad

PorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSauce

RoastedNewPotatoesandBrussellssprouts

ChipwicheswithHomemadePeppermintStickIceCream

FreshTomato,Basil,andMozzarellaSalad

Ingredients

4medium-sizedripetomatoesAbout4ozofmozzarella(seerecipeonpage178),thinlyslicedLeavesfromseveralsprigsoffreshbasil1to2shallots,finelydiced⅛cupoliveoil⅛cupbalsamicvinegarSaltandpeppertotaste

Directions1. Layer tomato, mozzarella, and basil in a shallow dish and sprinkle the

choppedshallotsovertop.2. Drizzle olive oil and balsamic vinegar over the salad and add salt and

peppertotaste.3. Serveimmediately,orleavetochillintherefrigeratoruntilreadytoserve.

PorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSauce

Ingredients

¼cupflour¼tspsaltAbout1poundporktenderloin1cupchickenstock¼tspginger⅛tspwhitepepper2tbspbutter2tbspoliveoil

FruitSauce

3tbspblackberryjam¼cupfruitywine(tryblackberrymerlotoruseyourownhomemadewine—seepage171)1cupfreshorfrozenblackberries¼cupcream

Directions1. Combinealldryingredients,flattenmedallionsslightly,anddredgethemin

theflourmixture.2. Inalargefryingpan,searmedallionsonbothsidesinthebutterandolive

oil.3. Once they are uniformly browned, add 1 cup chicken stock, cover, and

cookabout5minutes.4. While the pork cooks,make the fruit sauce.Combine jam andwine in a

small saucepan and bring to a boil, stirring until smooth. Add theblackberriesandremovefromheat.

5. Transferthemedallionstoaservingplatter.Addthecreamtothefryingpan

containing themeatdrippings,whiskingandsimmeringover lowheat foraboutaminute.

6. Pourcreamsauceoverthemedallionsandthentopwiththeberrysauce.

RoastedNewPotatoesandBrusselsSprouts

Ingredients

2cupsBrusselssprouts2cupsnewpotatoes⅓cupoliveoilSeveralsprigsfreshrosemary,finelychoppedSeasaltandblackpeppertotaste

Directions1. Preheatovento425°F.Placearoastingpanonthemiddlerackandallowit

towarmupwiththeoven.2. CleanBrusselssproutsthoroughly,removedriedoryellowedouterleaves,

chopoffbrownstems,andcutsproutsinhalf.Washpotatoesandcuteachoneinhalf.Leavethepeelson.

3. Mix all ingredients, place on a single layer in the roastingpan, and cookuntilvegetablesaretenderandlightlybrowned(20to30minutes).

ChipwicheswithHomemadePeppermintStickIceCream

Ingredients

1¼cupsall-purposeflour1cupwholewheatflour1tspbakingsoda1tspsalt1cupbutter,softened1cupbrownsugar½cupgranulatedsugar2tspvanillaextract

2eggs2cupssemi-sweetchocolatechipsPeppermintstickicecream(followrecipeonpage179,addingcrushedpeppermintsticksattheend)

Directions1. Preheatovento375°Fandgreasetwocookiesheets.2. Combinedryingredientsinasmallbowl.Beatbutter,sugars,andvanillain

amixingbowluntilcreamy.3. Addeggs,oneatatime,beatingwellaftereachaddition.Adddrymixture

gradually, beating continually until thoroughly mixed. Stir in chocolatechips.

4. Drop batter by spoonfuls onto prepared cookie sheets and bake. Checkcookiesafter9minutes.Theyshouldstillbeslightlygooey in thecenterswhen done. If the edges are still very soft, bake for another 2 minutes.Removefromovenandallowtocoolforafewminutesbeforeremovingtoacookierack.

5. Transfercookiestofreezeruntilreadytoserve.6. Justbeforeserving,useawideknifetospreadtheicecreamonhalfofthe

frozen cookies. Place the remaining cookies on top tomake sandwiches.Serveimmediately.

FallMenu

Withautumncomewonderfulrootvegetablesthatarefabulousforstewsorforroasting,andyou’llfinallygettoindulgeintheproduceofyourfruitorchards.This sausage and apple stew is very easy to prepare. Just stick it in the slowcookermid-morningandyou’llhavetherestofthedayfreetobaketheoatmealbread and to enjoy the crisp fresh air. Serving the stew in a hollowed-outpumpkin is a fun way to spruce up your table. Use colorful autumn leaves,bittersweetvines,ordecorativegourdstodecoratetheplacesettings.

SausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowlOatmealBreadPoachedPears

SausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowl

Ingredients

1¼poundssausage,cutinto1-inchpieces3medium-sizedapples,peeled,cored,andcutintochunks1mediumonion,cutintorings2poundsredpotatoes,quartered1½cupschickenstock¼cupapplecider1tspdriedrosemary¼tspgroundallspiceSaltandpeppertotaste1pumpkin

Directions1. Combineallingredientsexceptpumpkinandcookinaslowcookeronlow

forabout5hours.2. Cutoutthetopfromamedium-tolargesizedpumpkin,cuttingoutacircle

that is6 to8 inches indiameter.Scoopout the flesh inside, retaining theseedstobakeonacookiesheetforalatersnack.

3. Servethestewinthecleanedpumpkin.

OatmealBread

Ingredients

2cupsveryhotwater⅓cupdrymilkpowder1cupoats¼cuphoneyormolasses2tspsalt2tbsptoastedwheatgerm¼cupbutter2tbspdryyeast(2packages)¼cupwarm(nothot)water5to6cupsbreadflour

Directions

1. Combinewater,milk powder, oats, honey ormolasses, salt,wheat germ,andbutter,stirringtomeltthebutter.

2. Dissolvetheyeastin¼cupwarmwaterandstirintotheoatmealmixture.3. Addflourtomakeastiffbatterandletitrestforabout15minutes.Stirin

additionalflour,usingawoodenspoon,tomakeasoftdough.Kneaddoughuntilitissoftandelastic.

4. Placedoughinabowlandallowtoriseinawarmplaceforaboutanhour.Turnoutandshapeinto2to3loaves,dependingonthesizeofthepans.

5. Placeingreasedpansandletriseuntilloavesdoubleinsize.Bakeat350°Funtil golden brown and hollow-sounding when tapped (about an hour).Removefrompansandallowtocoolonracks.

BakedPears

Ingredients

½cupbrownsugar½tspcinnamon⅛tspcloves2tbspbutter1tbspcrushedpecansorwalnuts3pears,cutinhalfandremoveseeds

Directions1. Preaheatovento375°F.2. Mix all ingredients (except for pears), crumbling the butter into the dry

ingredientsuntilitresemblescoarsecrumbs.3. Greaseabakingtraywithathinlip.Placepearscutsideuponthepans.Fill

thehollowofeachpear(theareafromwhichtheseedswereremoved)withthesugarmixture.

4. Bake for about 20 minutes. If desired, serve with ice cream or whippedcream.

WinterMenu

Bywinterallthegardeningisdone,allthefoodisharvestedandstored,andit’s

timetoenjoymoretimeinthewarmkitchen.Drawfromyourstashofcanned,frozen,anddriedfoodsandexperimentwithwarmingspicessuchasgarlicandginger. Light candles or set the table near the fireplace for extra warmth andambience. Evergreen branches, holly, and pinecones make lovely tabledecorations.

ButternutSquashSoupRoastedChickenandRootVegetablesGingerbreadwithPumpkinCreamSauce

ButternutSquashSoup

Ingredients

1mediumtolargebutternutsquash1tbspbutter1shallotorsmallonion,finelychopped1clovegarlic,crushed1cupchickenbroth½tspdriedrosemary½tspsalt⅛tspnutmeg½cupgratedcheddarcheese4tbspmilk

Directions1. Cut butternut squash in quarters, remove seeds, and boil until tender and

skincanbeeasilyremoved(about15minutes).Removeanddiscardskin.2. Meltbutterinamediumsaucepanovermediumheat.Addshallotandgarlic

andsautéuntilshallotistender(about3minutes).3. Addsquashandchickenbrothandbringtoaslowboil.Addtherosemary,

salt,nutmeg,andcheese.4. Transfer soup to ablender (or use an immersionblender) andblenduntil

smoothandcreamy.

RoastChickenandRootVegetablesRoastChicken

One2-to3-poundwholechicken,entrailsremovedAbout1tbspkoshersaltAbout½tspblackpepper1tspmincedfreshordriedthyme

RoastedRootVegetables

3medium-sizedpotatoes,cutinto1-inchchunks3medium-sizedcarrots,cutinto1-inchchunks2applesorpears,quartered1clovegarlic,crushed½cupoliveoil½cupbalsamicvinegar1tspkoshersalt¼tspcinnamon

Directions1. Preheatovento450°F.2. Rinse the chicken thoroughly, inside andout, and sprinkle skinwith salt,

pepper,andthyme.3. Mixall ingredientsforroastedvegetablesandplacearoundthechickenin

theroastingpan.4. Roast for about an hour or until chicken skin is browned and flesh is no

longerpinkwhencut.

GingerbreadwithPumpkinCreamSauce

Gingerbread

¼cupcornoil¼cupsugar½cupmolasses1egg1¼cupsall-purposeflour1tspbakingsoda½tspsalt½tspginger½tspcinnamon¼tspnutmeg¾cuphotwater

PumpkinCreamSauce

1cansweetenedcondensedmilk¼cupcooked,puréedpumpkin½tspcinnamon

Directions1. Combine the oil, sugar, molasses, and egg in a medium bowl. Whisk

togetheruntilwellblended.2. Mixtogetherdryingredientsandwhiskintothewetmixture.Finally,whisk

inthehotwater(batterwillbethin).3. Pour into a greased and floured 8 x 8-inch cake pan. Bake for 25 to 30

minutes or until the top springs back when lightly pressed with yourfingertip.

4. Whilethegingerbreadisbaking,combinesweetenedcondensedmilkwithcooked, puréed pumpkin in a saucepan. Simmer, stirring, until thick andsmooth.Add½teaspooncinnamon.

5. Servegingerbreadwarmwithadrizzleofpumpkincreamsauce.

Usewarmingspiceslikegingerandcinnamoninwintercooking.

Tablesaresetupnearthefireplaceforacozydinner.

PartThreeTheBackyardFarm

“Thegreatnessofanationanditsmoralprogresscanbejudgedbythewayitsanimalsaretreated.”

—MahatmaGandhi

The prospect of raising farm animals in your backyard does not need to beoverwhelming.Ifyou’reconcernedaboutnothavingenoughland,keepinmindthatafewchickenscanberaisedonlessthananeighthofanacre;youmaybeable tohaveabeehiveonyourrooftop;andacoupleofgoatsorsheepwillbeperfectlycontentonaquarterofanacre.Worriedaboutthecost?Withchickens,thesmallamountyouwillinvestinbuyingchickswillquicklypayitselfbackinfresheggsormeat,andsincechickenfeedisveryinexpensive,theupkeepcostsareminimal.Ifyoushearyoursheeporllamas,youcanspinthewoolandsellitata localmarketoronline tomakeaprofit.However, if time isyourconcern,you should stop to think before purchasing animals or rescuing them fromshelters.Any animal you bring onto your property deserves a portion of yourtimeeveryday.Youcertainlydon’thave tospendeverywakingmomentwithyouranimals,butyouwillneedtoprovidefood,water,shelter,andafewothernecessities. If you don’t have the time for this on a regular basis, considerhelping out at a local farm or shelter, or simply support other farmers byshopping at farmer’s markets. If you do have the time to care properly foranimals,veryoftenyouwillfindthattheygiveyoufarmorethanyougivethem.

Chickens

Raisingchickensinyouryardwillgiveyouaccesstofresheggsandmeat,andbecausechickensaresomeoftheeasiestcreaturestokeep,evenfamiliesinveryurbanareasareabletoraiseafewinasmallbackyard.Fourorfivechickenswillsupplyyourwholefamilywitheggsonaregularbasis.

HousingYourChickensYouwill need to have a structure for your chickens to live in to protect themfrompredatorsandinclementweather,andtoallowthehensasafeplacetolaytheireggs.See“PoultryHouses”onpage242toseeseveraltypesofstructuresyoucanmakeforhousingyourchickensandotherpoultry.

Building a chicken coop close to your house will make it easier to tend thechickensandgathereggsininclementweather.

Placing your henhouse close enough to your own homewill remind you tovisititfrequentlytofeedthechickensandtogathereggs.Itisbesttoestablishthehouseandyardindrysoil,awayfromareasinyouryardthatarefrequentlydampormoist,as this is theperfectbreedinggroundforpoultrydiseases.Thehenhouse should be well-ventilated, warm, protected from the cold and rain,haveafewwindowsthatallowthesunlighttoshinein(especiallyifyouliveinacolderclimate),andhaveasoundroof.

The perches in your henhouse should not be more than 2½ feet above thefloor, and you should place a smooth platform under the perches to catch thedroppings so they can easily be cleaned. Nesting boxes should be kept in adarkerpartofthehouseandshouldhaveamplespacearoundthem.

Theperchesinyourhenhousecanberelativelynarrowandshouldn’tbemorethanafewfeetfromthefloor.

SelectingtheRightBreedofChicken

Takethetimetoselectchickensthatarewell-suitedforyourneeds.Ifyouwantchickenssolelyfortheir

Asimplemovablechickencoopcanbeconstructedoutoftwo-by-foursandtwowheels.Thefloorofthecoopshouldhaveopenslatssothatthemanurewillfall

ontothegroundandfertilizethesoil.Anevensimplermethodistoconstructapen that sits directly on the ground, providing a roof to offer the chickenssuitableshade.Thepencanbemovedoncetheareaiswell-fertilized.

eggs,lookforchickensthataregoodegg-layers.Mediterraneanpoultryaregoodfor first-time chicken owners as they are easy to care for and only need theproper food to lay many eggs. If you are looking to slaughter and eat yourchickens,youwillwant tohaveheavy-bodiedfowl (Asiaticpoultry) toget themostmeat. For chickens that lay a good amount of eggs and that can also beused for meat, invest in the Wyandottes or Plymouth Rock breeds. Thesechickensaregoodsourcesofbotheggsandmeat.

Wyandottes have seven distinct breeds: Silver, White, Buff, Golden, andBlackarethemostcommon.ThesebreedsarehardyandareverypopularintheUnited States. They are compactly built and lay excellent, dark brown eggs.Theyaregoodsittersandtheirmeatisperfectforbroilingorroasting.

PlymouthRockchickenshavethreedistinctbreeds:Barred,White,andBuff.Theyare themostpopularbreeds in theUnitedStatesandarehardybirds thatgrowtoamediumsize.Thesechickensaregoodforlayingeggs,roostwell,andalsoprovidegoodmeat.

PlymouthRockchickensaregoodall-aroundfarmchickenswiththeirdociledispositions, hardiness, tendency to be very productive egg-layers, and goodmeat.

WyandottesoriginatedintheUnitedStatesandwerefirstbredinthe1870s.ThisoneisagoldenlacedWyandott.

AbarredPlymouthRockchicken.

FeedingYourChickensChickens, likemost creatures, need a balanced diet of protein, carbohydrates,vitamins, fats, minerals, and water. Chickens with plenty of access to grassyareaswillfindmostofwhattheyneedontheirown.However,ifyoudon’thavethe space to allow your chickens to roam freely, commercial chicken feed isreadilyavailableintheformofmash,crumbles,pellets,orscratch.Oryoucanmake your own feed out of a combination of grains, seeds, meat scraps orprotein-richlegumes,andagrittysubstancesuchasbonemeal,limestone,oystershell,orgranite(toaiddigestion,especiallyinwinter).Thecorrectratiooffoodforawarm,securechickenshouldbe1partproteinto4partscarbohydrates.

Chickensthatareallowedtoroamfreely(“free-range”chickens)willbeabletoscavengemostofthefoodtheyneed,aslongasthereisplentyofgrassorothervegetationavailable.

Donotrelytooheavilyoncornasitcanbeoverlyfatteningforhens;combinecorn with wheat or oats for the carbohydrate portion of the feed. Clover andothergreenfoodsarealsobeneficialtofeedyourchickens.

Howmuch food your chickens needwill depend on breed, age, the season,and howmuch room they have to exercise.Often it’s easiest and best for thechickens to leave feed available at all times in several locations within thechickens’ range.Thiswill ensure that even the lowest chickens in thepeckingordergetthefeedtheyneed.

ChickenFeed

4partscorn(ormoreincoldmonths)3partsoatgroats2partswheat2partsalfalfamealorchoppedhay1partmeatscraps,fishmeal,orsoybeanmeal2to3partsdriedsplitpeas,lentils,orsoybeanmeal2to3partsbonemeal,crushedoystershell,granitegrit,orlimestone½partcod-liveroil

Youmayalsowishtoaddsunflowerseeds,hulledbarley,millet,kamut, amaranth seeds, quinoa, sesame seeds, flax seeds, or kelpgranules.Ifyoufindthatyoureggsarethinshelled,tryaddingmorecalciumto the feed (in the formof limestoneoroystershell).Storefeed in a covered bucket, barrel, or other container that will notallowrodentstogetintoit.Aplasticorgalvanizedbucketisgood,asitwillalsokeepmold-causingmoistureoutofthefeed.

HatchingChicksIfyouwantmorechickens,orifyouplantosellchickensatthemarket,youmaywantyourhenstolayeggsandhatchchicks.Tohatchachick,aneggmustbeincubated for a sufficient amount of timewith the proper heat, moisture, andposition.Theperiodforincubationvariesbasedonthespeciesofchicken.Theaverageincubationperiodisaround21daysformostcommonbreeds.

Ifyouarehousingonlyafewchickensinyourbackyard,naturalincubationistheeasiestmethodwithwhichtohatchchicks.Naturalincubationisdependentupontheinstinctof themotherhenandthebreedofhen.PlymouthRocksandWyandottesaregoodhenstoraisechicks.Itisimportanttoseparatethesettinghenfromtheotherchickenswhilesheisnestingandtoalsokeepthehencleanandfreefromlice.Thenestshouldalsobekeptclean,andthehensshouldbefedgrainfood;grit;andclean,freshwater.

Itisimportant,whenyouareconsideringhatchingchicks,tomakesureyourhensarehealthy,haveplentyofexercise,andarefedabalanceddiet.Theyneedmaterials on which to scratch and should not be infested with lice and otherparasites.Free-rangechickens,whicheatprimarilynaturalfoodsandgetlotsofexercise,laymorefertileeggsthandotightlyconfinedhens.Theeggsselectedforhatchingshouldnotbemorethan12daysoldandtheyshouldbeclean.

Anestingboxshouldhaveplentyofcleanhayorstrawforthehentorestin.

You’llneedtoconstructanestingboxfortheroostinghenandtheincubatedeggs.Theboxshouldberoomyanddeepenoughtoretainthenestingmaterial.Treat the boxwith a disinfectant before use to keep out lice,mice, and othercreaturesthatcouldinfectthehenortheeggs.Makethenestofdampsoilafewinchesdeep,placed in thebottomof thebox, and then lay sweethayor cleanstrawontopofthat.

Place the nesting box in a quiet and secluded place away from the otherchickens. Ifspacepermits,youcanconstructasmallershed inwhich tohouseyournestinghen.Ahencangenerallysitonanywherebetween9and15eggs.Thehenshouldonlybeallowedtoleavethenesttofeed,drinkwater,andtakeadustbath.Whenthehendoesleaveherbox,checktheeggsanddisposeofanydamagedones.Anolderhenwillgenerallybemorecarefulandapttoroostthanayoungerfemale.

Oncethechicksarehatched,theywillneedtostaywarmandclean,getlotsofexercise,andhaveaccesstofoodregularly.Makesurethefeedisgroundfinelyenoughthatthechickscaneasilyeatanddigestit.Theyshouldalsohaveclean,freshwater.

BacteriaAssociatedwithChickenMeat

Salmonella—This is primarily found in the intestinal tract ofpoultryandcanbefoundinrawmeatandeggs.Campylobacterjejuni—Thisisoneofthemostcommoncausesof diarrheal illness in humans and is spread by improperhandling of raw chicken meat and not cooking the meatthoroughly.Listeria monocytogenes—This causes illness in humans andcan be destroyed by keeping the meat refrigerated and bycookingitthoroughly.

StoringEggs

Eggsare among themostnutritious foodsonearth.Hens typicallylay eggs every 25 hours, so you should have a fresh supply on adaily basis. Eggs, like any other animal byproduct, need to be

handledsafelyandcarefullytoavoidrottingandspreadingdisease.Hereareafewtipsonhowtobestpreserveyourfarm-fresheggs:1. Make sure your eggs come from hens that have not been

runningwithmaleroosters.Infertileeggslastlongerthanthosethathavebeenfertilized.

2. Keepthefresheggstogether.3. Chooseeggsthatareperfectlyclean.4. Makesurenottocracktheshells,asthiswilltaintthetasteand

maketheeggrotmuchmorequickly.5. Placeyoureggsdirectlyintherefrigeratorwheretheywillkeep

forseveralweeks.

Washfresheggsandthenrefrigeratethemimmediately.

Ifaneggbreaks,useitimmediatelyordiscardit.Oncetheeggisexposedtothe

air,itspoilsmuchmorequickly.

Ducks

Ducks are slightly more difficult than chicks to raise, but they do providewonderfuleggsandmeat.Duckshavepleasanterpersonalitiesthanchickensandare generally prolific layers. The eggs taste similar to chicken eggs, but areusuallylargerandhavearicherflavor.Ducksarehappiestandhealthiestwhenthey have access to a pool or pond to paddle around in and when they haveseveralotherduckstokeepthemcompany.

Ducksaresocialbirds—theyarehappiestingroups.

BreedsofDucksTherearesixcommonbreedsofducks:WhitePekin,WhiteAylesbury,ColoredRouen, Black Cayuga, ColoredMuscovy, andWhiteMuscovy. Each breed isuniqueandhasitsownadvantagesanddisadvantages.1. WhitePekin—Themostpopularbreedofduck,thesearealsotheeasiestto

raise. These ducks are hardy and dowell in close confinement. They aretimidandmustbehandled

WhitePekinswereoriginallybredfromtheMallardinChinaandcametotheUnitedStatesin1873.

carefully.Their large framegives them lotsofmeat, and theyarealsoprolificlayers.WhiteAylesbury—ThisbreedissimilartothePekinbuttheplumageismuch

whiterandtheyareabitheavierthantheformer.TheyarenotaspopularintheUnitedStatesastheWhitePekinduck.ColoredRouens—Thesedarklyplumedducksarealsoquitepopularandfatten

easilyformeatpurposes.Black Cayuga and Muscovy breeds—These are American breeds that are

easilyraisedbutarenotasproductiveasWhitePekins.

AccordingtoMrs.BeetoninherBookofHouseholdManagement,publishedin1861,“[Aylesburyducks’]snowyplumageandcomfortablecomportmentmakeit a credit to the poultry-yard,while its broadanddeepbreast, and its ampleback,conveytheassurancethatyoursatisfactionwillnotceaseatitsdeath.”

Ducksshouldhaveaccesstoalake,pond,oratleastasmallpool.

ABlackCayuga(right)standswithtwoSaxonyducks.

HousingDucksYou don’t need a lot of space or a large body of water to raise duckssuccessfully,thoughtheywillbehappierifyoucanprovideatleastasmallpoolofwaterforthemtobatheandpaddlearoundin.Housingforducksisrelativelysimple.The houses do not have to be aswarmor dry as for chickens but theduckscannotbeconfinedforaslongperiodsaschickenscan.Theyneedmoreexercise out-of-doors to be healthy and to produce eggs. A house that isprotectedfromdampnessorexcessrainwaterandthathasstraworhaycoveringthe floor is adequate for ducks. If you want to keep your ducks somewhatconfined,asmallfenceabout2½feethighwilldothetrick.Ducksdon’trequirenesting boxes, as they lay their eggs on the floor of the house or in the yardaroundthehouse.

FeedingandWateringDucksDucks require plenty of fresh water to drink, as they have to drink regularlywhile eating. Ducks eat both vegetable and animal foods. If allowed to roamfreelyandfindtheirownfoodstuff,duckswilleatgrasses,smallfish,andwaterinsects(ifstreamsorpondsareprovided).

Ducks need their food to be soft andmushy in order for them to digest it.Ducklingsshouldbefedequalpartscornmeal,wheatbran,andflourforthefirstweek of life. For the next fifty days or so, the ducklings should be fed thatmixtureinadditiontoalittlegritorsandandsomegreenfoods(greenrye,oats,clover)allmixedtogether.Afterthistime,ducksshouldbefedonamixtureoftwopartscornmeal,onepartwheatbran,onepartflour,somecoarsesand,andgreenfoods.

HatchingDucklingsThenaturalprocessof incubation (hatchingducklingsunderneathahen) is thepreferredmethodofhatchingducklings.Itisimportanttotakegoodcareofthesettinghen.Feedherwholecornmixedwithgreenfood,grit,andfreshwater.Placing the feed andwater just in front of the nest for the first few dayswillencouragethehentoeatanddrinkwithoutleavingthenest.Henswilltypicallylaytheireggsontheground,instraworhaythatisprovidedforthem.Cleanthehousesandpensoftensothelayingduckshavecleanareasinwhichtoincubatetheireggs.

CaringforDucklingsYoungducklingsareverysusceptibletoatmosphericchangesandmustbekeptwarm. The ducklings aremost vulnerable during the first threeweeks of life;after that time, theyaremore likely to thrive toadulthood.Constructbroodersfor the young ducklings and keep them verywarm by hanging strips of clothoverthedoorcracks.Afterthreeweeksinthewarmbrooder,movetheducklingstoacoldbrooderastheycannowwithstandfluctuatingtemperatures.

Ducklings should havewarm, dry, clean environments, especially for the firstthreeweeksoftheirlives.

CommonDiseasesOnawhole,ducksarenotaspronetothetypicalpoultrydiseases,andmanyofthediseasestheydocontractcanbepreventedbymakingsuretheduckshaveacleanenvironmentinwhichtolive(bycleaningouttheirhouses,providingfreshdrinkingwater,andsoon).

Two common ailments found in ducks are botulism andmaggots.Botulismcausestheduck’snecktogolimp,makingitdifficultorevenimpossiblefortheduck to swallow.Maggots infest the ducks if they do not have cleanwater inwhichtobatheandaretypicallycontractedinthehotsummermonths.Bothoftheseconditions(aswellaswormsandmites)canbecuredwiththepropercare,medications,andveterinaryassistance.

Turkeys

Turkeysaregenerallyraisedfortheirmeat(especiallyforholidayroasts)thoughtheireggscanalsobeeaten.Turkeysareincrediblyeasytomanageandraiseasthey primarily subsist on bugs, grasshoppers, and wasted grain that they findwhilewanderingaroundtheyard.Theyare,inasense,self-sustainingforagers.

To raise a turkey for Thanksgiving dinner, hatch the turkey chick in earlyspring,sothatbyNovember,itwillbeabout14to20pounds.

BronzeturkeyslikethisonearesomeofthemostcommonintheUnitedStates.

BreedsofTurkeysThe largest breeds of turkeys found in the United States are the Bronze andNarragansett.Other breeds, thoughnot as popular, include theWhiteHolland,Blackturkey,Slateturkey,andBourbonRed.

BronzebreedsaremostlikelyacrossbetweenawildNorthAmericanturkeyand domestic turkey, and they have beautiful rich plumage. This is the mostcommontypeofturkeytoraise,asitisthelargest,isveryhardy,andisthemost

profitable. TheWhiteHolland and Bourbon Red, however, are said to be themost“domesticated”intheirhabitsandareeasiertokeepinasmallerroamingarea.

HousingTurkeysTurkeysflourishwhentheycanroost in theopen.Theythriveintheshelteroftrees, though this can become problematic as they are more vulnerable topredatorsthaniftheyareconfinedinahouse.Ifyoudobuildahouseforthem,itshouldbeairy,roomy,andveryclean.

It is important to allow turkeys freedom to roam; if you live in a moresuburbanorneighborhoodarea, raising turkeysmaynotbe thebestoption foryou, as your turkeys may wander into a neighboring yard, upsetting yourneighbors. Turkeys need lots of exercise to be healthy and vigorous. Whenturkeysareconfinedforlongperiodsoftime,itismoredifficulttoregulatetheirfeeding(turkeysarenaturalforagersandthrivebestonnaturalfoods),andtheyaremorelikelytocontractdiseasethaniftheyareallowedtorangefreely.

FeedingTurkeys

Turkeysgainmostoftheirsustenancefromforaging,eitherinlawnsor in pastures. They typically eat green vegetation, berries, weedseeds,wastegrain,nuts,andvariouskindsofacorns.Inthesummermonths,turkeysespeciallyliketoeatgrasshoppers.Duetotheirloveof eating insects that can damage crops and gardens, turkeys arequite useful in keeping your growing produce free from harmfulinsectsandparasites.

Turkeysmaybefedgrain(similartoamixturegiventochickens)iftheyaregoingtobeslaughtered,inordertomakethemlarger.

HatchingTurkeyChicksTurkey hens lay eggs in themiddle ofMarch to the first ofApril. If you arelookingtohatchandraiseturkeychicks,it isvitaltowatchthehencloselyforwhenshelaystheeggs,andthengatherthemandkeeptheeggswarmuntiltheweather is more stable. Turkey hens generally aim to hide their nests from

predators.Itisbest,forthehen’ssake,toprovideherwithacoopofsomesort,whichshecanfreelyenterandleave.Or,ifnocoopisavailable,encouragethehentolayhereggsinanestclosetoyourhouse(puttingalargebarrelonitssideandheapingupbrushnearthehousemayenticethehentonestthere).Thisway,youcankeepaneyeontheeggsandhatchlings.

Hensarewell-adaptedtohatchalloftheeggsthattheylay.Ittakes27to29days for turkey eggs to hatch. While the hens are incubating the eggs, theyshouldbegivenadequatefoodandwater,placedclosetotheirnest.Wheatandcornarethebestfoodduringthelayingandincubationperiod.

RaisingthePoultsTurkeychicks,alsoknownas“poults,”canbedifficulttoraiseandrequirelotsofcareandattentionfortheirfirstfewweeksoflife.Inthissense,aturkeyraisermustbe“oncall”tocometotheaidofthehenandherpoultsatanytimeduringthedayforthefirstmonthorso.Manytimes,thehenscanraisethepoultswell,butitisimportantthattheyreceiveenoughfoodandwarmthintheearlyweekstoallow them togrowhealthyand strong.Thepoults should staydry, as theybecomechilledeasily.Ifyouareable,encouragingthepoultsandtheirmotherintoacoopuntilthepoultsarestrongerwillaidtheirgrowthtoadulthood.

Poults shouldbe fed soft and easily digestible foods.Stale bread, dipped inmilkandthendrieduntilitcrumbles,isanexcellentsourceoffoodfortheyoungturkeys.

DiseasesTurkeys are hardy birds but they are susceptible to a few debilitating or fataldiseases.Itisafactthatthemortalityrateamongyoungturkeys,eveniftheyaregivenallthecareandexerciseandfoodneeded,isrelativelyhigh(usuallyduetoenvironmentalandpredatoryfactors).

Themostcommondiseaseinturkeysisblackhead.Blackheadtypicallyinfectsyoung turkeys between 6weeks and 4months old. This diseasewill turn theheaddarkercoloredorevenblackandthebirdwillbecomeveryweak,willstopeating,andwillhaveaninsatiablethirst.Blackheadisusuallyfatal.

Another disease that turkeys occasionally contract is roup. Roup generallyoccurswhenaturkeyhasbeenexposedtoextremedampnessorcolddraftsforlongperiodsoftime.Roupcausestheturkey’sheadtoswellaroundtheeyesandishighlycontagioustootherturkeys.NutritionalroupiscausedbyavitaminAdeficiency,whichcanbealleviatedbyaddingvitaminAtotheturkey’sdrinkingwater. It is best to consult a veterinarian if your turkey seems to have thisdisease.

SlaughteringPoultry

Ifyouareraisingyourownpoultry,youmaydecidethatyou’dliketousethemforconsumptionaswell.Slaughteringyourownpoultryenablesyoutoknowexactlywhatisinthemeatyouandyourfamilyare consuming, and to ensure that the poultry is kept humanelybeforebeingslaughtered.Herearesomeguidelinesforslaughteringpoultry:1. Toprepareafowlforslaughter,makesure thebird issecured

wellsoitisunabletomove(eitherhangingdownfromapoleorlaidonablockthatisusedforchoppingwood).

2. Killingthefowlcanbedoneintwoways:onewayistohangthebirdupsidedownand tocut the jugularveinwitha sharpknife. It isagood idea tohavea funnelorvesselavailable tocollect thedrainingbloodso itdoesnotmakeamessandcanbe disposed of easily. The other option is to place the bird’shead on a chopping block and then, in one cleanmovement,chopitsheadoffatthemiddleoftheneck.Then,hangthebirdupsidedownandlettheblooddrainasdescribedearlier.

3. Once the bird has been thoroughly drained of blood, you canbegintopluckit.Haveapotofhotwater(around140°F)ready,inwhichtodipthebird.Holdingthebirdbythefeet,dipitintothepotofhotwaterandleaveitforabout45seconds—youdonotwantthebirdtobegintocook!Then,removethebirdfromthe pot and begin plucking immediately. The feathers shouldcomeofffairlyeasily,butthisprocesstakestime,sobepatient.Discardthefeathers.

4. Oncethebirdhasbeencompletelyridoffeathers,slipbacktheskinfromtheneckandcuttheneckoffclosetothebaseofthebody.Remove thecrop, trachea, andesophagus from thebirdby loosening them and pulling them out through the holecreatedbychoppingofftheneck.Cutofftheventtoreleasethemain entrails (being careful not to puncture the intestines orbacteriacouldbereleasedintothemeat)andmakeahorizontalslit about an inch above it so you can insert two fingers.Remove the entrails, liver (carefully cutting off thegallbladder), gizzard, and heart from the bird and set the lastthree aside if you want to eat them later or make them intostuffing. If you are going to save the heart, slip off themembraneenclosingitandcutofftheveinsandarteries.Make

suretocleanoutthegizzardaswellifyouwillbeusingitlater.5. Washthebirdthoroughly,insideandout,andwipeitdry.6. Cutoffthefeetbelowthejointsandthencarefullypulloutthe

tendonsfromthedrumsticks.7. Once the carcass is thoroughly dry and clean, store it in the

refrigeratorif itwillbeusedthatsamedayorthenext.Ifyouwanttosavethebirdforlateruse,placeitinamoisture-proofbag and set it in the freezer (alongwith any innards that youmayhavesaved).

8. Make sure you clean and disinfect any surface you wereworkingontoavoidthespreadofbacteriaandotherdiseases.

Beekeeping

Beekeeping(alsoknownasapiculture)isoneoftheoldesthumanindustries.Forthousands of years, honey has been considered a highly desirable food.Beekeeping is a science and can be a very profitable occupation. It is also awonderfulhobbyformanypeople.Keepingbeescanbedonealmostanywhere—on a farm, in a rural or suburban area, and even in urban areas.Anywheretherearesufficientflowersfromwhichtocollectnectar,beescanthrive.

Apiculturereliesheavilyonthenaturalresourcesofaparticularlocationandtheknowledgeofthebeekeeperinordertobesuccessful.Collectingandsellinghoneyatyourlocalfarmers’marketorjusttofamilyandfriendscansupplyyouwithsomeextracashifyouarelookingtomakeaprofitfromyourapiary.

Wearingahatandveilwillhelptopreventstingstoyourfaceandhead.

WhyRaiseBees?Bees are essential in the pollination and fertilization of many fruit and seedcrops. If you have a garden with many flowers or fruit plants, having beesnearbywill only help your garden flourish and grow year after year. Little ismoresatisfyingthanextractingyourownhoneyforeverydayuse.

HowtoAvoidGettingStungThoughittakessomeskill,youcanlearnhowtoavoidbeingstungbythebeesyoukeep.Herearesomewaysyoucankeepyourbeestingstoaminimum:

1.Keepgentlebees.Havingbeesthat,bysheernature,arenotasaggressivewillreducethenumberofstingsyouarelikelytoreceive.Carniolanbeesareoneofthegentlestspecies,andsoaretheCaucasianbeesintroducedfromRussia.

2.Obtainagood“smoker”anduseitwheneveryou’llbehandlingyourbees.Pumpingsmokeofanykindintoandaroundthebeehivewillrenderyourbeeslessaggressiveandlesslikelytostingyou.

3.Purchaseandwearaveil.Thisshouldbemadeoutofblackbobbinetandwornoveryourface.Also,rubbergloveshelpprotectyourhandsfromstings.

4.Use a “bee escape.”This device is fitted into a slotmade in a board thesamesizeasthetopofthehive.Sliptheboardintothehivebeforeyouopenittoextractthehoney,anditallowstheworkerbeestoslipbelowitbutnottoreturnbackup.So,byplacingthe“beeescape”intothehivethedaybeforeyouwanttogainaccesstothecombsandhoney,youwillmostlikelytrapallthebeesunderthe board and leave you free to work with the honeycombs without fear ofstings.

Asmokerwillhelptorelaxyourbeesandmakethemlessagressive.

WhatTypeofHiveShouldIBuild?Most beekeepers would agree that the best hives have suspended, movableframeswherethebeesmakethehoneycombs,whichareeasytoliftout.Theseframes, calledLangstroth frames, are themost popular kind of frame used byapiculturistsintheUnitedStates.

Whether you build your own beehive or purchase one, it should be builtstrongly and should contain accurate bee spaces and a close-fitting, rainproofroof.Ifyouarelookingtohavehoneycombs,youmusthaveahivethatpermitstheinsertionofuptoeightcombs.

WhereShouldtheHiveBeSituated?

Hivesandtheirstandsshouldbeplacedinanenclosurewherethebeeswillnotbedisturbedbyother animalsorhumans andwhere itwill begenerallyquiet.Hivesshouldbeplacedontheirownstandsat least3feetfromeachother.Donotallowweedstogrownearthehivesandkeepthehivesawayfromwallsandfences.You, as thebeekeeper, need to easily accessyourhivewithout fearofobstacles.

Framefromahealthybeehive.

SwarmingSwarmingissimplythemigrationofhoneybeestoanewhiveandisledbythequeenbee.Duringswarmingseason(thewarmsummerdays),abeekeepermustremainveryalert. Ifyousee swarmingabove thehive, takegreatcareandactcalmlyandquietly.Youwant toget theswarmintoyourhive,but thiswillbetricky.Iftheylandonanearbybranchorinabasket,simplyapproachandthen“pour” them into the hive. Keep inmind that bees willmore likely inhabit acool,shadedhivethanonethatisbakinginthehotsummersun.

Sometimesit isbeneficialtotrytopreventswarming,suchasifyoualreadyhavecompletely full hives.Frequently removing thenewhoney from thehivebeforeswarmingbeginswilldeterthebeesfromswarming.Shadingthehivesonwarmdayswillalsohelpkeepthebeesfromswarming.

BeePasturesBeeswillflyagreatdistancetogatherfoodbutyoushouldtrytocontainthem,aswellaspossible,toanareawithin2milesofthebeehive.Makesuretheyhave

access to many honey-producing plants that you can grow in your garden.Alfalfa, asparagus, buckwheat, chestnut, clover, catnip, mustard, raspberry,roses, and sunflowers are some of the best honey-producing plants and trees.Alsomakesurethatyourbeesalwayshaveaccesstopure,cleanwater.

PreparingYourBeesforWinterIf you live in a colder region, keeping your bees alive throughout the wintermonthsisdifficult.Ifyourqueenbeehappenstodieinthefall,beforeayoungqueen can be reared, your whole colony will die throughout the winter.However, the queen’s death can be avoided by taking simple precautions andgivingcarefulattentiontoyourhivecomeautumn.

Coloniesareusuallylostinthewintermonthsduetoinsufficientwinterfoodstorages, faulty hive construction, lack of protection from the cold anddampness,notenoughortoomuchventilation,ortoomanyolderbeesandnotenoughyoungones.

Beesthriveonsweetflowers,suchasclover.

Ifyouliveinaregionthatgetsafewweeksofsevereweather,youmaywanttomove your colony indoors, or at least to an area that is protected from theoutside elements. But the essential components of having a colony survivethrough the winter season are to have a good queen; a fair ratio of healthy,young,andoldbees;andaplentifulsupplyoffood.Thehiveneedstoretainaliberalsupplyof ripenedhoneyanda thicksyrupmadefromwhitecanesugar(you should feed this toyourbees early enough so theyhave time to take thesyrupandsealitoverbeforewinter).

Raw honey is an anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-fungal substance—besidesbeingdelicious.

To make this syrup, dissolve 3 pounds of granulated sugar in 1 quart ofboilingwaterandadd1poundofpureextractedhoneytothis.Ifyouliveinanextremelycoldarea,youmayneedupto30poundsofthissyrup,dependingonhowmanybeesandhivesyouhave.Youcaneitheruseatopfeederoraframefeeder,whichfitsinsidethehiveintheplaceofaframe.Filltheframewiththesyrupandplacesticksorgrassinittokeepthebeesfromdrowning.

ExtractingHoneyToobtaintheextractedhoney,you’llneedtokeepthehoneycombsinoneareaof the hive or packed one above the other.Before removing the filled combs,youshouldallowthebeesampletimetoripenandcapthehoney.Touncapthecombcells,simplyuseasharpknife(apiarysupplierssellknivesspecificallyforthis purpose). Then put the combs in a machine called a honey extractor toextract the honey. The honey extractor whips the honey out of the cells andallowsyoutoreplacethefairlyundamagedcombintothehivetoberepairedandrefilled.

Bees live off of the honey stored in the combs. In winter months they need asupplyofripehoneyandbenefitfromextrasugarysyrup.

Theextractedhoneyrunsintoopenbucketsorvatsandisleft,coveredwithateatowelorlargercloth,tostandforaweek.Itshouldbeinawarm,dryroomwherenoantscanreach it.Skimthehoneyeachdayuntil it isperfectlyclear.Thenyoucanputitintocans,jars,orbottlesforsellingorforyourownpersonaluse.

MakingBeeswaxBeeswaxfromthehoneycombcanbeusedformakingcandles,canbeaddedtolotionsor lipbalm,andcanevenbeused inbaking.Renderingwax inboilingwaterisespeciallysimplewhenyouonlyhaveasmallapiary.

Collectthecombs,breakthemintochunks,rollthemintoballsifyoulike,andputtheminamuslinbag.Putthebagwiththebeeswaxintoalargestockpotandbringthewatertoaslowboil,makingsurethebagdoesn’trestonthebottomofthe pot and burn. The muslin will act as a strainer for the wax. Use clean,sterilized tongs tooccasionallysqueeze thebag.After thewax isboiledoutofthebag,removethepotfromtheheatandallowittocool.Then,removethewaxfromthetopofthewaterandthenre-meltitinanotherpotonverylowheat,soitdoesn’tburn.

Pourthemeltedwaxintomoldslinedwithwaxpaperorplasticwrapandthencool it before using it tomake other items or selling it at your local farmers’market.

Abeekeepercarefullyremovesaframefromthehive.

Adiagramofasimplebeehivethatyoucaneasilyconstructinyourbackyard.

ExtraBeekeepingTips

GeneralTips1. Clip the old queen’s wings and go through the hives every 10 days to

destroyqueencellstopreventswarming.2. Alwaysactandmovecalmlyandquietlywhenhandlingbees.3. Keepthehivescoolandshaded.Beeswon’tenterahothive.

WhenOpeningtheHive1. Haveasmokerreadytouseifyoudesire.2. Donotstandinfrontofthehivewhilethebeesareenteringandexiting.3. Donotdropanytoolsintothehivewhileit’sopen.4. Donotrunifyoubecomefrightened.

5. Ifyouareattacked,moveawayslowlyandsmokethebeesoffyourselfasyouretreat.

6. Applyammoniaorapasteofbakingsodaandwaterimmediatelytoanybeestingtorelievethepain.Youcanalsoscrapetheareaofthebeestingwithyourfingernailorthedulledgeofaknifeimmediatelyafterthesting.

WhenFeedingYourBees1. Keepaclosewatchoveryourbeesduringtheentireseason,toseeif they

arefeedingwell.2. Feedthebeesduringtheevening.3. Make sure the bees have ample water near their hive, especially in the

spring.

MakingaBeehiveThemost important parts of constructing a beehive are tomake it simple andsturdy.Justaplainboxwithafewframesandacoupleofotherloosepartswillmakeasuccessfulbeehivethatwillbeeasytouseandmanipulate.It iscrucialthatyourbeehivebewell-adapted to thenatureofbeesandalso theclimate inwhichyoulive.Framedhivesusuallysufficeforthebeginningbeekeeper.

“Lifeistheflowerforwhichloveisthehoney.”

—VictorHugo

Mackenzie Pierson was born in San Francisco, California, andmoved to Shelburne, Vermont when she was twelve. Now she isstudying holistic medicine, art, dance, and environmental studies.She hopes to become an acupuncturist and use the bees forapitherapytreatments.

I pull the white suit over my head, the sweet, musky smellenvelopingme.Ishovemyfeetintothecoldrubberbootsandstuffthematches inmy pocket. Balancing the equipment on awoodenboard, Iwaddleout into the field, thewetgrass seeping throughahole in my boot. I zip the net over my head, and face the whiteboxes,awaiting today’s lesson.Thebees teachme,everyday, thatthe nectar in life is achieved through intense focus, commitment,dedication to sustainable and nurturing communities, and thewillingnesstotakerisks.

Ihadneverreallythoughtaboutbeekeepinguntilmysophomoreyearofhighschoolwhenmyhistoryteacher,BillMares,broughtalivequeenbeetoclassinasmallwoodenbox.Iwatchedhersmallbodythroughthemeshcoveringandwonderedwhatherlifemustbelike. I had not even seen a hive yet. So, what drew me tobeekeeping?Iguessitwasthesweet-tastinggoldenjoythatcoatedmyoatmealandtoast.Ihadalwayslovedhoney,andnowIloveditevenmorebecauseofmyrespectforthebees.Ilookeddownatmytoast and thought of all the mystery that surrounded the hive. Iwanted to be in the “in” group, to knowwhere this sweet-tastingdelight came from. However, it was more than that. In an ever-changingworld, the bees are what hold us together. They are themost supportive structure in our lives, and they fly by unseen.Honeybeesareresponsibleforapproximately80percentofallfruit,vegetable, and seed crops in the United States, accounting forapproximatelyeverythirdbiteoffoodoneeats.Theyarethejoyandthenectarinourlives.

IgotmyfirsthiveonJuly16,2006.ItwasagenerousgiftfromRussAceto, apublishedand two-year seniorbeekeeper inFairfax,Vermont. It was a hot and humid day, and the bees hummeduncomfortably as we slid the covered nuc box [a box for

transportingbees] into the trunkofmySubaru. I hadneverdrivenwithbeesinthebackseat,andsweatdrippedofftheendofmynose.They were all boarded up with mesh netting that we had stapleddownover theirhiveopening,but I still feared that anunexpectedbumpin theroadwouldcause themto tipoverandspill inside thecar.Iwonderedif thebeesmindedtheradio. . .anywayitcalmedmedownanddrownedoutthehumming.Arrivinghome,wehadtofindtheidealsite.Ithadtobesomewhereawayfromorabovetheroad, so the colonies would not be flooded or washed out. Anorthernwindbreak (like a stand of trees, bushes, or awood pile)wouldprotectthehivesfromwinterweatherandkeepthemcoolinthe hot noon sun. They also needed freshwater and pesticide-freecropswithintheir2-milerange.

“Abeautifulbeeyardisasacredplace,oftenacathedraloftreesandplantsnourishedbyyearsandrelationshipswithgenerationsoffamilies that allow bees on a special place on their land,” wroteToddHardie,founderofHoneyGardensApiaries.Walkingthroughourfrontyard,wefoundaperfectspot,tuckedawaynexttoabush,butwithplentyofmorning sunlight available.Wehauled thebeesacrossthelawnandsetthemuponastand(apieceofouroldporch)so that thehivewouldnot get damp. I hadpainted thehiveboxeswith house paint to make them weather-resistant, but the standwouldkeepthebottomfromrotting.Italsowasnecessarytopreventantsandotherinsectsfromdirectlyenteringthehivetostealhoney.

All in all, the seasonwent pretty smoothly, excluding getting abloodynosethefirsttimeIworethebeesuit(withmymentorMr.Mareswatching)andthetimeIalmostcaughtthehiveonfirewiththe explosive smoker. As the days got colder, the bees started toslowdownandbundleuptogether,creatingaswarmingmustacheofmovingbodies.Acetoshowedmeanewtechniquehehaddevelopedfor“winterizing”thebeehivesothattherewasnomoisturebuildupinside the boxes.Thebeeswere all bundledup in the field by thefirstsnow,buttheirsummer’seffortlingeredsweetlyinourmouths.

Whenweareinriskysituationsweoftenuseforce,butthatdoesnotworkwith thebees.Workingwith thebeeshas taughtme thatwhattheworldreallyneedsiscompassion,respect,andawareness.Iamwilling to riskexploring theunknownsoIcanbeapartof the

solutionandnotreacttotheworldfromaplaceoffear.AsIpullthewhite suit over my head, I realize I cannot pretend that social,environmental, or economic problems do not exist, but I can armmyselfwithknowledge,dreams,andhope.Icanaddmyteaspoonofhoneytothefuture.

Goats

Goats provide us with milk and wool and thrive in arid, semitropical, andmountainous environments. In themore temperate regions of theworld, goatsareraisedassupplementaryanimals,providingmilkandcheeseforfamiliesandactingasnaturalweedkillers.

BreedsofGoatsSomegoat breeds are small (weighing roughly 20 pounds) and some are verylarge (weighing up to 250 pounds). Depending on the breed, goatsmay havehorns that are corkscrew in shape, thoughmany domestic goats are dehornedearly on to lessen anypotential injuries to humansor other goats.Thehair ofgoatscanalsodiffer—variousbreedshaveshorthair,longhair,curlyhair,silkyhair,orcoarsehair.Goatscomeinavarietyofcolors(solidblack,white,brown,orspotted).

SixMajorU.S.GoatBreeds

Alpine—Originally fromSwitzerland, thesegoatsmayhavehorns,areshorthaired,andareusuallywhiteandblackincolor.Theyarealsogoodproducersofmilk.

Alpinegoat

Anglo-Nubiangoat

Anglo-Nubian—AcrossbetweennativeEnglishgoatsandIndianandNubianbreeds, thesegoatshavedroopyears,spiralhorns,andshorthair.Theyarequitetallanddobestinwarmerclimates.They

donotproduceasmuchmilk, though it ismuchhigher in fat thanothergoats’.TheyarethemostpopularbreedofgoatintheUnitedStates.

LaManchagoats

LaMancha—A cross between SpanishMurciana and Swiss andNubian breeds, these goats are extremely adaptable, have straightnoses, short hair, may have horns, and do not have external ears.TheyarenotasgoodmilkproducersastheSaanenandToggenburgbreeds,andtheirmilkfatcontentismuchhigher.

Pygmy—OriginallyfromAfricaandtheCaribbean,thesedwarfedgoatsthriveinhotterclimates.Fortheirsize,theyarerelativelygoodproducersofmilk.

Saanen—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarecompletelywhite, have short hair, and sometimes have horns. Goats of thisbreedarewonderfulmilkproducers.

Toggenburg—OriginallyfromSwitzerland,thesegoatsarebrownwithwhitefacial,ear,andlegstripes;havestraightnoses;mayhavehorns;andhaveshorthair.ThisbreedisverypopularintheUnitedStates. These goats are good milk producers in the summer andwinter seasons and survive well in both temperate and tropicalclimates.

Pygmygoat

Toggenburggoat

Saanengoat

FeedingGoatsGoats can sustain themselves on bushes, trees, shrubs, woody plants, weeds,briars, and herbs. Pasture is the lowest-cost feed available for goats, andallowinggoatstograzeinthesummermonthsisawonderfulandeconomicwaytokeepgoats,evenifyouryardissmall.Goatsthrivebestwheneatingalfalfaoramixtureofcloverandtimothy.Ifyouhavealawnandafewgoats,youdon’tneedalawnmowerifyouplantthesetypesofplantsforyourgoatstoeat.Theonedrawbacktothisisthatyourgoats(dependingonhowmanyyouown)mayquickly deplete these natural resources, which can cause weed growth anderosion. Supplementing pasture feed with other foodstuff, such as greenchop,rootcrops,andwetbrewerygrainswillensurethatyouryarddoesnotbecomeovergrazedandthatyourgoatsremainwell-fedandhealthy.Itisalsobeneficialtosupplyyourgoatswithunlimitedaccesstohaywhiletheyaregrazing.Makesurethatyourgoatshaveeasyaccesstoshadedareasandfreshwater,andoffera

salt-and-mineralmixonoccasion.

Goatsenjoyhavingobjectstoclimbon.

Dry forage is another good source of feed for your goats. It is relativelyinexpensivetogroworbuyandconsistsofgoodqualitylegumehay(alfalfaorclover). Legume hay is high in protein and has many essential mineralsbeneficialtoyourgoats.Tomakesureyourforagesarehighlynutritious,besurethattherearemanyleavesthatprovideproteinandmineralsandthattheforagehadanearlycuttingdate,whichwillallowforeasierdigestionofthenutrients.Ifyourforage isgreen incolor, itmost likelycontainsmorevitaminA,which isgoodforpromotinggoathealth.

GoatMilkGoatmilk isawonderful substitute for thosewhoareunable to toleratecow’smilk,or for theelderly,babies, and those suffering fromstomachulcers.Milkfrom goats is also high in vitamin A and niacin but does not have the sameamountofvitaminsB6,B12,andCascow’smilk.

Lactatinggoatsdoneedtobefedthebestqualitylegumehayorgreenforagepossible,aswellasgrain.Givethegraintothedoeataratethatequals½pound

grainforeverypoundofmilksheproduces.

CommonDiseasesAffectingGoatsGoats tend to getmore internal parasites than other herd animals. Somegoatsdevelopinfectiousarthritis,pneumonia,coccidiosis,scabies,liverflukedisease,and mastitis. It is advisable that you establish a relationship with a goodveterinarianwho specializes in small farm animals to periodically check yourgoatsforvariousdiseases.

MilkingaGoatMilkingagoattakessomepracticeandpatience,especiallywhenyoufirstbegin.However, once you establish a routine and rhythm to the milking, the wholeprocessshouldrunrelativelysmoothly.Themainthingtorememberistokeepcalmandneverpullontheteat,asthiswillhurtthegoatandshemightupsetthemilkbucket.Thegoatwillpickuponanyanxiousnessornervousnessonyourpartanditcouldaffecthowcooperativesheisduringthemilking.

SuppliesAgrainbucketandgrainforfeedingthegoatwhilemilkingistakingplaceMilkingstandMetalbuckettocollectthemilkAstooltositon(optional)Awarm,sterilizedwipeorcloththathasbeenboiledinwaterTeat dip solution (2 tbsp bleach, 1 quart water, one drop normal dishdetergentmixedtogether)

Directions1.Readyyourmilkingstandbyfilling thegrainbucketwithenoughgrain tolast throughout the entire milking. Then retrieve the goat, separating herfromanyothergoatstoavoiddistractionsandunsuccessfulmilking.Placethegoat’shead through theheadholdof themilkingstandsoshecaneatthegrainandthenclosetheleversoshecannotremoveherhead.

2.Withthewarm,sterilizedwipeorcloth,cleantheudderandteatstoremoveany dirt, manure, or bacteria that may be present. Then, place the metalbucketonthestandbelowtheudder.

3.Wrapyourthumbandforefingeraroundthebaseofoneteat.Thiswillhelptrapthemilkintheteatsoitcanbesquirtedout.Then,startingwithyourmiddle finger, squeeze the three remaining fingers in one single, smoothmotiontosquirtthemilkintothebucket.Besuretokeepatightgriponthe

baseoftheteatsothemilkstaysthereuntilextracted.Remember:Thefirstsquirtofmilkfromeither teatshouldnotbeput into thebucketas itmaycontaindirtorbacteriathatyoudon’twantcontaminatingthemilk.

4.Release the grip on the teat and allow it to refillwithmilk.While this ishappening, you can repeat this process on the other teat and alternatebetweenteatstospeedupthemilkingprocess.

6.When the teats begin to look empty (they will be somewhat flat inappearance), massage the udder just a little bit to see if any more milkremains.Ifso,squeezeitoutinthesamemannerasaboveuntilyoucannotextractmuchmore.

7.Removethemilkbucketfromthestandandthen,withyourteatdipmixtureinadisposablecup,dipeachteatintothesolutionandallowtoairdry.Thiswillkeepbacteriaandinfectionfromgoingintotheteatandudder.

8.Removethegoatfromthemilkstandandreturnhertothepen.

MakingCheesefromGoatMilkMost varieties of cheese that can be made from cow’s milk can also besuccessfullymade using goats’milk.Goatmilk cheese can easily bemade athome.Tomakethecheese,however,atleastonegallonofgoatmilkshouldbeavailable.Makesurethatallofyourequipmentiswashedandsterilized(usingheatisfine)beforeusingit.

CottageCheese1. Collectsurplusmilkthatisfreeofstrongodors.Coolittoaround40°Fand

keepitatthattemperatureuntilitisused.2. Skimoffanycream.Usetheskimmilkforcheeseandthecreamforcheese

dressing.3. Ifyouwishtopasteurizeyourmilk(whichwillallowittoholdbetterasa

cheese) collect all themilk tobeprocessed into a flat-bottomed, straight-sided pan and heat to 145°F on low heat.Hold it at this temperature forabout30minutesandthencooltoaround80°F.Useadairythermometertomeasure the milk’s temperature. Then, inoculate the cheese milk with adesirablelacticacid–fermentingbacterialculture(youcanusecommercialbuttermilkfortheinitialsource).Addabout7ouncesto1gallonofcheesemilk, stirwell, and let it sit undisturbed for about 10 to16hours, until afirmcurdisformed.

4. When the curd is firm enough, cut the curd into uniform cubes no largerthan½inchusingaknifeorspatula.

5. Allowthecurdtositundisturbedforacoupleofminutesandthenwarmitslowly,stirringcarefully,atatemperaturenogreaterthan135°F.Thecurdshouldeventuallybecomefirmandfreefromwhey.

6. Whenthecurdisfirm,removefromtheheatandstopstirring.Siphonoffthe excess whey from the top of the pot. The curd should settle to thebottomof thecontainer. If thecurd is floating,bacteria thatproducesgashasbeenreleasedandanewbatchmustbemade.

7. Replacethewheywithcoldwater,washingthecurdandthendrainingthewater.Washagainwithice-coldwatertochillthecurd.Thiswillkeeptheflavorfresh.

8. Using a draining board, drain the excesswater from the curd.Now yourcurdiscomplete.

9. Tomake the curd into a cottage cheese consistency, separate the curd asmuchaspossibleandmixwithamilkorcreammixturecontainingsalt totaste.

Cottagecheese

DomiatiCheese

This type of cheese is made throughout theMediterranean region. It is eatenfreshoragedtwotothreemonthsbeforeconsumption.1. Cool agallonof fresh, qualitymilk to around105°F, adding8ouncesof

salttothemilk.Stirthesaltuntilitiscompletelydissolved.2. Pasteurizethemilkasdescribedinstep3ofthecottagecheeserecipe.3. This type of cheese is coagulated by adding a protease enzyme (rennet).

Thisenzymemaybepurchasedatalocaldrugstore,healthfoodstore,ora

cheesemakerinyourarea.Dissolvetheconcentrateinwater,addittothecheesemilk, and stir for a fewminutes.Use1milliliter of diluted rennetliquidin40millilitersofwaterforevery2½gallonsofcheesemilk.

4. Setthemilkataround105°F.Whentheenzymeiscompletelydispersedinthecheesemilk,allowthemixtositundisturbeduntilitformsafirmcurd.

5. When thedesired firmness is reached,cut thecurd intoverysmallcubes.Allow for some whey separation. After 10 to 20 minutes, remove andreserveaboutonethirdthevolumeofsaltedwhey.

6. Put the curd and remaining whey into clothlined molds (the best arerectangularstainlesssteelcontainerswithperforatedsidesandbottom)withacover.Themoldsshouldbebetween7and10 inches inheight.Fill themoldswith thecurd, fold theclothover the top,allow thewhey todrain,anddiscardthewhey.

7. Oncethecurdisfirmenough,applyaddedweightfor10to18hoursuntilitisasmoistasyouwant.

8. Once the pressing is complete and the cheese is formed into a block,remove the molds and cut the blocks into 4-inch-thick pieces. Place thepieces in plastic containers with airtight seals. Fill the containers withreservedsaltedwheyfromstep5,coveringthecheesebyaboutaninch.

9. Placethesecontainersatatemperaturebetween60°Fand65°Ftocurefor1to4months.

Domiaticheese

FetaCheese

Thistypeofcheeseisverypopulartomakefromgoats’milk.Thesameprocessis used as theDomiati cheese except that salt is not added to themilk beforecoagulation. Feta cheese is aged in a brine solution after the cubes have beensaltedinabrinesolutionforatleast24hours.

Fetacheese

AngoraGoats

Angoragoatsmaybethemostefficientfiberproducersintheworld.Thehairofthesegoatsismadeintomohair:along,lustroushairthatiswovenintofinegarments.AngoragoatsarenativetoTurkeyandwere imported to the United States in the mid-1800s. Now, theUnitedStatesisoneofthetwobiggestproducesofmohaironearth.

Angoragoats are typically relaxed anddocile.Theyaredelicatecreatures, easily strainedby theiryear-round fleeces.Angoragoatsneedextraattentionandaremorehighmaintenancethanotherbreedsof goat.While these goats can adapt tomany temperate climates,theydoparticularlywellinthearidenvironmentofthesouthwesternstates.

Angora goats can be sheared twice yearly, before breeding andbefore birthing. The hair of the goat will grow about ¾ inch permonth and it should be sheared once it reaches 4 to 6 inches inlength.Duringtheshearingprocess, thegoat isusually lyingdownon a clean floorwith its legs tied.When the fleece is gathered (itshould be sheared in one full piece), it should be bundled into aburlapbagandshouldbefreeofcontaminants.Markyournameonthe bag andmake sure there is only one fleece per bag. Formorethorough rules and regulations about selling mohair through thegovernment’s direct-payment program, contact the USDAAgriculturalStabilizationandConservationServiceonlineorinoneoftheirmanyoffices.

Shearing can be accomplished with the use of a special goatcomb,whichleaves¼inchofstubbleonthegoat.Itisimportanttokeepthefleecescleanandtoavoidinjuringtheanimal.Theshearingseasonsare in thespringandfall.Afteragoathasbeensheared, itwillbemoresensitivetochangesintheweatherforuptosixweeks.Make sure you have proper warming huts for these goats in thewinterandadequateshelterfromrainandinclementweather.

Sheep

Sheepwerepossiblythefirstdomesticatedanimalsandarenowfoundallovertheworldonfarmsandsmallerplotsofland.Almostallthebreedsofsheepthatare found in the United States have been brought here from Great Britain.Raising sheep is relatively easy, as theyonlyneedpasture to eat, shelter frombadweather,andprotectionfrompredators.Sheep’swoolcanbeusedtomakeyarnorotherarticlesofclothingandtheirmilkcanbemadeintovarioustypesofcheesesandyogurt,thoughthisisnotnormallydoneintheUnitedStates.

Sheeparenaturallyshycreaturesandareextremelydocile.Iftheyaretreatedwell,theywilllearntobeaffectionatewiththeirowner.Ifasheepiscomfortablewithitsowner,itwillbemucheasiertomanageandtocorralintoitspenifit’sallowedtograzefreely.Startwithonlyoneortwosheep;theyarenotdifficulttomanagebutdorequirealotofattention.

BreedsofSheepTherearemanydifferentbreedsofsheep—someareusedexclusively for theirmeat and others for their wool. Six quality wool-producing breeds are asfollows:1. CotswoldSheep—Thisbreed isverydocileandhardyand thriveswell in

pastures.It

Cotswoldsheep

producesaround14poundsoffleeceperyear,makingitaveryprofitablebreedforanyonewantingtosellwool.

Leicestersheep

2. Leicestersheep—Thisisahardy,docilebreedofsheepthatisaverygoodgrazer. This breed has 6-inch-long, coarse wool that is desirable forknitting.ItisaverypopularbreedintheUnitedStates.

3. Merino sheep—Introduced to the United States in the early twentiethcentury,thissmall-tomedium-sizedsheephaslotsofrollsandfoldsoffinewhitewoolandproducesafleeceanywherebetween10and20pounds.Itisconsidered a fine-wool specialist, and though its fleece appears dark incolor,thewoolisactuallywhiteorbuff.Itisawonderfulforagingsheep,ishardy,andhasagentledisposition,butisnotaverygoodmilkproducer.

Merinosheep

4. Oxford down sheep—Amore recent breed, these dark-faced sheep havehardyconstitutionsandgoodfleece.

5. Shropshire sheep—This breed has longer, more open, and coarser fleecethanotherbreeds.ItisquitepopularintheUnitedStates,especiallyinareasthataremoremoistanddamp,as theyseemtobebetter in theseclimatesthanotherbreedsofsheep.

6. Southdown sheep—One of the oldest breeds of sheep, these sheep arepopular for their good quality wool and are deemed the standard ofexcellence for many sheep owners. Docile, hardy, and good grazing onpastures,theircoarseandlight-coloredwoolisusedtomakeflannel.

Oxforddownsheep

Shropshiresheep

Southdownsheep

HousingSheepSheepdonotrequiremuchshelter—onlyasmallshedthatisopenononeside(preferably to the south so it can stay warmer in the winter months) and isroughly 6 to 8 feet high. The shelter should be ventilatedwell to reduce anyunpleasantsmellsandtokeepthesheepcoolinthesummer.Feeding

racks ormangers should be placed inside of the shed to hold the feed for thesheep.Ifyouliveinacolderregionofthecountry,buildingasturdier,warmershedforthesheeptoliveinduringthewinterisrecommended.

Strawshouldbeusedforthesheep’sbeddingandshouldbechangeddailytomakesure the sheepdonotbecome ill fromanunclean shelter.Especially forthewintermonths,adrypenshouldbeerectedforthesheeptoexercisein.Thefencesshouldbestrongenoughtokeepoutpredatorsthatmayenteryouryardandtokeepthesheepfromescaping.

WhatDoSheepEat?Sheep generally eat grass and are wonderful grazers. They utilize rough andscanty pasturage better than other grazing animals and, due to this, they canactually be quite beneficial in cleaning up a yard that is overgrown withundesirableherbage.Allowingsheeptograzeinyouryardorinasmallpasturefieldwillprovide themwithsufficient food in thesummermonths.Sheepalsoeatavarietyofweeds,briars,andshrubs.Freshwatershouldalwaysbeavailableforthesheep.

Especially during thewintermonths,when grass is scarce, sheep should befed hay (alfalfa, legume, or clover hay) and small quantities of grain.Corn isalsoagoodwinterfoodforthesheep(itcanalsobemixedwithwheatbran),andstraw, salt, and roots can also be occasionally added to their diet. Good foodduringthewinterseasonwillhelp thesheepgrowahealthierandthickerwoolcoat.

ShearingSheepSheep are generally sheared in the spring or early summer before theweathergetstoowarm.Todoyourownshearing,investinaqualityhandshearerandascale onwhich toweigh the fleece.An experienced shearer should be able totaketheentirewooloffinonepiece.

Youmaywant towash thewool a few days to aweek before shearing thesheep.Todoso,corral thesheep intoapenonawarmspringday(makesurethereisn’tacoldbreezeblowingandthatthereisalotofsunshinesothesheepdoesnotbecomechilled).Dousethesheepinwarmwater,scrubthewool,andrinse.Repeatthisafewtimesuntilmostofthedirtanddebrisisoutofthewool.Diffuse some natural oil throughout the wool tomake it softer and ready forshearing.

Shearyoursheepinthespringorearlysummer,beforetheweathergetshot.

Thesheepshouldbecompletelydrybeforeshearingandyoushouldchooseawarm—butnotoverlyhot—day.Ifyouareabeginneratshearingsheep,trytofindanexperiencedsheepownertoshowyouhowtoproperlyholdandshearasheep.Thisway,youwon’tcauseundueharmto thesheep’sskinandwillgetthebestfleecepossible.Whenyouarehand-shearingasheep,remembertokeeptheskinpulledtautonthepartwhereyouareshearingtodecreasethepotentialofcuttingtheskin.

Oncethewoolissheared,tagitandrollitupbyitself,andthenbinditwithtwine.Besurenottofolditorbindittootightly.Separateandremoveanydirtyorsoiledpartsofthefleecebeforebinding,asthesepartswillnotbeabletobecardedandused.

CardingandSpinningWoolTomaketheshearedwoolintoyarnyouwillneedonlyafewtools:aspinningwheelordropspindleandwool-cards.Wool-cardsarerectangularpiecesofthinboardthathavemanywireteethattachedtothem(theylooklikecoarsebrushesthat are sometimes used for dogs’ hair). To begin, you must clean the woolfleeceofanydebris,feltings,orotherimperfectionsbeforecardingit;otherwiseyouryarnwillnotspincorrectly.Alsowashittoremoveanyadditionalsandordirt embedded in thewool and then allow it to dry completely. Then, all youneedistogatheryoursuppliesandfollowthesesimpleinstructions:

Wool-cardsareusedtosoftenandcleanthewoolfibers.

Spinningonatraditionalspinningwheel.

CardingWool1. Grease the wool with rape oil or olive oil, just enough to work into the

fibers.2. Takeonewool-cardinyourlefthand,restitonyourknee,gatheratuftof

wool from the fleece, and place it onto the wool-card so it is caughtbetweenthewiredteethofthecard.

3. Takethesecondwool-cardinyourrighthandandbringitgentlyacrosstheothercardseveraltimes,makingabrushingmovementtowardyourbody.

4. Whenthefibersareallbrushedin thesamedirectionandthewool issoftand fluffy to the touch, remove thewoolby rolling it intoa small, fleecyball(roughlyafootormoreinlengthandonly2inchesinwidth)andputitinabaguntilitisusedforspinning.

Sheep

Note:Cardedwoolcanalsobeusedforfelting,inwhichcasenospinningisneeded.To felt a small blanket, place large amounts of cardedwool on eithersideofaburlapsack.Usingfeltingneedles,weavethewoolintotheburlapuntil

itistightlyheldbythejuteorhempfabricsoftheburlap.

SpinningWool1. Takeonelongrollofcardedwoolandwindthefibersaroundthespindle.2. Movethewheelgentlyandholdthespindletoallowthewoolto“draw,”or

starttopulltogetherintoasinglethread.3. Keepmovingthewheelandallowtheyarntowindaroundthespindleora

separatespool,ifyouhaveamorecomplexspinningwheel.4. Keepaddingrollsofcardedwooltothespindleuntilyouhavethedesired

amountofyarn.

Note:Ifyouareunabletoobtainaspinningwheelofanykind,youcanspinyourcardedwoolbyhand,althoughthiswillnotproducethesametightnessinyouryarnasregularspinning.Allyouneedtodoistakethecardedwool,holditwithonehand,andpullandtwistthefibersintoone,continuouspiece.Windingtheendoftheyarnaroundastick,spindle,orspoolandsecuringitinplaceattheendwillhelpkeepyourfiberstightandyouryarntwisted.

If youwant your yarn to be different colors, try dying itwith natural berryjuicesorwithspecialwooldyesfoundinartsandcraftsstores.

MilkingSheepSheep’s milk is not typically used in the United States for drinking, makingcheese, or other familiar dairy products. Sheep do not typically producemilkyear-round,ascowsdo, somilkwillonlybeproduced ifyoubredyour sheepandhada lambproduced. Ifyoudohavea sheep thathasgivenbirthand thelambhasbeensoldortakenaway,itisimportanttoknowhowtomilktheewesoheruddersdonotbecomecaked.Someeweswillstillhaveanabundanceofmilk even after their lambs have beenweaned and this excessmilk should beremovedtokeeptheewehealthyandherudderfreefrominfection.

Tomilk an ewe, bringher rear up to a fence so she cannot step backwardsand, placing two knees against her shoulders to prevent her from movingforward,reachunderwithbothhandsandsqueezethemilkintoabucket.Whentheudderisstillsoftbut theewehasbeenpartlymilkedout,sether looseandthenmilkheragainafewdayslater.Ifthereisstillmilktobehad,waitanotherthreedaysandthenmilkheragain.Bymilkingtheewesinthismanner,youcanpreventtheiruddersfrombecominginfectedandthemilkfromspoiling.

Abasketofhand-spunyarn.

DiseasesThemaindiseasestowhichsheeparesusceptiblearefootrotandscabs.Theseare contagious and both require proper treatment. Sheep may also acquirestomachwormsiftheyeathaythathasgottentoodamporhasbeenlyingonthefloor of their shelter. As always, it is best to establish a relationship with aveterinarianwhoisfamiliarwithcaringforsheepandhaveyourflockregularlycheckedforanyparasitesordiseasesthatmayarise.

Llamas

Llamasmakeexcellentpetsandareagreatsourceofwoolyfiber(theirwoolcanbe spun into yarn). Llamas are being kept more and more by people in theUnited States as companion animals, sources of fiber, pack and light plowanimals, therapy animals for the elderly, “guards” for other backyard animals,andgoodeducationaltoolsforchildren.Llamashaveaneventemperamentandareveryintelligent,whichmakesthemeasytotrain,andtheirhardinessallowsthem to thrivewell inbothcoldandwarmerclimates (although theycanhaveheatstressinextremelyhotandhumidpartsofthecountry).

Beforeyoudecidetopurchaseallamaortwoforyouryard,checkyourstaterequirements regarding livestock. In some places, your property must also bezonedforlivestock.

Llamascome inmanydifferentcolorsandsizes.Theaverageadult llama isbetween5½and6 feet tall andweighsbetween250and450pounds.Llamas,beingherdanimals,likethecompanyofotherllamas,soitisadvisablethatyouraiseapairtokeepeachothercompany.Ifyouonlywanttocareforonellama,then it would be best to also have a sheep, goat, or other animal that can bepennedwith the llama for camaraderie.Although llamas can be ledwell on aharness and lead, never tie one up as it could potentially break its own necktryingtobreakfree.

Llamas tend tomake their owncommunaldungheap in aparticularpart oftheir pen. This is quite convenient for cleanup and allows you to collect themanure,compostit,anduseitasafertilizerforyourgarden.

Much of the information here is adapted from www.autumnhillllamas.comandwww.lostcreekllamas.com.Visit thesesitesformoreonraisingllamasandusingtheirfibers.

FeedingLlamasLlamas can subsist fairlywell ongrass, hay (an adultmalewill eat aboutonebale per week), shrubs, and trees, much like sheep and goats. If they are notreceivingenoughnutrients, theymaybefedamixtureofrolledcorn,oats,andbarley, especially during the winter season when grazing is not necessarilyavailable.Makesurenot tooverfeedyour llamas, though,or theywillbecomeoverweightandconstipated.Youcanoccasionallygivecornstalkstoyourllamasasanaddedsourceof fiber,andyoumayaddmineralsupplements to thefeedmixtureorhayifyouwant.Saltblocksarealsoacceptabletohaveinyourllamapen, and a constant supplyof freshwater is necessary.Nursing female llamasshouldreceiveagrainmixtureuntilthecria(baby)isweaned.

Llamas enjoy hay, but you should keep it off the ground to help prevent yourllamasfromingestingparasites.

Besuretokeepfeedandhayofftheground.Thiswillhelpwardoffparasitesthatestablishthemselvesinthefeedandaretheningestedbythellamas.

HousingYourLlamasLlamasmay be sheltered in a small stable or even a converted garage. Thereshouldbeenoughroomtostorefeedandhay,andthesheltershouldbeabletobe closed off duringwet, windy, and coldweather. Llamas prefer light, openspacesinwhichtolive,somakesureyourshedorshelterhaslargedoorsand/orbigwindows.Thefeedersforthehayandgrainmixtureshouldberaisedabovethe ground.Adding a placewhere a llama can be safely restrained for toenailclippings and vet checkups will help facilitate these processes but is notabsolutelynecessary.

Thellamasshouldbeabletoenterandexitthesheltereasilyanditisagoodideatobuildafenceorpenaroundthesheltersotheydonotwanderoff.Afenceaboutfourfeet tallshouldbeenoughtokeepyourllamassafeandenclosed.Ifyou happen to have both a male and female llama, it is necessary to haveseparateenclosuresforthemtostaveoffunwantedpregnancies.

ToenailTrimmingLlamasneedtheirtoenailstobetrimmedsotheydonottwistandfoldunderthetoe,makingitdifficultforthellamatomovearound.Layinggravelintheareawhere your llamas frequently walk will help to keep the toenails naturallytrimmed,butifyouneedtocutthem,becarefulnottocuttoodeeplyoryoumaycausethetipofthetoetobleedandthiscouldleadtoaninfectioninthetoe.Useshears designed for this purpose to cut the nails. Use one hand to hold thellama’s“ankle”justabovewherethefootbends.Holdtheclippersinyourotherhand,cuttingawayfromthefoottowardthetipofthenail.Thenail’sareeasiest

toclipintheearlymorningorafterarain,sincethewetnessofthegroundwillsoftenthem.

ShearingIt is important to groom and shear your llama, especially during hotweather.Brushingthellama’scoattoremovedirtandkeepitfrommattingwillnotonlymakeyourllamaslookcleanandhealthybutitwillalsoimprovethequalityoftheir coats. If youwant to save the fibers for spinning into yarn, it is best tobrush,comb,anduseahairdryertoremoveanydustanddebrisfromthellama’scoatbeforeyoubeginshearing.

Shearing isnotnecessarilydifficult,but ifyouarea first-time llamaowner,you should ask another llama farmer to teachyouhow to properly shear yourllama.Toshearyourllama,youcanpurchasebattery-operatedshearstoremovethe fibers for sale or use. Different llamas will respond in different ways toshearing.Tryholdingthellamawithahalterandleadinasmallerareatobegintheshearingprocess.Donotcompletelyremovethellamafromanyotherllamasyouhave,though,astheirpresencewillhelpcalmthellamayouareshearing.Itisbesttohaveanotherpersonwithyoutoaidintheshearing(toholdthellama,giveit treats,andofferanyotherhelp).Whenshearingallama,don’tshearallthewaydownto theskin.Allowinga thincoatingofhair tocover the llama’sbodywillhelpprotectitfromthesunandfrombeingscratchedwhenitrollsinthedirt.

Start by shearing a flat top the length of the llama’s back.Next, taking theshearsinonehand,movetheminadownwardpositiontoremovethecoat.Shearastripthelengthoftheneckfromthechintothefrontlegsabout3incheswidetohelpcoolthellama.Shearingcantakealongtime,soitmaybenecessaryforbothyouandthellamatotakeabreak.Takethellamaforaquietwalkandallowit to go to the bathroom so it will not become antsy during the rest of theshearingprocess.

Collecttheshearedfibersinacontainerandmakesureyouareworkingonacleanfloorsoyoucancollectanyexcessfibersanduse themforspinning.Donotstorethefiberinaplasticbag,asmoisturecaneasilyaccumulate,ruiningthefiberandmakingitunusableforspinning.

CaringfortheCriaBaby llamas require some additional care in their first few days of life. It isimportantforthecriatoreceivethecolostrummilkfromtheirmothers,butyoumayneedtoaidinthisprocess.Approachthemotherllamaandpullgentlyoneach teat to remove thewaxy plugs covering themilk holes. Sometimes, youmayneedtoguidethecriaintopositionunderitsmotherforittostartnursing.

Weigh the cria often (at least for the first month) to see that it’s gainingweight and growing strong and healthy. A bathroom scale, hanging scale, orlargergrainscalecanbeusedforthis.

If the cria seems to need extra nourishment, goat or cow milk can besubstitutedduringtimeswhenthemotherllamacannotproduceenoughmilkforthecria.Feedthisadditionalmilktothecriainsmalldoses,severaltimesaday,fromamilkingbottle.

Babyllamasarecalled“crias.”

DiseasesLlamasareprone togettingwormsand shouldbe checkedoften tomake suretheydonothaveanyoftheseparasites.Thereisspecialwormingpastethatcanbemixedinwiththeirfoodtopreventwormsfrominfectingthem.Youshouldalsoestablisharelationshipwithagoodveterinarianwhoknowsaboutcaringforllamasandcandetermineifthereareanyothervaccinationsnecessaryinordertokeepyourllamashealthy.Otherdiseasesandpeststhatcanaffectllamasaretuberculosis,tetanus,ticks,mites,andlice.

UsingLlamaFibersLlamafiberisuniquefromotheranimalfibers,suchassheep’swool.Itdoesnotcontainanylanolin(anoilfoundinsheep’swool);thus,itishypoallergenicandnotasgreasy.Howoftenyoucanshearyourllamawilldependonthevarietyofllama, its health, and environmental conditions. Typically, though, every yearllamasgrowafleecethatis4to6incheslongandthatweighsbetween3and7pounds.Llamafibercanbeusedlikeanyotheranimalfiberorwool,makingittheperfectsubstituteforallofyourfabricandspinningneeds.

Llamafiber ismadeupof twoparts: theundercoat (whichprovideswarmthforthellama)andtheguardhair(whichprotectsthellamafromrainandsnow).Theundercoat is themost desirable part to usedue to its soft, downy texture,whilethecoarserguardhairisusuallydiscarded.

Gatheringllamahair iseasy.Toharvest thefiber,youmustshear thellama.However,thesteps

Llamafibercanbedyedandspuntobeusedforknitting.

involvedinshearingwhenyouaregatheringthefiberareslightlydifferentthanwhenyouaresimplyshearing tokeep the llamacooler in thesummermonths.Toshearallamaforfibercollection:

1. Cleanthellamabyblowingandbrushinguntilthecoatisfreefromdirtanddebris.

2. Washthellama.Besuretorinseoutallofthesoapfromthehairandletthellamaair-dry.

3. Youcanusescissorsorcommercialclipperstoshearthellama.Startatthetopof theback,behind theheadandneck, andworkbackwards. Ifusingclippers, shearwith longsweepingmotions,not short jerkyones. Ifusingscissors,alwayspointthemdownward.Leaveaboutaninchofwoolonthellamaforprotectionagainstthesunandinsectbites.Youcanshearjustthearea around the back and belly (in front of the hind legs and behind thefrontlegs)ifyourmainpurposeistoofferthellamarelieffromtheheat.Oryoucansheartheentirellama—fromjustbelowthehead,downtothetail—toget themostwool.Oncetheshearingiscomplete,skirt thefleecebyremovinganylittlepiecesorbellyhairfromtheshornfleece.

Thefibercanbehand-processedorsenttoamill(thoughsendingthefiberstoamillismuchmoreexpensiveandisnotnecessaryifyouhaveonlyoneortwollamas). Processing the fiber by hand is definitelymore cost-effective but youwillinitiallyneedtoinvestinsomeequipment(suchasaspinningwheel,dropspindle,orfeltingneedle).

Toprocessthefiberbyhand:1. Pickoutanyremainingdebrisandunwanted(coarse)fibers.2. Cardthefiber.Thishelpstoseparatethefiberandwillmakespinningmuch

easier.Tocardthefiber,putabitoffiberononeendofthecards(standardwool-cardsdo the tricknicely) andgentlybrush it until it separates.Thiswillproducearolag(log)offiber.

3. Oncethefiberiscarded,youcanuseitinafewdifferentways:Wetfelting:Towetfelt,laythefiberoutinadesignbetween2piecesofmaterialandsoakit inhot,soapywater.Then,agitatethefiberbyrubbingorrollingit.Thiswillcauseittosticktogether.Rinsethefiberincoldwater.Whenitdries,youwillhaveproducedastrongpieceoffeltthatcanbeusedinmanycraftingprojects.

Llamasshouldbewashedandallowedtoairdrybeforeshearing.

Needle felting:For this typeofmanipulation,youwillneeda feltingneedle(availableatyourlocalartsandcraftsorfabricstore).LayoutapieceofanymaterialyouwantoverapilloworStyrofoampiece.Placethefiberon topof thematerial inanydesignofyourchoosing.Pushtheneedle through the fiber and thebottommaterial and thengentlydraw it back out. Continue this process until the fiber stays on thematerialofitsownaccord.Thisisagreatwaytomaketablerunnersorhangingclothsusingyourllamafiber.Spinning:Spinning isagreatway to turnyour llama fiber intoyarn.Spinning can be accomplished by using either a spinning wheel ordrop spindle, and a piece of fiber that is either in a batt, rolag, orroving.Aspinningwheel,whilelargerandmoreexpensive,willeasilyhelp you to turn the fiber into yarn. A drop spindle is convenientbecauseitissmallerandeasiertotransport,andifyouhavetimeandpatience,itwilldojustasgoodajobasthespinningwheel.Tomakeyarn,twisttwoormorepiecesofspunwooltogether.Otheruses:cardedwoolcanalsobeusedtoweave,knit,orcrochet.

Ifyoubecomecomfortableusing llamafiber tomakeclothingorothercraftitems,youmaywant to try tosell thesecrafts (oryour llamafiberdirectly) toconsumers. Fiber crafts may be particularly successful if sold at local craftmarketsorevenatfarmers’marketsalongsideyourgardenproduce.

PartFourSimpleStructuresforYourLand

“Regarditasjustasdesirabletobuildachickenhouseastobuildacathedral.”

—FrankLloydWright

“Developaninfallibletechniqueandthenplaceyourselfatthemercyofinspiration.”

—Lao-Tzu

Evenifyouonlyhaveasmallplotofland,itmaybehelpfultohaveamodestpottingshednearyourgardenoraworkshopwhereyoucankeepyourtools.Ifyou’llbe raisinganimals,you’llneedshelter for them—evenadogdeservesahouseitcancallitsown.Someoftheprojectsinthischapterofferstep-by-stepinstructions thatwillguideyou through theentirebuildingprocess.Othersaremeanttoofferguidelinesforastructure,whichyoucanthenaltertomeetyourownwantsandneeds.Ifyouarenewtowoodworking,youmaywanttostartoffwithoneofthesimplerprojects,suchasabirdhouse,andthenprogresstomorecomplex structures as you build confidence. Follow the directions closely,measurematerialscarefully,andcross-referencewithsimilarplansfoundonlineor in other books when needed. If you’re an experienced builder, use thedirections and illustrations here as inspiration to create your own uniquemasterpieces. Whatever your skill level, as with everything, try to enjoy the

processasmuchastheendresult.

Doghouses

Doghouses and kennels are easy to construct and are especially useful if youhavedogs that primarily liveoutdoors.Adogkennelneeds toprotect thedogfromharshwindsandheavyrainsandshouldbespaciousenoughforthedogtomove around in comfortably. Doghouses should be located near to your ownhousesoyoucanhaveeasyaccesstoyourpet,andshouldbesituatedonasideofyourhousethatcreatesanaturalbarrieragainstthewindandweather.Dogsshouldnotbeleftoutsideovernightinverycoldweather,evenwithaccesstoadoghouse. Below are a couple of doghouses and kennels that can be easilyconstructedforyouroutdoorpet.

Modifythedogkennelplansheretofityourdogifitisalargerbreed.

StandardDogKennelThis kennel is constructed to bewarm andwindproof, to direct the rain awayfromthebasebycreatinglargeroofoverhangs,andtobeeasilycleaned.

MaterialsMatchedboardsforthesides,ends,andbottom(standardmeasurementsforthekennelare30incheslong,20incheswide,and30inchestall)WeatherboardsfortheroofStripofsheetmetalWoodenbeading

Directions1. Maketheendsfirstbynailinglengthsofmatchingboardsacrossuprightsof

2x1-inchbatten(f).Atthetop,halvethebattensintothetworoofpieces.Setthetwoouteruprights,XX,inabout¾inchfromtheedgestoallowthesidestobeflushwiththeoutsideoftheends.Placethesefouruprightsontheinside.

2. Itisadvisabletocutoutthedoor—usingapad-sawforthesemicirculartop—beforenailingonYY,whichshouldbealittlenearer

Refertothisillustrationwhenmakingthedogkennel.Thekennelraisedoffthe ground is shown by (c); (d) illustrates the parts in contact; (e) is averticalsectionofthebackend.

tooneanotherthanaretheroughedgesofthedoor.Twoshortverticalsontheoutside,alsoprojectingbeyondtheedges,preventthedogfrominjuringhimselfonthem.

3. The battens may be omitted from the back end of the kennel, but theyultimatelyhelpstrengthenthestructureandsoshouldbeincluded.

4. When theendsare finished, thehorizontalboards for the sidesarenailedontoeachend(b).Beginatthebottom,arrangingthelowestboardwithitstongue pointing upwards and add the upper boards one by one. Thedirection inwhich the tonguepoints is an important detail—if the boardsare put on the wrong way, water will leak more easily into the kennel,rottingtheboardsandmakingyourdogwet.

5. Battens(d)and(e)arenailedinsidealongthesidesofthekennelandathirdisnailedacrosstheback,atadistanceabovethebottomedgeequaltothethicknessofthebottomboardsandofthebattens(b)and(c),towhichtheyareattached.Ateachenda2x2-inchdeal,(f),isscrewedto(b)and(c)toraisethebottomclearofftheground.

6. The roofweatherboardsmustbe longenough toprojectat least6 inchesbeyondthedoorend,topreventrainfromcoming

Thisdoghouseiswiderandhasthedoorsetoff tooneside,whichallowsforevenmoreprotectionfromtheelements.

through the entrance. The eaves overhang 3 inches and are supported, asshownin(a),bythreebracketscutoutofhardwood.Beginlayingontheboards,startingattheeavesandfinishingattheridge,whichisclosedwitha6-inchstripofsheetmetalplacedontopofawoodenbeading.

7. Stainall theexterior surfaces, including thebottom,and fill in thecracks

withcaulkingtokeepthewaterfromseepingthrough.

The inside part of the kennel should be exposed to the sun occasionally bybeingturnedonitsend,andthebottomshouldbecleanedoften.

Thiskennelhasafloorthatis2feetsquare,is3feet4incheshighinfront,andtheroofhasanoverhangof8inches.

Birdhouses

Ifyouareinterestedinattractingbirdstoyouryardduringthespring,summer,and fall months, in particular, you’ll need to provide shelter for the birds.Birdhouses do not need to be very elaborate and they should be ratherinconspicuous so birds can easily come and gowithout attracting predators totheirhouseandnest.All that isreallyrequiredofabirdhouseisagoodhidingplace,withanopeningjustlargeenoughforthebirdtofitthrough,andastrongroofthatkeepsouttherain.

Birdhousescanbemadefromavarietyofmaterials—evenanoldhattackedtothesideofashedwithaholecutinthetopcansufficeforabirdhouse.Otherusablematerialsincludetincans,barrels,flowerpots,woodenbuckets,andsmallboxes(preferablywoodenormetal).

Moststandardbirdhousesaremadeofwoodpiecesnailedtogethertolooklikeaminiaturehouse.Ifyouplantohavemanybirdsnestinginyouryard,youmaywant to build a few birdhouses during the winter so they can be ready forspringtime,whenbirdsarebeginningtonest.Toattractaparticularkindofbirdtoyourbirdhouse,youmustmakethesizeoftheholeappropriateforthetypeofbird.Forwrens,maketheholeabout1inch;forbluebirdsandtree-swallows,theholeshouldbe1½inches;formartins,itshouldbe2½inches.Belowareafewexamples of birdhouses you can easilymake to attract beautiful birds to youryard.

Becreativewithyourbirdhousedesigns,andexperimentwithdifferent shapesandmaterials.

BirdArkBirdhouseThisbirdhouseisconstructedofthreetincansjoinedtogether.Bothendsofthecentercanareremoved,butthebottomisleftonbothendcans.Tomakethebirdark,simply:1. Cutaholeintothesideofthecentercanandanotherthroughthebottomof

each can.Donot remove the pieces of tin but bend themout to serve asperches.

2. Cut the roof boards of the correct size to project over the ends and sidesabout 1 inch, nail them together, and fasten them in place by nailing theboardstotheconnectingblocksbetweenthecans.

3. Fasten thearkbetween theblocksonaplatformorboardand thenmounttheplatform

Abirdarkbirdhouse.

onpost supports andbrace itwith brackets, as seen in the picture above.Attachseveralsticksforperches.

Lean-toBirdhouseThis birdhouse is made out of an empty wooden box (or, if you want to puttogetheryourownbox,justnailsmallpiecesofwoodtogetherofanysizeyoulike). If you domake your own box,make sure that the top edges of the endpiecesarecutataslanttoallowforaslantedroof.Ifyouuseanemptybox,addtriangularpiecestotheedgestocreateaslant(a).

Cutthecenterpartition,dividingtheboxintotwocompartmentsofequalsizeastheendpieces.Thedoorwaycanbecutwithajackknife—thisiseasilydoneiftheendsareintwoseparatepiecesbecausethenhalfoftheholecanbecutoutoftheedgeofeachpiece.Aftertheendshavebeenpiecedout,nailastriptotheback,andthencuttheroofboardlargeenoughsoitwillprojectoutfromtheboxabout1inch.

Lean-tobirdhouse.

Thelean-tobirdhousecannowbemountedonthesideofashedoronatreeandstickscanbefittedintotheholesforperches.Tomountthehouse,cutoutandnailawoodenbracket to theshedwalland thennail the lean-tobirdhouseintothewoodenbracket.

LogCabinBirdhouseThisbirdhousecanbemadeoutofany-sizedbox.Nailpiecestogethertoformthe roof, and then thatch the roofing itself to blend into the surroundingenvironment.Themoresloped the roof, theeasier the raincanfalloffandnotpenetrateintothehouse.Thishouseisslightlymoreelaborateinthesensethatthe supportpolepasses through thehouse to forma “chimney.”Thewindowscanbecutoutandfakedoorspaintedonforaestheticpurposes.Smallbranchesshouldbecuttotheproperlengths,split,andthennailedallovertheexteriorof

thehousetoproducea“logcabin”look—thisalsohelpsthebirdhousetobetterblendintothesurroundingtreesandfoliageinyouryard.

Crosssectionofalogcabinbirdhouse.

Decorateyourbirdhousewithtwigsandbark.

TempleBirdhouseThis is a smallbirdhouse,perfect forwrens.Thisbirdhousehangs froma treebranch.

MaterialsLargetincanWoodenboardabout7inchessquareCarpetorupholsterytacksEarthenflowerpotSmallcorktopluguptheflowerpotholeEyescrewShortstickWireSmallnails

Directions1. Mark thedoorwayon the sideof the can and cut theopeningwith a can

opener.2. Fasten the can to the square baseboard (A) by driving large carpet tacks

throughthebottomofthecanintotheboard.3. Invert the flowerpot tomake the roof.Plugup thedrainhole tomake the

housewaterproof(useacorkorothermeansofstoppingupthehole)(B).4. Screwtheeyescrewintothetopoftheplugtoattachthesuspendingwire.

Drillasmallholethroughthelowerendoftheplugsothatashortnailcanbepushedthroughaftertheplughasbeeninsertedtokeepitfromcomingout.

5. Fasten the flowerpot over the can with wire, passing the loop of wireentirelyaroundthepotandthenrunningshortwiresfromthiswiredowntosmallnailsdrivenintothefourcornersofthebase,(C).

6. Nowthebirdtemplecanbepaintedandhungonatree.

Templebirdhouse.

BirdhousesforSpecificBirdSpecies

SimpleBirdSheltersBirdsseekoutdryplacestonestandtoescapefromrainandwetleaves.Simplebirdshelterscanbeconstructedoutofregularmaterials,someofwhichyoumay

havelyingaboutyourhouseorgarage.

The bird shelter in illustration (a) has a canvas or heavy muslin roof,supportedontwouprights.Fiveperchesarearrangedfromsidetoside,andthisallowsafewbirdstorestandretreatfrominclementweather.Theuprightsare1½x3inchesandthestripsformingtheYbracesare2incheswideand⅞inchthick.Theperchesare¾-inchdowelsthatare3feetlong.Youcanfindtheseatyourlocalhardwarestore.

Make holes in the uprights to insert and secure the perches. Illustration (b)showstheinsideofsuchashelter.Makesurethecanvasroofiswaterproofandistackedsecurelyaroundalltheedgesofthehouse.

Birdshelterscanalsobemadeoutofabarrelhoop,asshownin illustration(c).Tomakethishouse:1. Coveraflatbarrelhooplooselywithcanvasorheavymuslintackedaround

alltheedges.2. Driveawoodenpegintothetopofapost.Cutaholeinthecanvasandslip

itoverthepost.3. Attachfourwirestothehoopatequaldistancesapart.Passthelowerends

throughstaplesoreye-screwsdrivenintothepostaboutafootortwofromthetop.

4. Make twoor threeholes in thepost,anddrive roundperches through theholesforthebirdstositon.

Ifdesired,paintyourbirdhouseorshelterafterassembling.

Illustration(a)showsashelterwithamuslinorcanvasroof.The insideof theshelterisdrawninillustration(b).Illustration(b)showsasheltermadeoutofabarrelhoop.

SimpleStables

Ifyouareraisinglargerlivestock—sheep,goats,horses,orllamas,forexample—youwillneedasmallstablewheretheycangoforprotectionduringinclementweather and especially during the winter months in cooler regions. Buildingstablescanberelativelyeasyandinexpensive,anddoingityourselfmeansthatyoucancustomizethedesigntofityourandyouranimals’needs.

Stables should be built on relatively flat ground that does not becomeexcessively wet or flooded during heavy rains. Laying down a thick bed ofgravelorsandbelowthestablefloorwillhelpkeepsurfacewaterdrained.Alsoconsider thepositioningof thestable; try tofindanareaprotectedfromstrongwindsbutalsonearyourownhomesoyoudon’thavetogotoofartotendtheanimalsduringbadweather.Facingthestabletowardthesouthorwestwillhelpkeep a nice breeze flowing through your stablewhile protecting it fromharshnortherly winds. A place to store feed and hay for your animals is also aworthwhileadditionwhenplanningandbuildingasimplestable.

TheDutchdooron thisstablecankeepanimalsenclosedwhileallowing freshairtocirculate.

GeneralStableConstructionWhenbuildingastableforyourlivestock,makesurethattheinteriorwallsareweatherproof and free of dampness. To keep moisture out of the stable, thebuilding should be situated on slightly higher ground than that surrounding it.Thiswillkeepthegroundfromgettingtoodamp,andvaporswillnotbeaslikelytorisethroughthefloorandfoundationwalls.Ifpossible,itisbesttomakethestableflooroutofconcretebetween4and6inchesthick.

Thestablewallsshouldbebuiltsolid.Brickandstonearepreferabletowood,butwoodenstablesalsodoanadequate jobofprovidingshelterandaremuchmorecommonintheUnitedStates,duetotheavailabilityofwood.Ifyoudecidetobuildyour stableusingbricks,building thewallsonebrick (9 inches) thickshouldbesuitable.Internalwallsshouldbebuiltsolid,andthefoundationmustbedeepandwideenoughtogivethewholestructurestability.Ifonesideofyourstablegetsthebruntofdrivingrainormoisture,itisagoodideatocoveritwithanextralayerofconcreteorstucco,orhangshinglestoprotectthewall.

Theexternalanglesofallofthedoorsandwindowsshouldberounded.Thiscan be done by using bull-nosed bricks. Thisway, horses and other livestockwillnotbeinjuredbycomingintocontactwithanysharpanglesorledges.

Astablecanbemadeoutofavarietyofmaterials,includingbrickandwood.

Plansforasmallstable.

ASmallStableforHorses,Llamas,orSheepThissimplestableisinexpensivetobuildandhasplentyofroomfortwohorses,llamas,orsheep,alongwithfeedandtack.Hayandgraincanbekeptintheloft.Placethewindowsashighupaspossibleandhingethematthebottomsothey’llopeninwardlytopermittheairtopassovertheanimalswithoutblowingdirectlyon them. Make the stable door a “Dutch door”; that is, a door dividedhorizontally in themiddleso that theupperhalfmaybeopenedand the lowerhalfremainclosed.

PoultryHouses

Poultry houses should bewarm, dry,well-lighted, and ventilated shelterswithconvenientarrangementsforroosts,feedingspace,andnestboxes.Inwinter,ifyou’relivinginacoolclimate,lightandwarmthareoftheupmostimportance.Fowlwill stop laying eggs and their healthwill sufferwhen confined in cold,wet,anddarkconditions.Windowsfacingthesouthorsoutheast, largeenoughtoadmit thesunfreely,shouldbeprovidedandmadetoslideopento increasecirculationduringthesummer.

Beyond these few requirements, houses for your poultry can be made in avarietyofwaysandare,generally,relativelyeasytoconstruct.Belowaremanydifferenttypesofpoultryhousesthatcanbeusedtokeepyourfowlwarm,dry,andhealthy.

SimplestPoultryHouseWhilepoultrycansurviveinthistypeofcheaplyandsimplybuiltcoop,itisbestused in warmer climates, where the winter months do not become incrediblycoldandnotmuch,ifany,snowfalls.Also,thistypeofcoopisbestsuitedforonlyoneortwochickensorducks.

MaterialsFourpiecesof1x2-inchboardsforthestudsandraftersStrongnailsWirenettingTarredpaper

1. TaketwooftheboardsandnailthemtogetherinaTshape.Repeatwiththeother two. Set these apart from each other about 2 feet 10 inches on thecenters,andcoverthemwithtightlydrawnwirenetting(cuttosize).

2. Cover the wire netting with tarred paper, creating a barrier between theoutsidewindsandweatherandthefowlinside.

YoungPoultryCoopsChicksneedextrawarmthandprotectionfrompredators.Thiscoop,ifithousessmallchicks,shouldnotholdtheotherfowl,astheymaybullyorevenharmtheyoungchicks.

This pitched roof chicken coop consists of a pitched roofmountedon threeboards,6feethigh.Thiscoopis3feetwideand2feetdeep.Nailslatsacrossthefronttopreventthehenfromgettingoutbuttoallowthechickstoenterandexitfreelyintoasmall,fenced-inareasurroundingthecoop.

Apitchedroofchickencoop.

Chickencoopwithcanopy.

The coop pictured above is similar to the pitched roof chicken coop exceptthatthereisacanopythatkeepstherainoutandshadestheinteriorofthecoopso itdoesnotbecome toowarm.Thiscoop is3 feet long,2 feetwide,and30inches high at the front and 24 inches high in the back. The coop can beconstructedfromboardswithmatchededgesandshouldberaisedaninchortwoabovethegroundtoensurethefloorremainsdry.Tackapieceoflightcanvasormuslintotherooftoserveastheawning.

Planforahenhousewithascratchingshed.

beddingshouldbekeptonthefloorofthehenhouse.

The roofof thehenhouseshouldprojectout1 footover thesouth,east,and

west sides. It shouldalsobe5 incheshigher than the siding, allowing for freeventilation.Twolargewindowswilladmitlightandwarmthintothehenhouse.A layingboxshouldextend theentire lengthof the roomandmustbedividedinto compartments and coveredwith a hinged lid. This allows the eggs to begathered simply by raising the lid from the outside. Make sure the floor iscleaned weekly to keep out disease. The inside of the walls should bewhitewashedoftentokeepoutmoistureandpests.

PracticalHenhouseThissimpleandefficienthenhousehasashedroofand,asmostpoultryhousesshould,facestowardthesouth.Thishousecanbeupto10feetwideandaslongasyouneedtoaccommodateyourchickens.

A scratching shed is in the center of the building and haswindows that letsunlightin.Thesleepingquartersshouldbekeptwarm.Anopen,wireenclosedfrontforthescratchingshedshouldbeincluded,too.Theroostsshouldbemademovable,andfresh

This henhouse has a scratching shed,which allows the chickens access to theopenairwhilestillbeingprotectedfromtheelements.

Youcanbuildasimpleramptogiveyourchickenseasyaccesstothecoop.

Two-RoomHenhouseThis two-roomhenhouse has a south-facing front to allow ample sunlight andwarmth into thehouse. It canbemadeas large as10x12 feet and shouldbeconstructedofwoodortimberplanks.Itisdividedintotworoomsbyapartitionmadeoutofwirenetting.Thishenhousecanservetwoseparateyards.Afenceconstructedinthemiddleofthehouseyardshouldjointhecenterofthefrontofthebuilding(andatthebackaswellifyousodesire).Inthishouse,bothhensand roosters can be kept and are easily separatedwhile allowing each enoughspaceandexercise.

Theplatformandperches shouldbeconstructed insideofeach room.Whenthe perches are in need of cleaning, they are raised up against thewall in thehouse,inaperpendicularposition.Tocleanthetrough,theperchesandplatformareraisedperpendiculartothefloor.

Atwo-roomhenhousewithasouth-facingfront.

Thesepicturesshowhowtheperchescanbemovedtoallowforeasycleaning.

DuckHousesDucks, while they can survive rather well in any type of poultry house, arehappiestwhen theyhaveeitherastreamorpond inwhich toswim,bathe,andgather food. If you have a stream or pond on your property, situating a duckhousenearbywillhelpensurethattheduckeggsaresafeandsecure.

Ifyouareraisingagoodnumberofducks,yourduckhouseshouldbeabout30feetlongand12feethigh.Doorsshouldbesituatedinthefrontofthehouseandthehouseshouldhaveafewsmallwindowsthatcanbeslidopentoallowfreshairtocirculatewithintheduckhouse.Therearofthehouseshouldholdthenests(boxesopenatthefront).Asmalldoorshouldbesituatedbehindeachnestsotheeggscanbeeasilyremoved.

Youcanuseastripofwirenettingtoencloseasmall,narrowyardinthefrontof the house.Do not use twine netting, however, as the ducks could get theirheadstwistedinitandstranglethemselves.

Asimpleduckhouse.

Easy,CreativeCoopsIfyoudon’thavemuchspaceinyouryardandonlyhaveafewchickenstokeep,verygoodcoopscanbemadeataverysmallcostfromitemsfoundaroundyourhouse,yard,oratrummagesales:1. BarrelCoop

a. First,driveshinglenailsthroughthehoopsonbothsidesofeachstaveandclinchthemdownontheinside.

b. Divide the barrel in half, if it is big enough, by cutting through thehoopsandthebottom.

c. Drivesticksintothegroundtoholdthecoopinplace,anddrivealongstickateachsideoftheopenedendjustfarenoughfromthecooptoallowthefrontdoortobeslippedinandout.

d. Thenightdoorcanbemadefromtheheadof thebarreloranysolidboard,and theslatteddoor,used toconfine thehen,canbemadebynailinguprightstripsoflathtoacross-lathattopandbottom.

Floorplanfortheduckhouse.

Abarrelchickencoop.

2. BoxCoopa. Findaboxthatisroughly2to2½feetlong,16inchesdeep,and2feet

highandsawahole,d,inoneend.b. Strengthen theboxwithnarrowstripsofwood,b,c,oneachsideof

thehole.Thisactsasagrooveforthedoor,a,toslidein.Bydoingso,youwillhaveaslidingdoorthatopensandshutseasily.

c. Thefrontofthecoopisenclosedwithlath,ornarrowstrips,placed2½to 3 inches apart. The top should be covered with a good grade ofroofingpapertomakeitcompletelywaterproof.

Asimpleboxcoop.

3. PortableCoop—Thistypeofcoopwillallowyoutohaveafreshyardforyourchickensandotherpoultrytoscroungeinandiseasilytransportedtoanyplaceonyourproperty.a. ThecoopisbuiltofordinarymaterialonabaseframeandwithaV-

shapedroofandsideframes.Thepreferredlengthofthecoopisabout2feetandtheyardshouldbearound3to4feet.

b. Theridgepoleisextended,asshownateachend,toformahandle.c. Ifdesired, thehenmaybeallowed tofreelyroamtheyardorcanbe

containedwithinthecoopbyslats,asispicturedinthedrawing.

Aportablechickencoop.

PoultryHouseAidsandOtherConsiderations

FoldingChickenRoost

Thisroostismadeof3-inchboardscuttoanydesiredlengththatwillfitwithinyourpoultryhouse.Asmallboltfastenstheuprightpiecesattheirtopendsandthehorizontal pieces are fastenedonwith nails.This roost canbe kept at anyangleandmaybequicklytakenoutofthehousewhenitistimetoclean.Thissortofroostwillaccommodatemorefowlinthesamespacethantheflatkind.

Afoldingchickenroost.

KeepingRatsandMiceOutofthePoultryHouse

If you are building a permanent poultry house, you should try to make it asrodent-proof as possible. If rats andmice can easily enter your poultry house,theywillnotonlystealeggsandspreaddiseases,but theycouldscareorevenharmthefowl.Cheapandefficientwallscanbemadeofsmallfieldstonesinthisway:1. Digtrenchesforthewallsbelowthefrostline.

2. Drive two rows of stakes into the trenches, one row at each side of thetrench.

3. Setupboards inbetween the stakes.Theboardswill hold the stones and

cement in place until the cement hardens. The top boards should have astraightupperedgeandshouldbeplacedlevel todeterminethetopof thewall.

4. Placetwoorthreelayersofstoneinthebottomofthetrench,pourinthinlymixed cement, and pound it in. Repeat this until the desired height isreached.

5. Thetopofthewallshouldbesmoothedoffwithatrowelandleftuntilthecementcompletelyhardens.Thesideboardscannowberemovedandthepoultryhousebuilt.

WinterCareofFowl

If chickens and other fowl are not kept warm in the winter, they will stopgrowing,ceaselayingeggs,andcanbecomeill.Thereareseveralwaysyoucanwinterizechickencoopstoensureyourbirds’comfortandwell-being.

Especiallyifyouliveincolderclimates,havingahousewithhollowordoublesidewallswill helpkeepyour fowlwarmduring thewinter season.Buildingswith hollow side walls are warmer in the winter and are also cooler in thesummer. They do not collect asmuch severe frost and result in lessmoistureseepingintothehenhouseoncethefrostmelts.

The outsidewalls of chicken coops can be plastered or linedwithmatchedboardsandthespacesbetweentheboardsfilledwithwoodshavings,sawdust,orhay. The floor should be covered with several inches of dry sand, woodshavings, or straw, and the ventilating holes near the roof should be partlystoppeduporshuttersarrangedtoclosemostoftheminverycoldweather.Youdon’twanttosealtheplaceupcompletely,though.Nothingismoreimportanttothehealthoffowlthanpureair.Birdsbreathewithgreatrapidityandmaintaina

relativelyhighbodytemperature,sotheyneedplentyofoxygen.

Constructing a solid, insulated roof for your poultry house for thewinter isveryimportant.Aroofcanbebuilteitherbysealingtheinsidewithmaterialtoexclude draughts or by placing roof boards close together and covering themthoroughlywithtarredpaperbeforeshingling.Anordinaryshingledroofallowstoomuchwindtocomeintothehouseandcouldcauseyourfowltogetfrostedcombsorwattles.Ifthishappens,therewillnotbemuch,ifany,eggproductioninthewintermonths.

Hangingcurtainsinfrontoftheperchesisalsoagreatwaytokeepyourfowlwarmduring thewintermonths.Make thesecurtainsofburlapandhang themfromtheroofinsuchawaythattheperchesareenclosedinalittleroom.Makesurethecurtainsarelongenoughtotouchthefloorallaround,andsewtheedgesoftheburlaptogether,exceptatthecorners.Atnight,thecornerscanbepinnedtogether to keep the birds from leaving their sheltered perches. This pseudo–sleeping room allows air tomove in without creating drafts and it also helpsretain the birds’ body heat. This maintains a comfortable temperature for thebirdsduringcold,winternights.

Adrinkingfountainforyourchickenscanbemadewithacanorbucketandatray.Cutoutoneendofthecanandpokeholesalongtheedgeasshown.Fillwithwater,coverwithashallowtray,andturnthewholethingoverquickly.

Chickswillbeabletodrinkwatereasilywithoutriskofdrowning.

Fences,Gates,andPens

Whether you are looking to add a lovely fence and gate around your gardenplantsoryouhavepoultryorotherlivestocktokeepincheck,youmayneedtobuildafence,gate,oranimalpen.Thesestructurescanbeattractiveifwell-builtandshouldbeabletostanduptoallkindsofweatherandanimals.Dependingonyour needs, here are some various fences, gates, and pens you can easilyconstructinyouryardoronyourproperty.

FencesFencesareperfectforkeepinganimalsoryoungchildreninaconfinedspaceorfordrawingboundariesbetweenyoursandyourneighbor’spropertylines—butcheckwith your neighbors before you construct your fence tomake sure theydon’tmind.Alsocallyourlocalutilitycompaniestomakesurethatyouwillnotbedigginguppowerorgaslines.

WoodenFences

Wooden fences allow for good ventilation and an open, airy feel. They canprovide protection for young shrubs and plants as well as keep animals andchildrensafewithintheyardorfenced-inspace.

Themostcommontypeofwoodenfenceconsistsofhorizontalrailsnailedtoposts or stakes that are placed vertically into the ground.These fences can beconstructedwiththreeorfourhorizontalrailsmadeoutofsplitwood,spruce,orpinewoodplanks.Thepostsareusuallyabout6feetlongandsharpenedattheendthatwillbedriveninto theground(toadepthofroughly8 inches).Thesepostsshouldbespacedabout6feetapart.

Tokeepthepointed,earth-boundendsfromrotting,diptheminmeltedpitchbefore inserting them into the ground. To do this, boil linseed oil and stir inpulverizedcoaluntilitreachestheconsistencyofpaint.Brushacoatofthisonthewoodenpost.Makesurethepostsarecompletelydrybeforepaintingthem.Ifproperlydone,thisshouldkeepmoisturefromseepingintotheburiedpartsofthepostsandwillkeepyourfenceuprightformany,manyyears.

Asimplewoodenfenceisenoughtokeepmostanimalsintheirpastures.

Todrivethepostsintotheground,useaverygoodshoveloraheavywoodenmallet. For longer poles, use a post-hole borer. This saves lots of time andenergyandwillworkwithalmostalltypesofsoil.

Toconstructabasicwoodenfence,you’llneed:

MaterialsPost-holediggers,apost-holeborer,orashovel4x4woodenposts(woodthathasbeentreatedwilllastlongerbutisnotnecessary)2x4lumber(thistoocanbetreatedbutdoesnotneedtobe)orfenceboards(whichcanbepurchasedatyour localhomeandgardeningcenter)Thick,longnails

Aholeborerliftsthesoilfromtheholewithouthavingtousespades.These borers can be used by hand or electric models can bepurchasedforthesamepurpose.

You can nail wire mesh to the rails of a wooden fence for extrasecurityortoallowvinesorotherclimbingplantstogrowupalongtheposts.

Directions1. Decidewherethefencewillbeconstructedandthenlayaline

oftwineorstringtomarkouttheborder.2. Decide how tall you want your fence to be. Take into

considerationwhatthefenceisbeingusedfor(ifit’sforlargeranimals,suchasllamas,youmaywanta6-foot-tallfence;iffordecoration,ashorterfencemaydothetrick).

3. Digholesforyourendposts(inallfourcornersofyourfence).Makesuretheholesaredeepenoughtosupporttheendposts.Fillindirtaroundthepostsandpackinthesoilverywell.

4. Start digging the remaining holes, keeping them alignedwiththeendposts.

Abasicwoodenfence.

5. Insert theremainingposts intotheholes,pilinginthedirtandpackingitdownasbefore.

6. Nail on your fence boards, leaving a little space in between.Paintorstainthefinishedfenceifyouwish.

Note:Ifyouwantaprivacyfence,youcannailthickerboardshorizontallyorverticallybetweeneachpost,leavinglittlespaceinbetween.

Apicket fenceisconstructedbynailingtwoormorelongboardstoposts,andthennailingnarrowverticalboardstothehorizontalones.

Averysimplefencecanbemadebydrivingsmall treetrunksorbranchesintothegroundinatightrow.

Driveyourfencepolesfarenoughintothegroundthattheystandfirmlyuprightevenwhenmoderatepressureisappliedtooneside.

AG-linewirefenceconsistsofthree-plystrandsofwire.

WireFences

Wire fences are both portable and durable, making them convenient andeconomicaltobuild.Wirefencesusuallyhavealongerstayingpowerthan

Fences,Gates,andPens

woodenfencessincetheyarelesspronetodeteriorationorrot.

Themostcommontypeofwirefenceisonethathaswirelinesstrungbetweenwooden posts. Thewires are fastened to the posts by galvanizedwire staples.Thewooden posts should be spaced roughly 6 feet apart and should use fivesinglewires.

A more substantial wire fence can be made with G-line wires. Each lineconsistsofathree-plystrand.Insteadofthewiresbeingfastenedtothepostbystaples,holesarebored through thepostsand the linespass through.Strainingeyeboltswithnuts andwashers are attached for tighteningup the fence.Thistypeoffence,however,ismuchmoreexpensivetobuildand,unlessyoudesireafencethatisincrediblystrong,isprobablynotnecessary.

WireNettingFence

Galvanized wire netting fences are used for enclosing root gardens and forpoultryfences.Thestandardtypeofnettingusedwhenmakingthisfenceis3-inchmeshnettingthatis3feetx3feet,andisratherinexpensivetobuy.

Aseparatestripof2-inchgalvanizedwirenettingthatis6incheswidecanbelaidflatonthegroundonthesideofthefencewherethepoultryare—thiswaythey can not dig underneath, especially once grass and other naturalmaterialshidethewirenetting.

To dig in this type of fence, make a trench about 6 inches deep; drop thenetting into it; and then fill the trench up with dirt, stones, or even concrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwantthefencetobe.

Awirenettingfence.

PortableFences

Ifyouneedatemporaryfenceorifyouwanttoeasilymoveyourlivestockfencetonewgrazingareasonyourproperty,youmaywant toconsideroneof theseeasilymade,movablefences.Belowareafewtypesofportablefencesthatcanbetailoredtoyourspecificneeds.

ConvenientandPortableFence

Oftenitishelpfultohaveafencethatcanbequicklyerectedanddisassembled.This fence is very cheap, strong, and convenient to use. It is built out of pine(any otherwood can be substituted, but pine is typically lighter and easier tomove),1x6 inches for thebottomrailand1x4 inches for the top rails.Thebraces thathold ituprightare2x4 inchesand thebase (crosspiece) is2x6inches. The base is notched 2 inches and the bottom boards are notchedwithholes.

The base piece, which is more susceptible to rot, could be made out of astrongerwood,suchasoak.Makesurethepanelsaren’ttoolongortheymightwarpoutofshape.Thisfencecanbeputupveryquicklyandtakendownagainwitheaseifyouwanttomoveittoanotherpartofyouryardorgetridofitfora

while.

Aportablefence.

ScotchHurdleFence

Thismovablefenceconsistsof twoposts,each2x3 inchesand4½feet long.The lower ends are long and pointed which allows them to easily enter thegroundandpropupthefence.Thebraceandtwodiagonalsaremadeoflarchorfirwood.Thisfenceisaround9feetlongand4feethigh.

TheScotchhurdlefenceiseasytosetup.Theinclineshouldbefacingawayfrom any livestock you might have contained inside of it. A stay should beplaced between every two hurdles to keep them in position.Onewooden pegshouldbefastenedtooneendofthehurdleandanotherpegdriventhroughtheotherendandintotheground.

ThisScotchhurdlefenceisgoodfortemporaryuse.Ifyouliveinaverywindyarea,however, this fencemaynotsuityouwell,as theydohavea tendency tofalloverinstronggales.

EnglishHurdlePortableFence

This movable fence is much lighter, cheaper, and more convenient than theScotch hurdle fence. Usually made of split oak, this fence is tough andimpenetrable.Itconsistsoftwouprightendpiecesthatarejoinedbyfourorfivemortisedbars7 to9feet long.Thesearestrengthenedbyanuprightbar in themiddle and two or more diagonals. The end pieces are long and pointed forsettingintotheground.Tosettheseintotheearth,useanironcrowbartoavoidsplittingthetopofthewoodenpiece.

Thesefencesareseterectandnostayisneeded.Thetwoadjoiningendsofthefencesareconnectedwithabandthatispassedoverthem.

AnEnglishhurdleportablefence.

Gatescanbeuseful forentrances toayardorwalkway,aswellas foranimalpensorpastures.

Gates

Gatesareanecessarypartofany fenceorpenand theycanbe situated in thefencewherevertheycanbeeasilyaccessed.Ifyouhaveafield,yourgateshouldberoughly10feetwidetoallowsmallmachinerythrough.

Mostgatesaremadeofeitherwoodor iron (though iron isobviouslymuchmoreexpensiveandmorecomplicatedtoworkwith).Woodengateswillsufficeformostofyourhomesteadingneeds.Thefollowingareafewsimplegatesthatcan be used for your garden, your backyard fences, and your pens housinglivestock.

Inexpensive,SimpleGate

A light, useful, and durable gate can bemade of sassafras poles (or other tallgrass poles) andwire.Dig andplace a strongpost 4 feet in the ground in themiddleofthegatewayandbalancethegateonit.Thelowerrailismadeoftwoforkedsassafraspolessecurelynailed togetherso theycanbecoiledbackoverthepost.

Abasicwiregatecanbeconstructedwhenyouneedanopeninginyourfence.

EasilyOpenedGate

Toconstruct this simplegate, take anoldwheel (possibly foundat an antiquestore or rummage sale) and fasten it tomake a gate that youwill be openingfrequently.Thepieceofboard (A)dropsbetween thespokesof thewheelandholdsthegateeitheropenorclosed.

Aneasilyopenedgate.

RusticGardenGate

If your garden is bordered with a fence, or if you have shrubs or hedgesenclosing your backyard, you will want to install a homemade gate throughwhichtoenterthegardenoryard.

Thisgateplanismade6feetsquareand8feettall.Anytypeoftimbercanbeused.Toconstructthegate:

Thisrusticgardengateblendsinwellwithnaturalsurroundings.

1. Cuttheclosingandhingingsides6feetlong,6incheswide,and2½inchesthick.Thethreerailsareofthesamedimensionsandcanbehalvedtothestilesorwedgedandbraced.

2. Separatepiecesarefixedonthecentertosupportthegateandtomaketheframe,onwhichtheboardswillbeattached.

3. Twogatehingesandhookscanbeboltedonorsecuredfromthebackwithsquare-headedcoachscrews.

Closingstileforagardengate.

4. Beginfixingthedebarkedtwigs—theyshouldbeasstraightaspossible.5. Tomakethejointends,startbyfixingtheoutsidesquarethenthetwoinner

squaresandfinallythediagonalfilling.6. Thepostsshouldbe9 inches indiameterby9feet long(3feetshouldbe

buriedunderground).Cut threemortises in theposts to insert the rails forthesidefencing.Theserailsarenailedflushtothesecondaryposts.

7. Digholesforthepostsandpackinthesoiltightly(orfillintheholeswithcementforapermanentfixture).

Eitherofthesegateswillworkwellwiththerusticgardengate.

Asimpleslidinggatecanbemadeforanymodernorwirefence.

8. Afteraweekorso(let thecementdryfully), thegatecanbehungonthehingesandthelatchpositionedcorrectly.

SimpleGate

Thisisasimpleandappealinggate,especiallyforfencesleadingintopastures.Thematerials required tomake this gate vary depending onwhat purpose thegatewillserve.

Forapaddockorpasturegate,make itoutofseasonedboards,1x6 inchesand12to14feetlong.Thepostssupportingthegateshouldbeplacedabout5inchesapart,theoneontheinsidebeingabout8inchesaheadoftheother.Theseare joined togetherbycleatsor rollers that support thegate andallow it tobepushedback and swingopen. If rollers are not obtainable, cleatsmadeof anyhardwoodareacceptable.

Abamboofenceorgatecanbeconstructedbylashingthebambootogetherwithstrongrope.

This wire gate is hung on ordinary iron posts. The heel of the gate, made ofangleiron,isfittedwithwindingbracketsfortighteningthewirebars.

Asimplewireswinginggate.

PensIfyouhavebuiltasimplestabletohouseyourllamas,sheep,orotheranimals,itwill be beneficial to build a small fence around it as an outdoor pen.A basicwoodenfenceorasimplewirefencewillenclosemostofyour livestockinanareaaroundthestableorshelter.Ifyouhaveallamaortwo,itisbesttohaveatleast a 4-foot fence so they cannot escape. If youhave ample space, having apathway into a larger grazing field or pasture from your pen will allow youranimalstocomeandgoastheyplease.Or,ifyouwanttokeepthemconfinedinthepen,asimplegatewillsufficeforwhentheanimalsneedtoberemovedorrelocated.

Apigpeersovertheedgeofherpen.

BasicBridges

If you have a river or brook on your property, you may want to construct asimplebridge.Buildingthesebridgescanbefairlyeasy,especiallyifyoudon’tplan on transporting very heavymachinery or cars over them.Here are a fewdifferentwaystobuildbasicbridgesoverstreams,creeks,orotherrathernarrowwaterways.

Bridges can be fashioned in a range of shapes, styles, and sizes tomeet yourneeds.

Awoodernfootbridge.

FootbridgeThisnatural-lookingfootbridgecanbebuiltbetween8feetand12feetlong.

Excavatethebanksofthestreamorcreektoallowforthebuildingofasmall,low rubble or stonewall. The sleepers will rest on this wall. The girders areformed of wooden spars (four are used in this plan). The girders should bebetween 8 and 10 inches in diameter. Lay the girders down and bolt themtogetherinpairswithsix¾-inch-diameter

Acrosssectionofthefootbridge.

coachbolts.Wedgethepoststofitmortisesinthegirders.

Thepostsandtoprailsshouldberoughly4½to5½inchesindiameterandtheintermediaterails

Jointherailsofthefootbridgetothepostsasshownhere.

3inchesindiameter.Finally,jointherailstotheposts.

The bridge should be anchored well if it’s in a place where flooding isfrequent,asyoudon’twantyourfootbridgefloatingawayinthestream.Todoso,drivefourshortpilesintothesoilontheinsideofthegirders,neartheirends.Fastenthegirderstothepileswithcoachbolts.Thepiletopsarehiddenbytheendsofthefloorbattens.

Now, if youwant todecorateyour footbridge, you canuse small twigs andnailstomakepatternsonyourbridge.

SmallStreamBridgeIfyouhaveasmallcreekorstreamonyourproperty,youmaywanttoconstructa simple bridge for easy access to the other side. To build this bridge, you’llneedlumberthatis6incheswideand2inchesthick,andadditionallumberforthefloorandfoursidebraces.

Directions1. Saw11piecesofwoodthelengthrequiredforthetwosides.2. Boreboltholes1½inchesfromeachend.Use⅝-inchbolts8½incheslong

for where four pieces come together, and use 6½-inch bolts where threepiecesmeet.

3. Bolton theA-shapedsupportsandpieces for theapproachesatone time,andthenputonthesidebraces.

4. Thesidesofthebridgearemadeoftriangles.Thefirsttriangleismadeofpiecesa,b,andc.Thesecondtriangleismadeofpiecesb,d,ande.

5. The piers for this bridgemay bemade of posts, stone, or even concrete,dependingonhowpermanentyouwishyoursmallstreambridgetobe.

Abridgeforasmallstream.

AVerySimpleBridgeAnotherverysimplewayofbuildingabridgeacrossacreekorstreamistofindanarrowpart of thewaterwayand then find two logs that are longer than thecreekiswide.Theselogsshouldbeverysturdy(notrottedout)andthick.Placethem across the creek, so theymake a narrowbeamover thewater. Each logshouldhaveanextrafootateachendofthecreeksotheycanbesecurelywalkeduponwithnodangerofslippingintothecreekbed.Placethelogsroughlytwofeetapart.

Ifthewatercomesupclosetothebottomofthelogs,raisethemsothebridgedoesnot getwashed away inheavy stormsor during the courseof the streamrising.Raisingthebridgewillrequireabitmorework,aseachlogwillneedtobesetintoanotherlogontheedgeofthestreambedorevenintostonetomakeitmorepermanent.

After you have the two base logs secured, find some sticks that are longenough (and relatively thick) to layacross the topsof the two logs.Or, ifyouhaveextraplywoodorotherboards,thosecanbeusedaswell.Justmakesuretoplace the sticks or boards fairly close to one another, leaving only little gapsbetween them.Then, once all the sticks havebeen laid down, secure these bytyingtwineorropetothemandthebaselogs.

Ifyou’d likeyourbridge to last a little longer,youcanpave itwithclayorfine cement.Using a shovel, coat thebridgewith the clayor cementuntil it’sabout2inchesthick.Thenshoveldirtontotheclaymixture,packingitdownallover,andmakethebridgeasthickasyoulike.However,forjustasimplebridgeacrossanarrowstreamorcreek,thewoodensticksorboardswillworkjustfineandwon’trequireasmuchtimeandenergy.

Railingscanbefashionedlikewoodenfences(seepages248–251).

Forlongerbridges,youwillneedsupportsunderneath.

ToolShedsandWorkshops

Beforebuildingatoolshed,thinkaboutwhatyouwanttohouseinit.Ifyoujustneed it forsmall tools, suchasshovels,buckets,andawheelbarrow,asmallershedwillbe fine.However, ifyouplan tohousemachinery, suchasa tractor,lawnmower,chainsaw,orrototiller,you’llneedalargershedandyoumaywantto plan for a sliding garage door–style entrance.Will youwant aworkbench,space to pot plants, shelving, and drawers?Do youwant electrical outlets forpower tools and lights?Also consider location: Itmay bemore convenient tohaveitclosetoyourhouse,oryoumayprefertohaveitnearerthegarden.Hereareacoupleofexamplesoftoolshedsthatyoucanmodifytomeetyourneeds.

Decidewhatyouwillstoreinyourshedbeforeyoubeginbuildingsoyouknowwhatsizetomakeit.

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopThisshedislargeenoughtoeasilystoreyourbasicfarmmachinery.Theshedisbasicallyagiantumbrellawithposts30feetapartinonedirectionand12or16feetapart in theother.Therearenosides to thisshedatall (thoughyoucouldmodify this if you want to store other tools here). If you park your mainmachinery(tractor,lawnmower,andsoon)intheinnermostpartoftheshed,youshouldstillhaveanoverhangof10feet.Thisshedwouldbemostbeneficialifitwere10feethigh—thatway,mostanykindofmachineyouwanttohouseunderitwillfitwell.Boardingupone,two,orthreesideswillhelppreventsnowfromdriftinginduringthewinterandrainfromrustingyourequipment.Makingwalls

willalsoallowyoutohangtoolsontheinsideoftheshed,suchasclippers,weedwhackers,orhoses.

Theworkshop described herewill hold a lot of smaller tools and is a goodplace to mend harnesses, make repairs, and store grain. The workshop givesabouta30-footclearancespacefortheshedbelow.Theentirebuildingisbuilttogetherusingthefollowingmaterials:

2x8-inchpostsThreepiecesof2x12-inchwoodmaterials(spacethese2inchesapart)2x10-inchboxplates6x6-inchbridgetruss2 x 4-inch or 2 x 6-inch beams for the rafters (depending on howmuchweighttheymusthold)

The floor of your shed should be either hard dirt or cement and the postsshouldbeanchoredfirmlyintothegroundoronstonepillars.Ashingleroofwillensureyoursmallerworkshoptoolsarekeptsafefromtherainandsnow.

Plansforamedium-sizedtoolshedandworkshop.

Youmaywanttobuildaworkbenchinyourshedforyourwoodworkingprojects.

Small,RusticToolShedThissmall,rustic toolshedismadefrom“slabs”or“roughplanks.”Ifyouareusingtreesfromyourownpropertytobuildtheshed,youwon’thavetobotherpeelingthebarkfromthelogsorcuttingthemasexactly.Slabsarecheaptobuy(theycanbefoundatsawmillsandsometimesathomecenters),andcreateanattractive,“woodsy”look.Althoughtheboardsaretypicallynotuniforminsize,youcanpositiontheminsuchawaytominimizethenumberoflargecracksinyourshed.

Theseboardsmayneedtobestraightened(especiallytheedges)withasaworaxe,andtheinteriorofthetoolshedshouldbelinedwiththinboardstocoverupcracksandtokeepoutinsectsandanimals.

Whenbeginningconstructiononthistypeofshed,searchforboardsthatlendthemselvesbettertobeingendpostsandthosethatarebetter-suitedforthewalls.Thecornersofthefourmainposts(4inchessquare)constructabuildingroughly7x5feet.Digholes2feetintothegroundandfitintheendposts.

Onthetopsoftheseposts,restthewallplates—theseshouldbe3inchesdeep.Theseboardswillbeatthebackandsidesoftheshedonly.Thesideswillalsoneedcrossrailsthatarearound2to3inchesthickwithendsflushtothecornerposts.Nailthesideandbackboardstothesecrossboardstosecurethem.

Place two door posts in the front of the shed. They should stand 2 feet 8

inchesapartandshouldbeabout3inchessquare.Theyshouldriseabout6feetorsotoattachtotherafters.Fillinthespacebetweenthedoorandcornerpostswithextraboards.

Afinishedsmall,rustictoolshed.

Plansfortheinsideofarustictoolshed.

The roof for this tool shedcanbe thatchedormadeofboardsand shingles,whichever you prefer.Make rafters and laths out of regular boards, arrangingthem about 1 foot apart, and the laths should be placed 6 inches apart forthatching. The shed can also be cheaply roofed with galvanized iron or tinroofing.

Thedoorofthetoolshedhastheslabsnailedtoitontheoutsideonly,tomakeitaestheticallyconsistent.Attachhingesandthedoorshouldbeready.Insidetheshed,setsofshelvesmaybehunginwhichtoolsandotheritemscanbestored(c).Awheelbarrowcanbe storedupright at theback (d) and tools hung from

hookscomingdownfromtherafters.Gardeningtoolsandrakescanbestoredontheright-handside(e)andachaircansitnearthefrontofthedoor(f).

Shedscanbecustomizedtomeetyourwantsandneeds.

Smokehouses

Ifyouareslaughteringyourownpoultryorotherlivestock,orifyoujustlikethetaste of smoked meat, try making your own smokehouse. Smokehouses helpexposemeatstotheactionofcreosoteandempyreumaticvaporsresultingfromthe imperfect combustionofwood.Thepeculiar tasteof smokedmeat is fromthecreosote—thisalsohelpspreservethemeat.Otherflavorsarealsoimpartedontothemeatbythechoiceofwoodthatisburnedinthesmokehouse,suchashickory.

Tomakeasmokehouseyou’llneedaspace(anythingfromthesizeofabarrelto a barn-sized area will work) that can be filled with smoke and closed uptightly. You’ll also need a way to hang the meat that needs to be cured. Incommonsmokehouses,afireismadeonastoneslabinthemiddleofthefloor.Inotherinstances,apitisdugaboutafootdeepintothegroundandthefireisbuiltwithinit.Sometimesastoneslabcoversthefirelikeastandardtable.Thepossibilities are many, depending on your space and needs. Below are a fewexamples of smokehouses that can be built and used for smoking your ownmeats.

Smokehousescanbemadeoutofstucco,brick,orwood.

Interiorviewofastandardsmokehouse.

StandardSmokehouseThis smokehousediffuses the rising smoke andprevents thedirect heat of thefire from affecting themeats that are hung directly above it. In the picture, asectionofthesmokehouseisshown.

This standard smokehouse is 8 feet square and built of bricks—making it asomewhatpermanentstructureinyouryard.Ifyouwanttomakeitoutofwood,besure toplaster iscompletelyon the inside.Thechimney, (c),hasan8-inchflue and the fireplace, (b), is outside, below the level of the floor. From thispoint,aflue,(f), iscarriedunderneaththechimneyintothemiddleofthefloorwhereitopensupunderastonetable,(e).

Tokindlethefire,avalveisdrawntodirectlydraftupthroughthechimney.Thewoodchipsarethrownontothefireandthevalveisthenplacedtodirectthesmokeintothebricksmokehouse.Thereareopenings,(g,g),inboththeupperand lower parts of the chimney that are closed by valves (these can bemanipulatedfromoutsidethesmokehouse).Thedoorofthesmokehouseshouldbemade toshut tightlyand,whenbuilding thesmokehouse,besure that therearenocracksinthebrickormortarthroughwhichsmokecaneasilyescape.

This typeof smokehouse isconvenientbecause thesmokecoolsbefore it ispumpedintothechamberandnoashesrisewiththesmoke.Meatmaybekeptinthissmokehouseallyearwithouttastingtoosmoky.

AnotherBrickSmokehouseAsmokehouseofthiskind,built7x9feet,willbesufficientforprivateuse.Thebottom of this smokehouse has a brick archwith bricks left out sporadically.Thisistoallowtheextractionofsmokefromthehouse.

Located above the arch are two series of iron rods that have hooks withgrooved wheels. You can find these at most local hardware stores. The openarchwayisforhousingthefireandthereisadoorwithstepsleadinguptoit.Aseriesofventilatingholesaresituatedabovethelowerbarandbelowtheupperbar. These holes aremeant to allow the smoke to escape from the house. Byreinserting bricks into these holes, the smokewill staymostly confined to theinsideofthesmokehouse.

Thisisasectionalviewofabricksmokehousethatcanbebuilttoanysize.

Thearchconfinesthefireandashes,preventinganymeatthatmightfallfrombeingruinedorburned.Thearchismadeoverawoodenframeofafewpiecesof regular wood board, cut into an oval arch shape. Strips of wood are thennailed to this. When the brickwork is dry, the center is knocked out andremoved.A small door canbe fashioned to closeup the archwhen the fire isbeingkilned.

Thedrawingshowsacommonsmokehousethatisbuiltonabrickwallandoverabrickarch.Thereareanumberofholesleftinitforsmoketoescape.Theashpitislocatedbeneaththearch,andthereisalsoadoorthatopenstothispit.Toreachthemeatroomdoor,useasturdyladder.

Fishthatarehungandreadytobesmoked.

ASimpleWaytoSmokeMeatsIfyoudon’twanttocommittobuildingapermanentsmokehouseinyouryardbut youwould like to smokemeats occasionally, you can use a large cask orbarrelasasmokehousesubstitute.

Tomakethebarrelintoaneffectivesmokehouse,justfollowthesesteps:1. Digasmallpitandplaceaflatstoneorabrickacrossit.Thisiswherethe

edgeofthecaskwillrest.2. Making sure that half of the pit is beneath the barrel and half is outside,

remove the head and bottom of the barrel (or cut a hole into the bottomslightlylargerthantheportionofthepitbeneathit).

3. Removethetopofthebarrelandthenhangthemeatoncross-sticks.Restthesecross-sticksoncrossbarsthataremadetofitintoholesboredintothesidesofthebarrel,closetothetop.

Asmokebarrelisasimplemethodforsmokingmeats.

4. Putthelidontopofthebarrelandcoveritwithasacktoconfinethesmokeinside.

5. Putcoalsintothepitoutsideofthecask,andthenfeedthefirewithdampcorncobsorafinebrush.

6. Cover the pitwith a flat stone thatwill help regulate the fire and can beremovedwhenmorefuelisneeded.

Theinteriorofasmokehouse.

RootCellars

Whilemostmodern houses have basements or crawl spaces inwhich to keepfresh vegetables and preserves cool and dry, you may want to construct anadditional rootcellar ifyou’llbe storingsignificantamountsof these items.Arootcellarshouldbelocatednearyourhomeandshouldbedry,well-ventilated,andfrostproof.Creatingyourownrootcellar isnot terriblyexpensiveandwillgiveyouryardandpropertyatrueback-to-basicsfeel.

RootCellarAslopedareainyouryardistheperfectplacetomakearootcellar.Toconstructtherootcellar,followthesesimplesteps:1. Makeanexcavationinthesideofthehill,determininghowlargeyou’dlike

yourrootcellartobe.2. In the excavation, erect a sturdy frame of timber and planks, or even of

logs.Putupplankstostandassidewalls,andbuildastrongroofovertheframe.

3. Throwtheexcavatedearthoverthestructureuntilitiscompletelycoveredbyatleast2feetofsoil.

4. On the exposed end, make a door that is large enough for you to enterwithoutducking.Or,ifyoulike,youcanmakea“manhole”throughwhichyoucanenter—thiswill actuallyprotectyour root cellar from frostmuchbetterthanafull-sizeddoor.

If the soil in the hill is composed of stiff clay, youmay not even need toconstructanysidewalls,and theroofcanbefitteddirectly into theclay.Thenbuildupthefrontofthecellarwithplanks,bricks,orstone,andcreateadoor.

Arootcellarcanbebuiltintothesideofahillusingstone,bricks,orwood.

RootHouseIfyoudonothavealargehillonyourpropertyandwouldstillliketoconstructarootcellar,findaknollorotherdryplaceandremovethesoiloveraspacethatisslightlylargerthanthesizeofthecellar(orroothouseifthestructureisnotbuiltintoahill)andabout2feetdeep.Toconstructthisroothouse:1. Selectpolesorlogsoftwodifferentsizes.Thewideronesshouldbeshorter

thantheothertwo.

Thebaseoftheroothouse.

Thefinishedroothouse.

2. Cuttheendsofthelogsveryflatsotheywillfitcloselytogetherandmakeaverytight,pen-likestructure.

3. Cuttwologsineachlayerlongenoughtopassthroughandfitintotheouterpen.Thiswillhelpfastenthetwowallstogether.

4. Buildthedoorwayupwithshortlogspassingfromonelayerofpolestothe

other.Theseserveassupportstotheendsofthewallpoles.5. Fillinthespacebetweenthesetwowallswithsoil.Itisimportantthatthese

arefilledinfully(sodmayalsobeusedtopackinspacesbetweenthelogs)to protect the inside storage items from frost and to keep the wholestructurecool.Packupthesoilasyouconstructthewallssoyoucanmoreeasilycompactitasyoubuildup.

6. When thewalls are about 5 or 6 feet on one side and 2 or 3 feet on theother, put the roof on. The roof is made of poles placed close together,securedtothelogs,andcoveredwithsod,then18inchesofsoil.Itisthenfinishedoffwithsodonceagain.

Rootcellarsorhousesaregreatforkeepingvegetableslikepotatoesorcarrotsandforapples,whichcankeepformonthsincool,drystorage.

TreehousesandBrushHouses

Treehousesandbrushhousescanbeusedastreetopfortsandplayhouses,orasrelaxing spaces inwhich you can read and enjoy being surrounded by foliageandothertreetopcreatures.Buildingatreehouserequiresalotofworkandsomegoodplanning.Itisimperativethatthehouseisbuiltintreesthatarelargeandsturdy. Ifyoudonothavesuchold trees inyouryard,youcanalwaysmodifytheseplanstobuildtreetophavensonwoodenplatformsraisedaboveground,orconstructasimplerbrushhouse.

Treehousescanbeverysimpleorveryelaborate,basedonyourresourcesandpreferences.

LowTwo-treeTreehouseThistreehousecanbeconstructedoutofordinaryboardsandtimber.Itdoesnotsitupashigh in the treesbut isstillelevatedabove theground togiveagoodviewoftheyardandsurroundingarea.

Directions1. Selecta locationbetweentwotreesthatareroughly6to8feetapart.The

treesshouldhavefairlystraight trunksandshouldbeat least15inches indiameter.Makesuretheyarehealthyandsturdy—notdecayinginanyway.

2. Usinganaxe,clearoff thebrushandsmallbranchesup to20 feeton thetreetrunks(ortotheheightofwherethetreehousewillbelocated).

3. Takefourorfivepiecesofspruce(fromalumberyardorhomecenter)thatare2inchesthick,8incheswide,and16feetlong.Sawoffandnailtwoofthepiecestothetrunksofthetrees8feetabovetheground.First,cutawaysomeof thebarkandwood tomakea flat surfaceon the trunk.Youwillneed16-inchsteel-wirenailstoanchortheboardstothetrees.

4. Cut two timbers 6 feet long and the other two the length of distancebetweenthetreetrunks.Inthe6-footpieces,cutnotchesontheunderside.Theendsofthebrackettimberswillfitintothesenotches.

5. Cut the ends of the timbers to forma square frame so that theydovetail.Spikein6-foot timberstothetreetrunkssothat theywillrestonthefirsttwotimbersthatwerenailedtothetrees(seetoprightimageonpage270).

6. Place the remaining two timbers inpositionso that theends fit into thosefastenedtothetrees.Nailthemwell.

7. Support the first timbers that are spiked to the tree trunks with 15-inchblocksnailedbelowthem.Thecrosstimbersandlastonesformtheframe.Placetheframeintothedovetailedjointsattheends.

8. Cuttwomoretimbersandlaythemacrossthesupportingtimbersnailedtothetrees,sotheywillfitinsidethefrontandbacktimbers,andsecurethemwithlongnails.Thefloorframeisnowcomplete.

9. Constructaframe7feethighatthefrontand6feethighinthebackoutof

2x3-inchspruce.Spikethesidetimbers,formingthetop,totheinsidesofthetreetrunks(seebottomrightimageonpage270).Mountthebottomsoftheuprightsonthecornersofthefloorframeandusefourlongnailstoholdtheminplace.

10. Now,cuttwotimbersandarrangetheminanuprightpositionatthefront,30inchesapart.Thedoorwillbehere.Halfwaybetweenthefloorandthetopoftheframework,constructtimberallaroundexceptbetweenthedoortimbers.Thiswill add strength andwill allow the sheathing boards to benailed.Itwillalsomakeonemoreanchoringbeambetweenthetreetrunks.

11. Nail the side rails into the tree trunks in a correspondingway to the top(roof)strips.

12. Makethefloorfromlumber4,6,or10incheswide.Theboardsshouldbeplanedonbothsides.

13. Constructtheroofofthesameboards.Youcanlaytarredpaperoverthemandfastenittotheedgeswithnails.Thiswillhelpwaterprooftheroofforatleastoneyear.Tomaketherooflastlonger,youcanshingleit.

14. Windows can also bemade in the side and backwalls. These should beabout 24 inches square. The door can be constructed out of boards heldtogetherwithbattens.A lockcanalsobe furnished tokeepoutunwantedvisitors.

The treehouse will need a ladder for you to access it. This can either bepurchasedfromayardsaleorcanbemadeoutofhickorypolesandcross-sticks20 inches wide. To keep the ladder from slipping while ascending anddescending,affixloopstothetopoftheladder;thesewillfitoverlarge,sturdynailsdrivenintothedoorsill,andtheladderwillberelativelystable.

Aflexibleladdercanalsobemadeoutofropesandhungmuchthesamewayasthewoodenladder.Thistypeofladder,thoughnotassturdy,canbedrawnupwhenpeopleareinthetreehousesonooneelsecanenter.

Insidethetreehouse,smallchairsandotherseatscanbeconstructedandusedforrelaxing.

Refertotheseillustrationswhenconstructingthelowtwo-treetreehouse.

Narrow shelving can be made and fastened over the windows with brackets.Small things can then be housed on these shelves.A small tablemay also behousedinthetreetopshelter.

HighTreehouseinOneTreeIf you have a tree large and strong enough (oaks are very good for this), a

treehousecanbesuccessfullybuilt in itsbranches.For thisplan, the treehousewillbe25 feetabove theground,andbelow it isa landing fromwhicha ropeladdercanbedroppedtotheground.Amoresolid,woodenladderconnectsthelandingwiththedeckofthetreehouseanditcanbesituatedthroughaholeinthedeckofthehouse.

Since every tree is different, it is difficult to give exact dimensions of theframe of this treehouse and how many floorboards should be used. But theconstructionof a single-tree treehouse is, inmanyways, similar to that of thelowtwo-treetreehouse.Thetrunkofthetreewillhavetoprojectupthroughthetreehouseandtheout-spreadingbrancheswillneedtosupportthelowerpartsofthefloorframe.Thistreehousecanhaveeitherapeakedoraflatroof,dependingon the structure of the treehouse and the space allowed for a roof within thetreetop.

Plansforbuildingahightreehouseinonetree.

Atreehousecanalsobebuiltontwotrees,asshownhere.

Youcanconstructawoodenladderoraropeladderforyourtreehouse.

Brace the floorboardswell to themain trunkof the treewith longandshortbracketsorprops.Thesewillhelpmakethehousesecure.Drivelargespikesintothetreewherethelowerendsattachtothetrunk.Nailingcleatsorblocksunderthesewillhelptosupportandstrengthenthestructure.

BrushHousesBrush houses also make wonderful outdoor escapes and can be great playstructures for children. These too can be constructed from simple andinexpensivematerialsand lookmuch like islandhuts.Theyaremucheasier toconstruct than treehouses and the materials can be found in most gardens orfields.

SimpleBrushHouse

Brushhouses canbemade fromany typeof reedor tall gardenorwildplant.Artichokes, cattail reeds,wild sunflowers, and some species of flag have longandstrongstalksand reedssufficient formaking thesidesand roofofabrushhouse.Theseplantssometimesgrowupto10feettallandhavestraight,uniformstalksthatcanbeusedforthehouse.Tobuildasimplebrushhouse,followthesesteps:1. Gatherlotsoftallreedsandstalks.Cutoffthefoliageatthetop(ifany)and

othersmallunder-branchesandleaves.Thegoalistoleaveafairlystraightshaftbetween6and8feettall.

2. Takefoursticks,each8feetlong,andsettheminthegroundabout6feetapart, forminga square.Sinkeachstick into thegroundabout2 feet, andbindtheupperendstogetherwithrails2incheswideandaninchthick.

3. Give the roof a pitch by cutting off the rear posts 6 inches and leave 6inchesmoreonthefrontpostsoutoftheground.Thiswillgiveyouapitchof1foot.Whiletheslantisnotnecessary,itdoesaddadifferentfeeltothebrushhousethaniftheroofisleftflat(thoughthisworksjustaswell).

4. Beginweavingthereedsasyouwouldabasket(seeabove).Makethreeofthe frames for the sides and back of the house. The front, above thedoorway and at either side, should also have woven frames of reeds tocoverupthesespaces.

5. Bendtheendsofthecross-reedsaroundtheendsoftheuprightreeds(seeillustration).Thenbindthemwithstringortiethemtightlywithlongpiecesofgrass.

Weavingandthatchingstepsforabrushhouse.

Frameforabrushlean-to.

6. Tomakewindowsinthesidewalls,cutoutasectionofoneortwouprightreeds,andturningthecross-reedsbackandtyingthem,you’llmakeanicewindow.

7. Tomake the doorway, push two upright sticks into the ground on eithersideof the frameandnail a rail (another stick) to theirupperends.Frontreedscanthenbeattachedtotheframetomakeadoor.

8. Thehouseisnowreadytobethatchedwithlong,drygrassordriedcattailreeds.Thatchingisdonebyinterweavinglonggrassesorreedsbetweenthecross-reedsinaverticalposition.Thethatchingmaterialshouldbebetween18and24incheslongsothat itcanbeeasilywovenbetweenthreecross-

reeds.Strawcanalsobeusedtothatchthebrushhouse.9. Make sure that each side is lashedwell to the cornerpostswith stringor

longgrasses.Theroof,too,shouldbeattachedtightlytothetopofthesidesandfrontwithlongreedsorheavystring.

10. Weave the roof in the same way as the walls, but try to thatch it muchtighter,tokeepouttherain.Fourinchesoftheroofshouldextendoverthesides,front,andrearofthebrushhouse.

BrushLean-to

Thisextremelysimplebrushhousecaneasilybemadeinlessthananhourandisawonderful place for children’s imaginations to runwild.This lean-to canbeconstructed in almost the sameway as the simple brush house and should bethatchedwithgrassorreedsaswell.

Thecornerpostsforthebrushlean-toare3feethigh,theridgepoleis7½feetabove the ground (a foot or so should be buried underground), and the hutshouldbefrom5to8feetsquare.Maketheframeoutofsmalltreesandnailittogether to stand strong against the wind. Lash the edges of the thatchedframeworktothestickswithstrongstring.

Trellises

Atrelliscanbeaveryattractiveadditiontoanyyardorgarden.Creepingplantsandvinescanbeplantedandmadetowindupthetrellis,addinganotherelementofgreenplantlifetoyourgarden.

Thistrellisismadeofwoodenlatticeworkandpaintedwhite.

GardenTrellisIfyouwant tobuildasubstantial trellis inyouryardorgarden, thestructureitleansagainstwillneedtobeabout20feettall(ofcourse,thesedimensionscanbeeasilyaltered tosuityourneedsandspace).Thetrellismaybemadeoutof

anymaterial (fir or other straight, debarked saplings or twigsworkwell).Thetrellisposts shouldbe12 feet longand the fourposts for thearchesshouldberoughly4 inches indiameter.Therailsof the trellisare2½inches indiameterandthetwigsshouldbearound2inchesindiameter.Ifyouwanttoincorporateseating intoyour trellis,makeone seat roughly6 feet longby1 foot4 incheswide.

The trellis shown below is complete with benches and a canopy. Place theshores3½feetabovethegroundlineata50-degreeangle.Digthepostsintothegroundabout3feet,tomakethemmoresecure.Packthesoildenselyaroundthepoststomakethemstronger.

Thistrellisismadefromsaplingsandsmallbranches.

Detailofthebeveledandnotchedposts,securedwithnails.

Thearchwaymaybeconstructedbeforebeingattachedtothelargerstructure.Bevel the rail ends, notch them to the posts, and secure themwith nails (seeillustration).Aftertheframeworkiserectedandputintoposition,digholesandburytheshoresdeepintothegroundandnailthetopendstotheuprightpieces.Alsofirmlyburytheshorterpostsfortheseatsintothegroundaboutafootandahalf. The end seat bearers should be nailed to the end posts and the centerbearersshouldbenailedtothefrontandbackcenterposts.

Thissimpletrellisisidealfortheentrancetoayardorgarden.Thepicketfencegateisanattractiveaddition.

Weathervanes

Ifyouhavejustbuiltoneoftheshedsorstablesinthisbook,youcouldbuildaweathervaneforthetopofit.Weathervanescanbemadeinavarietyofshapesand sizes, and many are made simply for decoration. Here are just a fewexamplesofdifferentweathervanesyoucaneasilymake.

PinwheelWeathervane

Apinwheelweathervane.

Thispinwheelweathervaneisverysimpletomake.Itconsistsofheavy-dutytinorsheetiron,awoodenshaftthatis20incheslong,andafantail12incheslongand7incheswideattheend.Toconstructthisweathervane:1. Punchasmallholeinthecenterofthesheetoftinorironnolessthan10

inchessquare.2. With a pencil compass (easily found at any office supply store), draw a

circle10 inches indiameter.Half an inch in from thecircle’s edge,drawanothercircle9inchesindiameter.Fromthecenter,goout1inchanddrawa third circle 2 inches in diameter.Then, divide the disk into eight equalparts.

3. Withasmallchiselorboxcutter,cutonthelinesandbendthemetalearssothecornerscanbendbackaninchfromtherim.Withapairofscissors,cutaroundtheoutsidelineandpunchoutthewheelfromthesheetofmetal.

Awind-speederweathervane.

4. Atthefrontofthewheel,fastenaspoolwithsteelwirenailsdriventhroughthemetalwheel.Thiswillactasahub.Then,ifyoulike,youcanpaintbothwithacoatofpaint.

5. Make awooden shaft one inch square and cut it in at one end about 10inches.Attheotherendoftheshaft,bindthewoodforaninchortwowithfinewiretopreventitfromslippingandboreaholeintheendwithanawl.Drivea flat-headedsteelwirenailor a screw through the spoolanddisk,intotheholeintheshafttoactasthepinonwhichthewheelcanturn.

6. Cutafantailoutofalightpieceofwoodabout⅜inchesthickand7incheswideatoneend.Insertthisintothecutontheshaftandsecureitwithsmallnailsorscrews.

7. Drillanotherholenearthetopoftheshaftandattachanotherspooltoforma larger bearing. A vertical shaft or pin should pass through this hole toholdthevanesteadyandtopreventitfromtiltingforwardorbackward.

8. Placetheweathervaneonyourshedorstableandwatchittwistandturninthewind.

Wind-SpeederWeathervaneWind-speedersmaybeconstructedofmetalorofwood.

MaterialsTwosticks(30incheslongand¾inchsquare)FourtinfunnelswiththeirendsstoppedupApole(drivealongironpinintooneendforthehubtorevolvearound)SmalltubingNailsLarge,flatwasherHubPaint(optional)

Directions1. Cutthetwosticksinthemiddlesotheywilloverlap.Withsteelnails,attach

themtoahub¾inchthickand3inchesindiameter.2. Inthecenterofthehub,cutahole¼inchindiameter.3. Cut the end of each stick so a funnel can be inserted into it. Hold each

funnel in place by fastening the neck to the top andbottomof the cross-stickswithastrapoftinorotherbindingdevice.

4. Punchasmallholewithasharp-pointedawlthroughthestrapandneckanddrivealong,slimsteelnailthroughbothendsintotheendofthestick.Thisgivesthefunnelssomeadditionalhold.

5. Attach thewasher to thewoodtoreducefrictionand toprevent thewoodfromwearingawaynearthehub.

6. Beforeyouslipthewind-speederovertheuprightpin,placeashortpieceofsmalltubingoveritsoitwillrestbetweenthehubandthetopofthepole.

7. Paintthewind-speederwhatevercoloryoudesireandmountitonalargerpoleorshedroof.

ArrowWeathervaneThe oldest and most recognized weathervane is the arrow weathervane. Thisuniversalmodelissimpletomakeandcanbecraftedoutofmanydifferenttypesofmaterial.

An arrow weathervane can be made of any length to suit the height andstructureitwillbeplacedon.Fortheroofofastableorshed,however,itshouldberoughly24to36incheslong,withablade5to6incheswide.

Thisweathervaneismadeinthreepieces:thepoint,theshaft,andtheblade.Theshaftismadefromhardwood,¾inchsquare.Makecutsintheendsofthewoodinfortinorsheet-metalpointsandbladestobeinserted.Holdthesebladesinplacewithnailsdriventhroughthewoodand

Anarrowweathervane.

Weathervanes

clinchedontheoppositeside.Balancethearrowandmakeaholeintheshaftfortheuprightpinorrodtopassthrough.

Drive a ring or ferrule into the upright rod to hold the arrow in the correctplace.Belowit,placetworodsatrightangles.Attheendsoftheserods,attachthelettersN,E,S,andW.Theserodscanbeconstructedofbrassorwood.Thelettersshouldbemadeoftinorsheetmetalandtheyshouldbeinsertedintoslitsmade in thewoodorbrassandheld inplacewith slimnails.Nowyourarrowweathervaneisreadyforuse.

WoodenWeathervanesYoucanmakethesedecorativeweathervaneswithascrollsawandjackknifeoracompasssawandcarvingchisels.Theycanbeanysizeandcanbeplacedonanytypeofpoleorbuilding.Toseethecharactersatthetop,however,youmaywanttoplacethemlowertotheground,inagardenorflowerbed.

Woodenweathervanes.

Thefishweathervaneiscutfromwoodthatis⅝inchthick.Theedgesofthewoodarebeveledsoastogivethefisharoundedlook.Balancethefishontheedgeofapieceofwoodtodeterminewheretherodshouldpassthroughit.Then,witha¼-inchbit,carefullyboretheholefromtoptobottom.Makethecompasspoint letters from sheet tin and support themon two cross-sticks and a strongwirehoop,12to15inchesindiameter.

Theladywiththeumbrellaiscutfromwoodthatis½inchthick.Sheshouldbearound15incheshighand½incheswideatthebottomofherskirt.Borea¼-inch hole from her shoes to her hat through her entire body.However, if thisprovestoodifficult,youcanputalargestapleatthetopandatthebottomandtheninserttherodthroughtheseholes.

Thesquirrelismadeinthesamewayastheladyandcanbebalancedonarodthatpassesthroughthebodyorbymeansofstaples.Putaringandwasherontherodatthebottomoftheweathervanesoitcanrestonthemwithoutanyfriction.

Thebirdiscutoutandbalancedinthesamewayasthefish.Itmaybecarvedinwoodorpaintedtogiveshapeandcharactertotheweathervane.Itshouldbemountedinthesamewayasthefish.

Foranevensimplerwaytotellthedirectionofthewind,makeawindsockbytyingalightweightbagorsacktoapole.

PartFiveEnergy

“Energyconservationisthefoundationofenergyindependence.”

—ThomasH.Allen

Withtheextremefluctuationinoilpricesandever-growingconcernsaboutthestateofourenvironment,it’snowonderthatmoreandmorepeopleareturningtothenaturalelementsforpower.Sun,wind,water,andearthhaveprovidedforthebasicneedsofhumanitysincethebeginningoftimeanditonlymakessensetolearnhowtoworkwiththemmoreefficiently.Theterm“self-sufficiency,”asitiscommonlyused,issomethingofamisnomer.Wewillneverbeabletomeetallofourownneedsalone.Wedon’tcreate thenaturalworld that suppliesuswith the light, heat, and other resources thatwe depend on.Butwe can learnhowtomakegooduseof thosegifts. In thesepagesyouwill findbothsimpleand advanced projects to do so, from fashioning and using solar cookers tobuildingandinstallingwindturbinestoutilizinggeothermalsystems.There’salothere,butit’sonlyasamplingofthemethodsavailableforharnessingnaturalenergy.Lookonlineorvisityourlibraryformoreideas,plans,andtips;you’llalsofindanextensivelistofresourcesinthebackofthisbook.Rememberthatthesimplestandperhapsmosteffectivewaytobeenergy-efficientistouselessofit.Thesimplethings,liketurningoffalightwhenyou’renotintheroom—oreven using candlelight in the evenings—canmake a big difference. Themoreyou understand about the process of turning the natural elements into usableenergy,themoreyou’llappreciatethevalueofelectricityandwanttoconserveitinanywayyoucan.

SolarEnergy

Solar energy is, in its simplest form, the sun’s rays that reach the earth (alsoknownassolarradiation).Whenyoustepoutsideonahot,sunnysummerday,youcanfeelthepowerofthesun’sheatandlight.Solarenergycanbeharnessedtodoavarietyofthingsinyourhome.Theseinclude:

Heating your home through passive solar design or through active solarheatingsystemsGeneratingelectricityHeatingwaterinyourhomeHeatingswimmingpoolwaterLightingyourhomebothinsideandoutDryingyourclothesviaaclotheslinestrungoutsideindirectsunlight

Solarenergycanalsobeconvertedintothermal(heat)energyandusedtoheatwater for use inhomes, buildings, or swimmingpools and also toheat spacesinsidehomes,greenhouses,andotherbuildings.

Photovoltaic energy is the conversion of sunlight directly into electricity.Aphotovoltaiccell,knownasasolarorPVcell,isthetechnologyusedtoconvertsolarenergy intoelectricalpower.APVcell isanon-mechanicaldevicemadefromsiliconalloys.PVsystemsareoftenused inremote locations thatarenotconnected to an electric grid. These systems are also used to power watches,calculators,andlightedroadsigns.

PVsystemcomponents.

AdvantagesofSolarEnergyIt’sfree.Itssuppliesareunlimited.Solar heating systems reduce the amount of air pollution andgreenhouse gases that result from using fossil fuels (oil,propane,andnaturalgas)forheatingorgeneratingelectricityinyourhome.Solar heating systems reduce heating and fuel bills in thewinter.Itismostcost-effectivewhenusedfortheentireyear.

DisadvantagesofSolarEnergyTheamountofsunlightthatarrivesattheearth’ssurfaceisnotconstant and depends on location, time of day and year, andweatherconditions.Alargesurfaceareaisrequiredtocollectthesun’senergyatausefulrate.

SolarThermalEnergySolar thermal (heat) energy is used most often for heating swimming pools,heating water to be used in homes, and heating specific spaces in buildings.Solarspaceheatingsystemsareeitherpassiveoractive.

PassiveSolarSpaceHeating

Passivespaceheatingiswhathappensinacaronasunnysummerday—thecargets hot inside. In buildings, air is circulated past a solar heat surface and

throughthebuildingbyconvection—lessdense,warmairtendstorisewhilethedenser, cooler air moves downward. No mechanical equipment is needed forpassivesolarheating.

Passive solar space heating takes advantage of the warmth from the sunthrough design features, such as large, south-facingwindows andmaterials inthefloorsand/orwallsthatabsorbwarmthduringthedayandreleaseitatnightwhentheheatisneededmost.Sunspacesandgreenhousesaregoodexamplesofpassivesystemsforsolarspaceheating.

Passivesolarsystemsusuallyhaveoneofthesedesigns:1. Directgain—Thisisthesimplestsystem.Itstoresandslowlyreleasesheat

energy collected from the sun shining directly into the building andwarmingup thematerials (tile or concrete). It is important that the spacedoesnotbecomeoverheated.

2. Indirectgain—Thisissimilartodirectgaininthatitusesmaterialstohold,store,and releaseheat.Thismaterial isgenerally locatedbetween thesunandthelivingspace,usuallyinthewall.

3. Isolatedgain—Thiscollectssolarenergyseparatelyfromtheprimarylivingarea (a sunroom attached to a house can collect warmer air that flowsthroughtherestofthehouse).

ActiveSolarSpaceHeating

Activeheatingsystemsrequireacollectortoabsorbthesolarradiation.Fansorpumps are used to circulate the heated air or the heat-absorbing fluid. Thesesystemsoftenincludesometypeofenergystoragesystem.

There are two basic types of active solar heating systems. These arecategorizedbasedonthetypeoffluid(liquidorair)thatisheatedintheenergycollectors.The collector is the device inwhich the fluid is heated by the sun.Liquid-based systems heat water or an antifreeze solution in a hydroniccollector.Air-based systemsheat air in anair collector.Bothof these systemscollectandabsorbsolarradiation,transferringsolarheattotheinteriorspaceorto a storage system, where the heat is then distributed. If the system cannotprovide adequate heating, an auxiliary or backup system provides additionalheat.

Liquid systems are usedmore often when storage is included and are wellsuited for radiant heating systems, boilers with hot water radiators, and

absorptionheatpumpsandcoolers.Bothliquidandairsystemscanadequatelysupplementforcedairsystems.

Active solar space heating systems are comprised of collectors that absorbsolarradiationcombinedwithelectricfansorpumpstodistributethesolarheat.These systems alsohave an energystorage system that provides heatwhen thesunisnotshining.

Another type of active solar space heating system, themedium temperaturesolarcollector,isgenerallyusedforsolarspaceheating.Thesesystemsoperateinmuchthesamewayasindirectsolarwaterheatingsystemsbuthavealargercollector area, larger storage units, and much more complex control systems.They are usually configured to provide solar water heating and can providebetween30and70percentofresidentialheatingrequirements.Allactivesolarspace heating systems require more sophisticated design, installation, andmaintenancetechniquesthanpassivesystems.

PassiveSolarWaterHeaters

Passive solarwater heaters rely on gravity and onwater’s natural tendency tocirculateasitisheated.

Sincetheseheaterscontainnoelectricalcomponents,passivesystemsaremorereliable,easier tomaintain,andwork longer thanactivesystems.Twopopulartypesofpassivesystemsare:1. Integral-collector storage systems—These consist of one ormore storage

tanksthatareplacedinaninsulatedboxwithaglazedsidefacingthesun.The solar collectors are best suited for areas where temperatures do notoften fall below freezing. Theyworkwell in householdswith significantdaytimeandeveninghot-waterneedsbuttheydonotworkasefficientlyinhouseholds with only morning hot-water draws as they lose most of thecollectedenergyovernight.

2. Thermospyhon systems—These are an economical and reliable choiceparticularly innewerhomes.These systems relyonnatural convectionofwarmwaterrisingtocirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandintothetank.Aswaterinthecollectorheats,itbecomeslighterandrisestothetankabove it and the coolerwater flows down the pipes to the bottom of thecollector. In freezeprone climates, indirect thermosyphons (using glycolfluidinthecollectorloop)canbeinstalledonlyifthepipingisprotected.

ActiveSolarWaterHeaters

Activesolarwaterheatersrelyonelectricpumpsandcontrollerstocirculatethewater (or other heat-transfer fluids). Two types of active solar water heatingsystemsare:1. Direct circulation systems—These use pumps to circulate pressurized

potable water directly through the collectors. These systems are mostappropriateforareasthatdonothavelongfreezesorhard/acidicwater.

Acombinationofanindirectwaterheaterandahighlyefficientboilercanprovideaveryinexpensivemethodofwaterheating.

2. Indirectcirculationsystems—Thesepumpsheattransferfluidsthroughthecollectors. These heat exchangers then transfer the heat from the fluid topotable water. Some of these indirect circulation systems have overheatprotectors so the collector and glycol fluid do not become superheated.Common indirect systems include antifreeze, in which the heat transferfluid is usually a glycol-water mixture, and drainback, in which pumpscirculatethewaterthroughthecollectorsandthenthewaterinthecollectorloopdrainsbackintoareservoirtankwhenthepumpstops.

InstallingaPassiveSolarSpaceHeaterApassivesolarspaceheaterworkswhenthesunshinesthroughthesolarpanelstoheattheairinsideabox.Astheairheatsupinthebox,itrisesandmovesintothehouse.Coolairmoves into theboxandoutof thehouse—in thisway, thehouseisheatedwithouttheuseofamechanizedheatingsystem.Usingapassivesolar heater works best if you have a house that faces south and has both

basementandfirstfloorwindowsonthatsideofthehouse.Ifyourhousemeetsthese requirements (and there aren’t toomanyobstructions thatwould impedethesunfromshiningontheheater),thenyoucanbeginconstruction.

Thepassive solar spaceheater ismadeupofa floorand two triangularendwalls, all ofwhich can bemade simply out of plywood. In between the openspace,insulationcanbeplaced.Alidcanalsobeaddedtocovertheheaterinthesummer.

To build such a solar space heater, first decidewhere on the southernwallyourcollectorwillbelocated.Ifyoucanplacetheheaterinbetweenwindows,thatisthebestoption.Youmayneedtocutthroughthewallnearawindowtoallow for theproper ventilationbut if youdon’twant todo this, you can alsopurchaseadetachableplywood“chimney”tomovetheheatedairintothehouse.Next, find thestuds thatwill support the fiberglasspanelandfindapanel thatwillbeoftheappropriatesize.

Next,makethebaseforyoursolarheatingsystem.Thebasecanbemadeof⅜-inch plywood board. Nail the board to a 2 x 4 and level it. Next, addinsulation(thekindfoundonrollsisbest),nailingittotheplywood.Then,nailthewholeboardto thesideof thehouse.Makeslopingsupportsoutof2x4s.Makesuretheendwallstuddingisnailedin,andthenattachtheoutsidepaneltoit.

Apassivesolarspaceheater.

Undertheshingles,installflashingorsomethingelsethatwillkeepwateroutofthetopofthesolarheater.Then,installthefiberglasspanels,makingsuretheedgesarecaulkedsonowatercancomein.Enclosetheedgesofthefiberglasswithsmallstripsofplywood.Then,installtheouterfiberglasspanelsothatitis

flush with the top surface and caulk it. To finish up, paint the inside of theplywoodsurfacesblacktoabsorbtheheat.Theinsideofthecoverpanelshouldbepaintedwhitetoreflectthelight.

BuildingYourOwnSolarWaterHeaterThisvery simple andbasic solarwaterheater is a low-pressure systemand soshouldnotbecombinedwithyourhomeplumbingsystem.Thistypeofheaterisperfectforcampingtripsorothersmallerwaterheatinguses.Findthesuppliesonlineoratahardwarestore.

SuppliesCorrugated,high-densitypolyethylenedrainingtube(4inchesispreferred)AnEPDMrubbercapwithclamp(availableathardwarestoresoronline)Polyethylene terephthalate bottles (3-liter are preferred—soda bottles arefine)

Toconstructthewaterheater,simplystretchtheEPDMrubbercapoveroneendofthedrainingtubeandmakecertaintheclampistight.Cuttheendsoffthebottlesandfitthemovertheotherendofthedrainagepipe.Thiswillserveastheglazingtoheatthewater.Eachbottleshouldbeabletofittightlyovertheotherbottle if you cut a small hole in the bottom of each. Fill the tubewithwater,place it in the sun, andallow thewater inside thebottlesanddrainage tube toheatup.Onceit’swarm(around120°Fisthemaximumitwillheatthewater),itcanbeusedtowashdishesorclothes,orforasmallbath.

Asolarwaterheater.

HeatingaRoomUsingCollectorsAir collectors can be installed on a roof or an exterior, south-facing wall tofacilitate theheatingofoneormore rooms inahouse.Factory-builtcollectorscan be used but you can alsomake and install your own air collector, thoughnotethatthisisnotalwayscost-efficient.

Theaircollectorshouldhaveanairtightandinsulatedmetalframeandablackmetalplate.Thiswillabsorbtheheatthroughtheglazingonthefront.Thesun’sraysheattheplate,whichthenheatstheairinthecollector.Afanorblowercanpulltheairfromtheroomthroughtothecollectorandblowitintotheroom.

RoomAirHeatingwithCollectors

Air collectors can be installed on a roof or an exterior (south facing)wall forheating one or more rooms. Although factory-built collectors for on-siteinstallationareavailable,do-it-yourselfersmaychoosetobuildandinstalltheirownair collectors.A simplewindowairheat collector canbemade for a fewhundreddollars.Simplewindowboxcollectorfanswillfitinawindowopening.Thesefanscanbeactiveorpassive.Apassivecollectorfanallowsair toenterthebottomofthecollector,riseasitheats,andentertheroom.Adamperkeepsthe room air from flowing back into the panel on overcast or cloudy days.Windowboxsystemsonlyprovideasmallamountofheatasthecollectorsarerathersmall.

SolarCollectors

Solar collectors are an essential part of active solar heating systems. Thesecollectorsharnessthesun’senergyandtransformit intoheat.Then,theheatistransferredtowater,solarfluid,orair.Solarcollectorscanbeoneoftwotypes:1. Nonconcentratingcollectors—Thesehaveacollectorarea that is thesame

sizeas theabsorptionarea.Themostcommon type is flat-platecollectorsandtheseareusedwhentemperaturesbelow200°Faresufficientforspaceheating.

Solarcollectorsonaroof.

2. Concentrating collectors—The area of these collectors gathering the solarradiationismuchgreaterthantheabsorberarea.

Solarthermalenergycanbeusedforsolarwaterheatingsystems,solarpoolheaters, and solar space heating systems. There are many types of solarcollectors, such as flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, and integralcollectorstoragesystems.

AnotherFormofSolarHeating:DaylightingSolar collector panels are not the only way in which the sun’s heat can beharnessedforenergypurposes.Daylightinguseswindowsandskylightstobringsunlightintoyourhome.Usingenergy-

RoofAreaNeededinSquareFeet(ShowninBoldType)

Althoughtheefficiency(percentofsunlightconvertedtoelectricity)varieswiththe different types of PV modules available today, higher-efficiency modulestypically cost more. So, a less-efficient system is not necessarily less cost-effective

CalculatingElectricityBillSavingsforaNet-MeteredPVSystem

Firstdeterminethesystem’ssizeinkilowatts(kW).Areasonablerangeis1to5kW.Thisvalue is the“kWofPV” input in theequations.Next,basedonyourgeographiclocation,selecttheenergyproductionfactorfromthemapbelowforthekWh/kW-yearinputfortheequations.

Energy from the PV system = (kW of PV) x (kWh/ kW-year) = kWh/year.(Divide this number by twelve if youwant to determine yourmonthly energyreduction.)

Energy bills savings = (kWh/year) x (Residential Rate)/100 = $/year saved.(Residential Rate in this above equation should be in dollars per kWh; forexample,arateof10centsperkWhisinputas$0.10/kWh.)

For example, a 2-kW system in Denver, CO, at a residential energy rate of$0.07/kWhwillsaveabout$266peryear(1,900kWh/kW-yearx$0.07/kWhx2kW=$266/year).

Includingplentyofenergy-efficientwindowsinyourhomewillallowsunlighttowarmyourroomsnaturally.

efficientwindows,aswellascarefully thought-out lightingdesign, reduces theneedforartificiallightingduringthedaytime.Thesewindowsalsocutdownonheatingandcoolingproblems.

The effectiveness of daylighting in your homewill depend on your climateandthedesignofyourhouse.Thesizesandlocationsofwindowandskylightsshould be based on theway inwhich the sun hits your home and not on theoutward aesthetics of your house. Facing windows toward the south is mostadvantageousfordaylightingandformoderatingseasonaltemperatures.Placingwindows that face toward the southwill allowmore sunlight into your homeduringthewintermonths.North-facingwindowsarealsousefulfordaylightingastheyallowarelativelyeven,naturallightintoaroom,producelittleglare,andcapturenoundesirablesummerheat.

MakeYourOwnSolarCookingOvenThis type of simple, portable solar oven is perfect for camping trips or if youwant to do an outdoor barbequewith additional cooked foods in the summer.This homemade solar oven can reach around 350°F when placed in directsunlight.

Asimplesolaroven.

Solarovenscanbefashionedinavarietyofways.Thegoalistohaveasmuchsurfaceareaaspossiblereflectingthesuntowardyourfood.

SuppliesA reflective car sunshade or any sturdy but flexible material (such ascardboard) covered with tin foil and cut to the notched shape of a carsunshadeVelcroAbucketAcookingpotAwiregrillAbakingbag

Directions1. Place the car sunshade on the ground.Cut theVelcro into three separate

piecesandstickonhalfofeachpieceontotheedgenearthenotch.Then,test the shade to see if theVelcro pieces,when brought together, form afunnel.Placethefunnelatopthebucket.

2. Placethecookingpotonthewiregrill.Putthisallinthebakingbagandputit inside the funnel.The rack shouldnowbe layingon topof thebucket.Nowplacethewholecookerindirectsunlightandanglethefunnel inthedirectionofthesun.Adjusttheangleasthesunmoves.

MakeYourOwnSolarPanelsMakingyourownsolarpanelscanbe trickyand time-consuming,butwith therightmaterials and lots of patience, you can certainly create an effective solarenergypanel.

SuppliesPegboardSolarcells(qualitywillbedeterminedonhowmuchpoweryouwanttogetfromyoursolarpanel)ContactwireWirecuttersSolderSolderingironBoltswithwashersandwingnutsPlexiglassPlywoodboardAluminumframingSiliconecaulkingScrews

Directions1. Applysiliconecaulkinginverticalstripsbetweentherowsofholesonthe

pegboard.Placethesolarcellsfaceupalongthecaulkinginstraightrows,carefullyaligningthemsothatthewirespokethroughtheholes.Thesolarcellsshouldcompletelycovertheboard.

Refertotheseillustrationswhileconstructingyourownsolarpanel.

Themoresurfaceareayoucoverwithsolarpanels,themorepoweryou’llget.It’sbesttoinstallyourpanelsonthesouthsideofyourhome.

2. Place a soft sheet or blanket on the ground or table (to prevent the cellsfromscratching)andcarefullyfliptheboardsothatitisfacedown.Soldertogetherthewirescomingouttocreateonethickwirestemmingfromeachhole.Thenuseconnectingwireormetal strips toconnect thewiresalonghorizontal lines. Be sure to connect all positive wires together and allnegativewirestogether,withoutmixingthetwo.

3. Drilltwoholesinthebackofyourpanelandattachapositiveandnegativebolt,washer,andwingnut.Solderthepositivewirestothepositiveboltandthenegativewirestothenegativebolt.

4. Build a watertight frame to size, using aluminum framing for the sides,plywoodforthebacking,andaplexiglassfacetoallowthesunlighttoshinethrough.Sealallcracksandedgeswithsiliconesealant.

InstallingYourHeatCollectorIfpossible,installyourownsolarheatcollectoronthesouthsideofyourhouse(the side that receives themost sunlightduring theday). It canbeplaced in awindowtohelpminimizeyourheatingcostsduringthewintermonths.

Asolarheatcollectorcanbemadefromheavy-dutyfoaminsulation,windowglass,sealant,aluminumfoil,andheavy-dutytape.Paintthefoampanel,orbothsides of the aluminum sheets, black and then mount it on cubes that arecemented to the side of your house near awindow.Thiswill allow the air tocomeinonbothsidesoftheheatcollector.

Allsidesofthefoamshouldbecoveredwithaluminumfoilandthenadheredtothefoamboard.Thenplaceandsealtheglasspanelsoverthefoam,sealingitwith the sealant andheavy-duty tape if needed.Anotherpieceof foamcanbeutilized as a cover for the duct at night or during the warm, sunny summermonths.Hingethisonwithhingebracketsorclasps.

Solar panels can be placed in a field or other sunny area to collect energy,whichisstoredandthenusedasneeded.

AnAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelThis type of solar panel is different from the expensive,manufactured panelsyoucanpurchaseandhaveinstalledonyourrooforthesideofyourhouse.Itisgreat for heating air but cannot produce electricity.You can either situate thisheater in a south-facing window of your home or place it on the outside,southernwalloron theroof.Heatingpanels thatareon theoutsideofahousegenerally createmore heat and aremuchmore effective in heating a room orareaofyourhome.

To start, youwillneed topurchaseglassorPlexiglas foryour solarheatingpanel. Either one should be double-paned to keep out moisture. To build theframeforyoursolarheatingpanel,use2x4sandcreateasquareor rectanglethatwillfityourpaneofglass.Nailplywoodtothebackoftheframe.Next,takeapieceof insulationboardandput itat thebackof thepanel.Heatabsorptioncanbegainedthroughaluminumflashingorcopper.Afterthisisinserted,screwdownthewindowframe,ifyouareusingone,andmakesureitiscaulkedwelltokeepoutwater.

Addtheinteriorboardsthatlinetheframeandthebafflestosealthetopoftheglass.Screwtheseinteriorboardstothesidesofthepaneltokeepthemsecure.Then,cutouttheairopeningsusingajigsaw.Onecircularopeningshouldbeinthe lower left and the other in the upper right of your heating panel. Beforehangingthepanelup,youwillneedtodeterminewherethestudsareinthewallor, ifyouare installing itonyourroof,where theroofraftersare located. It isalsoimportantthatyouropeningsdonotfallontopofastudorrafterasthiswilldefeat theirabilitytodirectairflow.Screwinboardsalongthestudsorrafters,onwhichyouwillthenmountthepanel.

Alternatesolarheatingpanel.

Oncethepanelissecuredtothewallorroof,begintoinstalltheairdeliverysystemsothehotaircanbecirculatedthroughoutyourhome.Youmaywanttoaddasmall fan(oneused inacomputerwillbefine) toyourheatingpanelsoyou can better circulate the air throughout the system, though this is notnecessary to operate your heating panel effectively. If you do choose to use afan, itmustbeabletofit insidethewallplate.Youwillneedtodrillaholeinyourwallwherethepanelholesaresituatedontheoutside.Cuttheholeandaddtheconnectortotheductwork,slidingitthroughtheholeintotheroom,andsealofftheedgesofthehole.

Place the fanwithin thewall plate in the room, and place an electrical boxnearthefantoturnitonandoff.Ifyouaren’tfamiliarwithelectricalwork,youmaywanttoaskanelectriciantohelpyouwithconnectingtheelectricalwiring.Next, mount the solar panel so it faces to the south, running a wire into theelectrical box inside the room. This will save you money and energy whilerunning your fan.Now turn on the fan and feel thewarm air starting to blowthroughyourroom.

To finish your outside panel, simply paint the inside black to absorbmoreheat, add someweather stripping to seal the glass tightly, and screw the glass

piecetothepanel.

RegulationsforInstallingandBuildingSolarHeatingSystems

Before you install a solar energy system, learn about the localbuilding codes, zoning, andneighborhood covenants as they applyto these systems. You will most likely need to obtain a buildingpermit to install a solar energy system onto an existing building.Commonproblemsyoumayencounterasahomeownerininstallinga solar energy system are: exceeding roof load, unacceptable heatexchangers,improperwiring,tamperingwithpotablewatersupplies,obstructingpropertyandyards,andplacingthesystemtooclosetothestreetorlotlines.Therearealsolocalcompliancesthatmustbefactored in before installing your system. Contact your localjurisdiction zoning and building enforcement divisions and anyhomeowner’s, neighborhood, or community associations beforebuildingandinstallinganysolarheatingequipment.

SolarGreenhouseGreenhousescollectsolarenergyonsunnydaysandthenstoretheheatforuseintheeveningandondayswhenitisovercast.Asolargreenhousecanbesituatedasafreestandingstructure(likeashedorlargerenclosure)orinanundergroundhole.

For gardeners who want to grow small amounts of produce, passive solargreenhouses are a good option and help extend the growing season. Activesystemstakesupplementalenergysourcestomovethesolarheatedairfromitsstorage facility to other parts of the greenhouse. Solar greenhouses can utilizemanyof the same features and installation techniques as passive solar heatingsystemsusedinhomestostayheated.

Whilestandardgreenhousesalsorelyonthesun’sraystoheattheirinteriors,solar greenhouses are different because they have special glazing that absorbslargeamountsofheatduring thewintermonthsandalsousematerials tostoretheheat.Solargreenhouseshavealotofinsulationinareaswithlittlesunlighttokeepheatlossataminimum.

TypesofSolarGreenhouses

Twocommontypesofsolargreenhousesaretheattachedsolargreenhouseandthefreestandingsolargreenhouse.Attachedsolargreenhousesaresituatednexttoahouseor shedandare typically lean-to structures.Theyare limited in theamountofproducetheycangrowandhavepassivesolarheatingsystems.

Asolargreenhouse.

Freestanding solar greenhouses are large structures that are best-suited for

producingalargevarietyandquantityofproduce,flowers,andherbs.Theycanbeconstructedintheformofeitherashedstructureorahoophouse.Inashedgreenhouse, thesouthwall isglazed tomaximize theheatingpotentialand thenorth wall is extremely well-insulated. Hoop house greenhouses are roundedinsteadofshapedlikeanelongatedshed.Solarenergyiscollectedandstoredinearth thermal storage and inwater. These systems,while common, are not aseffectiveinutilizingsolarenergyastheshedandlean-tostructures.

SitesforSolarGreenhouses

Theglazingportionofthesolargreenhouseshouldideallyfacedirectlysouthtogainthemaximumexposuretothesun’sheat.Situatingthesolargreenhouseona slight slope facing upwardwillmaximize the amount of solar energy it canabsorb.

MaterialsUsedinSolarGreenhouseConstruction

Forasolargreenhousetocollect,circulate,andmaintainthegreatestamountofheat, it needs to be constructed out of the propermaterials.Glazingmaterialsneedtoallowphotosyntheticradiationtogetthroughsoitcanreachtheplants.Clear glass allowsdirect light into thegreenhouse and so shouldbeused as aglazing material. It is also imperative that when the glazing materials aremountedonthegreenhouse,therearenocracksorholesthatcanallowforheattoescape.Thus,glazingmaterialshouldhavehighheatefficiencyandbemadeofresistantmaterialtoholdupininclementweatherandhail.

Bothflowersandvegetablescanthriveingreenhousesyear-round.

Greenhousescanbemadeinarangeofshapesandsizesandcanbeattachedtoorseparatefromyourhome.

Solargreenhousesalsoneed tobeable to store theheat that iscollected foruseoncloudydaysoratnight.Theeasiestmethodforstoringheatistosituaterocks, concrete, and/or water in the path of the sunlight that is entering thegreenhouse.Thesematerialswill absorb theheat during theday and release itduring the evening hours. Pools of water, rocks, and concrete slabs or smallwallsshouldbelargeenoughtoabsorbandemitenoughheattolastforthenightorforafewcloudydays.

Phase-changematerialsmayalsobeusedtoeffectivelystoreheatinyoursolargreenhouse.Thesematerialsconsistofparaffin, fattyacids,andGlauber’ssalt.Thesematerialsstoreheatastheychangeintoliquidandreleaseitastheyturnback into a solid form.They arekept in sealed tubes andmany areneeded toprovideenoughheat.

Allareasofthegreenhousethatarenotglazedneedtobeinsulatedtokeepinthemaximumamountofheat.Weatherstrippingishelpfulinsealingdoorsandvents;foaminsulationishelpfulforwalls.Placeapolyethylenefilmbetweentheinsulationandthegreenhousewallstokeepthesematerialsdry—iftheybecometoowetorsaturated,theywillbelesseffectiveandmaystarttomold.Thefloorsofasolargreenhousecanalsoloseheatsotheyshouldbemadeoutofbrickorflagstone(withinsulationfoamunderneath)tokeeptheheatin.

Thesolargreenhouseneedsoutdoorinsulationaswell,whichcanbeattainedbyplacinghaybalesalongtheedgesofthegreenhouse,orthegreenhousecanbesituated slightly underground (a pit greenhouse).Of course, if a greenhouse isdug into the soil, it needs to be in an area that is above the water level tominimizeleakage.

Asolargreenhouse, likeanyothergreenhouse,alsoneedsproperventilationfor thewarmersummermonths.Vents in thesidesof thegreenhousewillhelpcreateairflow.Ridgeventsintheroofwillallowthehottestairtoescapeoutofthetopofthegreenhouseaswell.Ifagreenhouseneedsmoreventilation,asolarchimneycanbehookeduptothepassivesolarcollectorstoreleaseextraheatoutintotheair.

WindEnergy

Wind energy is created naturally by circulation patterns in the Earth’satmosphere driven by the heat from the sun. These winds are caused by theuneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth’ssurface,andtherotationoftheearth.Windpatternsaremodifiedbytheearth’sterrain,bodiesofwater,andvegetation.Sincetheearth’ssurfaceismadeofverydifferent types of land and water, it absorbs the sun’s heat at different rates.Duringtheday,theairabovethelandheatsupveryquickly.Thewarmairoverthelandexpandsandrisesandtheheavier,coolerairrushesintotakeitsplace,creatingwinds. At night, thewinds are reversed as the air cools rapidly overland. This air flow is used for many purposes: sailing, flying kites, andgeneratingelectricity.

ABriefHistoryofWindEnergy

People have been harnessing energy from the wind since ancienttimes.Windwasusedtosailshipsandwindmillswerebuildtohelpgrind wheat, corn, and other grains.Windmills were also used topumpwater and tocutwoodat sawmills in the formativeyearsofthe American colonies. Even into the early twentieth century,windmillswere being used to generate electricity in rural parts ofAmerica.Thewindmillagaingainednationalattention in theearly1980swhenwindenergywasfinallyconsideredarenewableenergysource.ItcontinuestobeagrowingindustrythroughouttheUnitedStates.

SmallWindElectricSystemsSmall wind electric systems are one of the most cost-effective, home-basedrenewableenergysystems.Thesesystemsarenonpollutingandarefairlyeasytosetup.Asmallwindelectricsystemcaneffectively:

Naturalairflowcycle.

Loweryourelectricitybillsby50to90percentHelp you avoid high costs of having utility power lines extended to aremotelocationHelpuninterruptiblepowersuppliesridethroughextendedutilityoutages

HowDoSmallWindElectricSystemsWork?Whenthewindspinsawindturbine’sblades,arotorcapturesthekineticenergyof the wind, converting it into rotary motion to drive the generator. Mostturbines have automatic overspeedgoverning systems to keep the rotor fromspinningoutofcontrolonverywindydays.

Thebasicpartsofasmallwindelectricsystem.

Asmallwindsystemcanbeconnectedtoanelectricdistributionsystem(grid-connected) or it can stand alone (off-grid).To capture and convert thewind’skinetic energy into electricity, a homewind energy systemmust generally becomprisedofthefollowing:1. A wind turbine—This consists of blades attached to a rotor, a

generator/alternatormountedonaframe,andatail2. Atower3. Balance-of-system components—i. e., controllers, inverters, and/or

batteries

A wind-electric turbine generator, more commonly known as a “windturbine,”convertskineticenergyinthewindintomechanicalpower.Thispowercanbeuseddirectlyforspecifictasks,likegrindinggrainsorpumpingwater.Agenerator can also convert this mechanical power into a high-value, highlyflexible,andusefulformofenergy—electricity.

Wind turbines make electricity by working in the opposite way as a fan.Instead of using electricity tomakewind, as a fan does, turbines usewind tomakeelectricity.Thewindturns theblades,spinningashaft thatconnects toagenerator,whichmakeselectricity.

InstallingaSmallElectricWindSystem

Smallwindelectric systems,with theproper installationandmaintenance, canlast over 20 years. Before installing your system, first find the best site,determinetheappropriatesizeofyourwindturbine,decidewhetheryouwantagrid-connected or off-grid system, and find out about your local zoning,permitting,andneighborhoodcovenantrequirements.

Many people decide to install these systems on their own (though themanufacturerand/ordealershouldalsobeabletohelpyouinstallthesmallwindelectricsystem).However,beforeyouattempttoinstallthewindturbine,makesureyoucananswerthesedo-it-yourselfquestions:1. CanIpourapropercementfoundation?2. DoIhaveaccesstoalift,ladder,oranotherwaytoerectthetowersafely?3. Do I know the difference between alternating current (AC) and direct

current(DC)wiring?4. DoIknowenoughaboutelectricitytosafelywiremyturbine?5. DoIknowhowtosafelyhandleandinstallbatteries?

Iftheanswertoanyofthesequestionsis“no,”thenyoushouldhavesomeonehelp you install the system (contact the manufacturer or your state energyoffice).

EvaluatingaPotentialSiteforYourSmallWindTurbineThesiteonwhichyouchoosetoinstallyoursystemshouldmeetthefollowingcriteria:

Yourpropertyhasagoodwindresource—goodannualwindspeedsandaprevailingdirectionforthewind.Yourhomeislocatedonatleastoneacreoflandinaruralarea.Your local zoning codes and covenants do not prohibit construction of awindturbine.Youraverageelectricitybillis$150permonthormore.

Ifyou live inanarea thathascomplex terrain,becarefulwhenselectinganinstallation site. If you place your wind turbine on the top of a hill or on anexceptionallywindyside,youwillhavemoreaccesstoprevailingwindsthanina gully or on the sheltered side of a hill. Additionally, consider any existingobstacles—trees,houses,sheds—thatmaybeinthewayofthewind’spath.Youshouldalsoplan for futureobstructions, suchasnewbuildingsor landscaping.Your turbineneeds to bepositionedupwindof anybuildings and trees, and it

needstobe30feetaboveanythingwithin300feetofitssite.

InsideaWindTurbine

Partsofawindturbine:

•Anemometer:measures thewindspeedand transmitswindspeeddatatothecontroller.

•Blades:mostturbineshaveeithertwoorthreebladesandthewindblowsovertheblades,causingthebladestoliftandrotate.

• Brake: a disc brake, applied mechanically, electrically, orhydraulically,andstopstherotorinemergencies.

•Controller:startsupthemachineatwindspeedsofabout8 to16mph and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph wind speeds.Turbinesdonotoperateatwindspeedsabove55mphbecausetheymaybedamaged.

• Gear box: gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speedshaftandincreasetherotationalspeedsfromabout30to60rotationsperminute (rpm) toabout1000 to1800 rpm—the rotational speedrequiredbymostgeneratorstoproduceelectricity.Thegearboxisacostlyandheavypartofthewindturbine.

• Generator: usually an off-the-shelf induction generator thatproduces60-cycleACelectricity.

•High-speedshaft:drivesthegenerator.

•Low-speedshaft:turnedbytherotoratabout30to60rpm.

• Nacelle: sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low-andhigh-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacellesarelargeenoughforahelicoptertolandon.

•Pitch:Turns thebladesoutof thewindtocontrol therotorspeedandkeeptherotorfromturninginwindsthataretoohighortoolowtoproduceelectricity.

•Rotor:thebladesandhub.

• Tower: made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Sincewind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines tocapturemoreenergyandgeneratemoreelectricity.

•Winddirection:an“upwind”turbineoperatesfacingintothewindwhileotherturbinesaredesignedtoface“downwind”orawayfromthewind.

•Windvane:measureswinddirection and communicateswith theyawdrivetoorienttheturbineproperlywithrespecttothewind.

•Yawdrive:usedtokeeptherotorfacingintothewindasthewinddirectionchanges(notrequiredfordownwindturbines).

•Yawmotor:powerstheyawdrive.

Whendeterminingthesuitabilityofyoursiteforasmallelectricwindsystem,estimateyoursite’swindresource.Windresourcecanvarysignificantlyoveranareaof justafewmilesbecauseof local terrain’s influenceonwindflow.Usethefollowingmethodstohelpestimateyourwindresourcebeforeinstallingyoursmallelectricwindsystem:1. Consultawindresourcemap.Thisisusedtoestimatethewindresourcein

your area. You can find a specific map for your state at the U.S.Department of Energy’s Wind Powering America Program Web site. AgeneralU.S.mapisshowninthefigure.

2. Obtainwindspeeddata.Theeasiestway toquantify thewindresource inyourareaisbyobtainingtheaveragewindspeedinformationfromalocalairport. Airport wind data are typically measured 20 to 33 feet aboveground.Averagewindspeedsincreasewithheightandmaybeasmuchas15 to 25 percent greater at a usual wind turbine hub (80 feet high) thanthosemeasuredatairports.

3. Watchvegetationflagging.Flaggingistheeffectofstrongwindsonanareaof vegetation. For example, if a group of trees on flat ground is leaningsignificantlyinonedirection,chancesarethey’vebecomethatwayduetostrongwinds.

4. Useameasurementsystem.Directmonitoringusingameasurementsystemat a certain site provides the best picture of the availablewind resource.Theseareveryexpensive,however,andsomaynotbepracticaltouse.

5. Obtain data from a local small wind system—if there is a small windturbinenearyourarea,youmaybeabletoobtaininformationontheannualoutputofthesystem,aswellaswindspeeddata.

ThismapshowsthepotentialforwindenergyinvariouspartsoftheUnitedStates.

SmallWindTurbinesUsedforHomesSingle,small,stand-aloneturbinesthataresizedlessthan100kilowattsareusedfor homes, telecommunication dishes, andwater pumping.Used in residentialapplications,thesesmallwindturbinescanrangefrom400wattsto20kilowatts.Inadditiontobeingusedforgeneratingelectricityandpumpingwater,theycanbe used for charging batteries.MostU.S.manufacturers rate their smallwindturbinesbytheamountofpowertheycansafelyproduceatwindspeedsbetween24and36mph.

Anaveragehomeusesabout9,400kilowatthoursofelectricityperyear.Thus,a wind turbine rated in the 5-to 15-kilowatt range would make a significantcontribution to this energy demand. Before deciding on a wind turbine you

should:1. Establishanenergybudget.Trytoreducetheelectricityuseinyourhome

soyouwillonlyneedasmallturbine.2. Determine an appropriate height for the wind turbine’s tower so it will

generatethemaximumamountofenergy.3. Remember that a small home-sized wind machine has rotors that are

between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stand around 30 feet tall. If yourpropertydoesnothaveenoughspacetoaccommodatethis,youmaynotbeable to have a powerful enough turbine to help significantly reduce yourenergycosts.

Vegetation flagging is the effect of strong winds on vegetation. It’s a goodindicatorofhowstrongthewindsareinthatarea.

Windmill blades can vary in shape but should always be angled to catch themostwind.

MaintainingYourSmallWindTurbine

Tokeepyour turbine running smoothly andefficiently, do an annual checkofthefollowing:

Checkandtightenboltsandelectricalconnectionsasnecessary.Checkmachinesforcorrosion.Checktheguywiresforpropertension.Checkforandreplaceanywornleading-edgetapeontheturbineblades.Replacetheturbinebladesand/orbearingsafter10years.

TypesofWindTurbinesModernwindturbinesfallintotwobasiccategories:horizontal-axisvarietiesandvertical-axisdesigns.

Horizontal-axisWindTurbines

Most wind machines used today fall into this category. Horizontal-axis windmachines have blades like an airplane propeller. A standard horizontal windmachine stands about 20 stories tall and has three blades spanning 200 feetacross.Theseare themachinesmost readily found in large fieldsandonwindfarms.

Ahorizontal-axiswindturbine.

The majority of small wind turbines made today are of the horizontal-axisstyle. They have two or three blades made of composite material, such asfiberglass.The turbine’s frame isastructure towhich the rotor,generator,andtail are all attached. The diameter of the rotor will determine the amount of

energy the turbinewillproduce.The tailhelpskeep the turbinefacing into thewind.Mountedonatower,thewindturbinehasbetteraccesstostrongerwinds.

Thesemachines also requirebalance-of-systemcomponents.Theseparts arerequired for water pumping systems and other residential uses of your windturbine.Thesealsovarybasedonthetypeofsystemyouareusing:eitheragrid-connected,stand-alone,orhybrid.

For example, if you have a residential grid-connectedwind turbine system,yourbalance-ofsystemspartswillinclude:

AcontrollerStoragebatteriesApowerconditioningunit(inverter)WiringElectricaldisconnectswitchGroundingsystemFoundationforthetower

Vertical-axisWindTurbines

Thesemachineshavebladesthatgofromtoptobottom.Themostcommontypelooks like a giant two-bladed egg beater. Vertical-axis wind machines aregenerally 100 feet tall and50 feetwide.Though thesewind turbines have thepotential to produce a great deal of energy, they make up only a smallpercentage of thewindmachines that are currently in use due to the cost andeffortrequiredtosetthemup.Inaddition,theyproduceagreatdealofnoise,canbeunsightly,hurtthebirdpopulation,

Ahybridwindandsolarenergysystem.

Asolarandwindhybridenergysystem.

Stand-AloneandSmallHybridSystems

Windpowercanalsobeused inoff-gridsystems.Thesearecalledstand-alone systems because they are not connected to an electricdistributiongrid.Inthesesystems,smallwindturbinescanbeusedincombinationwithothercomponents, suchas small solarelectricsystems, to create a hybrid power system. Hybrid power systemsprovide reliable off-grid power for homes (and even for entirecommunitiesincertaininstances)thatarefarfromlocalutilitylines.

Ahybridelectricsystemmaybeapracticalsystemforyouif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedofatleastninemph.Agridconnectionisnotavailableorcanonlybemadethroughaverycostlyextension.Youwouldliketobecomeindependentfromyourenergyutilitycompany.Youwouldliketogeneratecleanpower.Smallhybridsystemsthatcombinewindand

solar technologies offer several advantages over either singlesystem.InmanypartsoftheUnitedStates,windspeedsarelowinthe summerwhen the sun shines the brightest and for the longesthours. Conversely, the wind is stronger in the winter when lesssunlight is available. These hybrid systems, therefore, are morelikelytoproducepowerwhenyouneedit.

Iftherearetimeswhenneitherthewindnorthesolarsystemsareproducing energy, most hybrid systems will then provide powerthrough batteries or an engine generator powered by diesel fuel(whichcanalsorechargethebatteriesiftheyrunlow).

Hybrid power systems combine multiple sources to deliver non-intermittentelectricpower.

andrequirelargeroadsandheavy-dutyequipmenttogetthemupandrunning.

Grid-ConnectedSmallWindElectricSystemsSmall wind energy systems can be connected to the electricity distributionsystem to become “grid-connected systems.” These wind turbines can helpreduce your consumption of utility-supplied electricity for appliances, electricheat, and lighting.The utilitywillmake up the difference for any energy thatyourturbinecannotmake.Anyexcesselectricitythatisproducedbythesystem,andcannotbeusedbythehousehold,canoftenbesentorsoldtotheutility.Onedrawbacktothissystem,however,isthatduringpoweroutages,thewindturbineisrequiredtoshutdownforsafetyreasons.

Grid-connectedsystemsareonlypracticalif:Youliveinanareawithaverageannualwindspeedsofatleast10mph.

Agrid-connectedsmallwindelectricsystem.

Utility-suppliedelectricityisexpensiveinyourarea.The utility’s requirements for connecting your system to its grid are notexceedinglyexpensive.Therearegoodincentivesforthesaleofexcesselectricity.

MountingYourSmallWindElectricSystemonaTower

Since wind speeds increase with height, it is essential that your small windturbinebemountedonatower.Thehigherthetower,themorepowerthewindsystemwillbeabletoproduce.Todeterminethebestheightforyourtower,youwill need to know the estimated annual energy output and the size of yourturbine.

There are two types of towers: self-supporting (free-standing) and guyed.Mosthomewindpowersystemsuseaguyedtowerasit is theleastexpensive.Guyedtowersconsistoftheseparts:

LatticesectionsPipeTubing(dependingonthedesign)Supportingguywires

Thesetowersareeasiertoinstallbuttheydorequirelotsofspace—theradiusofthetowermustbe½to¾ofthetowerheight.

Tilt-down towers, while more expensive, offer an easy way to maintainsmaller,lightweightturbinesthatarelessthan10kilowatts.Thesetowerscanbeloweredtothegroundduringsevereweatherorunusuallyhighwinds.

Generally,itisagoodideatoinstallasmallwindturbineonatowerwiththebottomoftherotorbladesaround30feetaboveanyobstaclethatiswithin300feetfromthetower.

WindmillsWindmills areused forpumpingwater,milling, andoperating lightmachineryallaroundtheworld.Theyareconstructedinavarietyofshapesandsomeareverypicturesque.Whensetupproperly,windmillscostnothingtooperateandifthe wheel is made well, it will last for many years without need for majorrepairs. To make a windmill requires a good understanding of carpentry andworkmanshipbutitisnotincrediblydifficultorexpensivetodo.

ConstructingaWindmill

Windmillscanbeofallsizes,thoughthelargerthewindmill,themorepoweritcangenerate.Thiswindmillandtowercanbeeasilyconstructedoutofwood,anoldwheel,andafewironfittingsyoumaybeabletofindatahardwarestoreorhomecenter.Constructing thewindmill insections is theeasiestway tocreatethis structure. Simply follow these directions to make your own energy-producingwindmill:

TheTower1. Thetoweristhefirstparttobebuiltandshouldbeconstructedoutoffour

sprucesticks thatare16 feet longand4 inchessquare, inaconfigurationthatmeasures30inchessquareatthetopand72inchessquareatthebase.

Detailsofthewindmill.Figure(a)showsageneralviewwiththetailturnedto“off”position.Figure(b)showsdetailsofthetail,and(c)showsacross-pieceofthetail.

2. Thedeckshouldbe36inchessquareandshouldproject2inchesoverthetoprails.

3. Therailsandcrossbracescanbespruceorpinestripsandshouldmeasure4incheswideand⅞inch thick.Attach these to thecornerpostswithsteel-wirenails.

4. Embed the corner posts 2 feet into the ground, leaving 14 feet above thesurface.Therailat thebottom,whichisattachedtothefourposts,shouldmeasure3feetabovetheground.Midwaybetweenthisandthetoprailofthe deck, run a middle rail around the post. Make sure that where yourwheelwillbeattached,thispointrisesatleast2feetaboveanyobstructions

(buildings,trees,etc.)soitcanhaveaccesstotheblowingwind.5. Thecrossbracesshouldbebeveledattheendssotheyfitsnuglyagainstthe

corner.6. The posts, rails, and braces should be planed so they present a nice

appearanceat theendof thebuilding.Aladdercanalsobeconstructedatonesideofthetowertoalloweasyaccesstothemill.

7. Nailaboardacrosstwooftherailshalfwayupthetower.Securethelowerendofatrunktightlyhereifyouareconstructingapumpingmill.However,if awoodenmill iswhat you are after, you canuse an oldwheel fromawagonandsixbladesofwood.

Beveledcrossbracesfitsnuglyagainstthecorners.

TheTurntable1. Theturntable(d,e,andf)holdsthewheelandtail.Itshouldbebuiltof2½

x 2-inch timber and 2-inch galvanized wrought iron “water” tube andflanges.

2. The upper flange (g and h) supports the timber framing. It should becountersunk,using ahalf-round file, and screwed tightlyonto the tube asfaraspossible.Theendofthetubeshouldprojectjustslightlybeyondthefaceoftheflangesothatitcanberivetedovertofillthecountersink.

3. Boltthetwolooseflangestotheframeworkofthetower.Usethemwith2-inchpipewiththethreadfiledawaysotheymayslidefreelyontothetube.Theupperlooseflangeshouldformafootstepbearingandthelowerflangeaguidefortheturntable.

The windmill turntable (d,e, and f) holds the wheel and tail. The upperflange(detaileddrawingsgandh)formsasupportforthetimberframing.

4. Nowmounttheturntableontheballbearingtomakesurethemillheadcanturnfreely.Screwontwobacknutstoguardagainstanypossibilityoftheturntablebeingliftedoutofplacebyastrongwind.

TheHead1. Thisisthepartthatwillcarrythewheelspindle.2. Notchthejointsandsecurethemwith2-inchbolts.3. Theupright,whichcarriesaboltorpinforthespur-wheeltorevolveupon,

iskeptinplaceinthefrontandatthesidesbyapieceofhoopiron.4. The tail vane swivel is a piece of 5-inch bore tube with back nuts and

washers.Pass an ironbolt or other pieceof iron through this, screw it toeachend,andfititwithfournutsandwashers.

TheWheelShaft1. Usewrought-irontubingandflangestocreatethewheelshaft.Theboreof

thetubeisatleast5inches,andtheoutsidediametershouldberoughly1½inches.Boththetubeandthefittingsshouldbeofgoodqualityandathickgauge(steamqualityispreferred).

2. Iflatheisavailable, lightlyskimitoverthetubing.However,if it’snot,acarefulfilingwilldojustaswelltosmoothdowntheedges.

3. Screwthetubehigherupononeendtoreceivetheflangesformingthehub.Screwtheseonandsecurethemononesidewithbacknutsandontheotherwithadistancepiecemadeoutofa1½-inchboretube.Fitacaptoclosetheopenfrontendofthetube.

Detailsof thewheelshaft frame(i, j); frontandsideviews, (k, l);axleofwheel(m);attachmentofinnerendofvanetoinnerringofframe(n);vaneonrings(o);attachmentofvanetoouterbracketsbybracket(p).

4. Grease twoplummerblockswithsomeformof lubrication.Thesewillbethebearingsfortheshaft.

5. Apinionisneededofatleast2½inchesindiameteratthepitchcircle.Boreittofitthewheelshaft.Aspurwheelof7inchesindiametershouldfollowthat(gearwheelsfromalawnmowercanbeusedifavailable).

TheWheel1. Thewheelshouldbeatleast5feetindiametertoproduceagoodamountof

energy. The framing consists of an inner and outer ring and four doublearms with cross stays and diagonals (a regular wooden wheel will besufficient,oryoucanfindonemadeofgalvanizedsteel).

2. Cut each spoke at an angle on one side so that the blades will have thenecessarypitchtomakethewindturnthem.

3. Thebladesshouldbe18incheslong,12incheswideattheouterends,and6 inches wide next to the hub. Each blade should be only¾ inch thick.Attachthemtothespokeswithsimplescrews.

4. Ifyoudesire,youcanstringawirebetweentheouterendofeachbladetotheendofthenextspoke.Thiswillhelpsteadytheblades.

TheTail1. Runafinesawcutupabout2feet6 inchesfromtheouterendtoreceive

thevane(optional).2. Passacordovertwopulleysanddowntheturntabletube.Itisnecessaryto

attachtheendofthecordtoashortcylinderofhardwoodormetal(about2to3inchesindiameter).Thisrevolveswiththeturntablebutcanbeslidupordown.

Eachspokeshouldbecutatananglesothatthebladeswillhavethepitchtomakethewindturnthem.

3. Ifyouplanonusingapump,cutaholethroughtheaxisofthecylindertofitthepumprod.

4. Cutagrooveinthecircumferenceofthecylinder,andbendtwopiecesofironintoshapeandplacethemintothegrooves.Nowtakethecordsfromthe two bolts, untying the straps. Join these two cords to another cord,which acts as a reel or lever at the base of the tower. In this way, thepositionofthetailcanberegulatedfromastationarypoint.

AddingPumpstoYourWindmill

Ifyouwanttousethiswindmilltopumpwater,thenyoumayneedtodosomeexperimentingwithdifferentlengthsofpumpstroke.Belowisatableindicatingwhat should be expected from the pump, and also providing the size of thesingleactionpumpsuitableforagivenlift(usingaratioof1to3).

Make sure that your pump is not too large; otherwise, itmay not start in alightwindorbreeze.

Thepump isdrivenbyapin screwed into the sideof the spurwheeland issecuredwitha locknut.Drilland tap threeor fourholesatdifferentdistancesfromthecenterof thewheelso the lengthof thestrokecanbeadjusted. If thespokes on the wheel are too thin for drilling, you can use a clamp with aprojectingpininstead.

Apumprod—acontinuouswoodenrodabout1inchsquareandthickeratthetop end—canbeused in connecting thebottomend (bybolting) to the “bow”

suppliedwiththepump.Intermediatejoints,ifneeded,canbefashionedwith1x½-inch fishplates roughly6 inches long. If thepump isnomore than12 feetbelowthecrankpin,oneguidewillbeadequate.Thepumprodmustbeabletorevolvewiththeheadandwillbeneedtobethickenedupinacircularsectionwhere itpasses through theguide.Make theguide in twohalvesandscreworboltittoabarrunningacrossthetower.

FinalTouches

When construction is finished, paint all of the woodwork any color thatcomplementsyouryardorpropertyand,ifdesired,lacquerittoprotectthewoodfrom rain and snow.Awindmill of this sizewill create at least a one-quarterhorsepowerina15-mphwind.

BuildingaSmallWindMotorThis small wind motor can easily be made to generate energy for smallmachines, tool shed lightbulbs, andother smallmechanics.The foundation forthiswind-wheelcanbemadeoutof thefrontwheelofanoldbicyclewith thefrontspindleandconescompletelyintact.

Attacheightto12vanesofstoutsheettintotherim.Thesesheetsshouldbearound8incheslongand4to6incheswideandshouldlieata30-degreeangletotheplaneoftherim.Thevaneswillbemuchmoreefficientiftheyarecurvedinacirculararcaboutthesameradiusasthewheel.

Detailsofasmallwindmotor.

Theconcavesideshouldbepositionedtofacetowardthewind.

On the back of each vane, rivet a rib of strip iron½ inch thick. This stripshould project about ½ inch beyond the tip and 1½ inches at the other end.

There, twistandbendit tomakeabracketandthenbolt thevanetothecenterlineoftherim.

The illustration above shows a side view of themotorwith its gearing andsupports.Aistherimandpartofthespokesofatoothedwheelthatareattachedat several points to the spokes of the bicycle wheel. It is loosely fixed andadjusted until it runswellwhen thewheel ismoved. It should notwobble.Adrivesasmallercog,B,mountedonthesamespindle,a.Thisspindlerevolvesaroundtwoplates,PP,screwedtoF.cdrivesalargecog,D,andaneccentric,E,whichmovestheeccentricrod,R,upanddown.Thisworksthesmallpumpatthefootofthemastthatsupportsthewindmill.Ecanbequicklymadeoutofathickdiscwith two largerdiscs soldered to it.R is apieceof stoutbrass stripbentaroundEandclosedwithascrew.

Whenallof thevanesare inposition,connect the tipsof the ribsandvanestogetherwith rings of stoutwire and solder them on at all the contact points.Screw one of the spindle nuts tightly against its cone. The other end of thespindleshouldpassthroughonearmofthestirrup(F)madeoutof½-inchiron

1½ incheswide. This is then secured by awasher and nut on the inside. Thestirrupandcircularplate(V)areboredtoaccommodatetheendoftheironpipe(T).

Closeoffthetopofthehole(F)andheatthetopofthepipetoexpandittofitintothechamber.Cleanthesepartswellandweldthemtogether.Itisimportantthat theT is squarewith the stirrup.Then, cut the pipe off 9 inches belowV.Solderasmall ring to theundersideofV topreventmoisturefromworking itswayalongTandruiningyourmotor.

Thetailsparisawoodenbar1½x2½incheswideand40incheslong.Itisnotchedtofitthestirrupandtaperedofftowardthetail.Asheetofsturdyiron,15x12 inches, is thenfitted into thesawcut.Twoboltsclip thewingsof theforked end tightly against the sides of the stirrup. The tail should be able tobalancethewheelontheverticalpivottoavoidstressingthejointatthetopofT.

A wind-wheel this size will spin effectively in a blustery wind but willprobably only generate enough energy to power a small pump. This will donicely to fill a watering can for your garden or for powering other lightmachinery.

Zoning,Permitting,andCovenantRequirements

Beforeyouinvest inormakeyourownsmallwindenergysystem,you should research any zoning andneighborhoodcovenant issuesthatmaydeteryour installingawind turbinesystem.Youcanfindout about local zoning restrictions by contacting a local buildinginspector,boardofsupervisors,orplanningboard.Theywillinformyouwhetherornot you’ll need abuildingpermit andwill provideyou with a list of other requirements. Further, your neighbors orhomeowners’ association may object to a wind machine that willblocktheirvieworasystemthatwillbetoonoisy.

APumpingWindmillApumpingwindmillcanhelpyoupumpwaterfromawellorotherundergroundreservoirintoasuction-pump.Thiswindmillhasasimplewheelwithspokesand

sails.Itconsistsofahub,sixspokes,afantail,andatrunkorpoleforattachingthewheel.

Thehubisahexagon6x6inches.Onespokecanbedrivenintoaholemadeoneitherside (Fig.1).Thespokesshouldbe3 feet long,3x1½inchesat thehub end, and 1 x 1½ inches on the outer end. The spokes are driven into theholesinthehubandpinnedtoholdtheminplace.

Apumpingwindmill.

The hub should be made of hard wood and the holes may be cut with amortisechiselandmallet.Makesuretheholesarespacedevenlysothespokeswilllightupproperly.

Attachtriangularpiecesoftwilledmuslinsheetingtothefaceofeachspoke.Theloosecornerofeachcanbeattachedtothenextspokeendwithapieceofstring. This creates an outlet between the leech and the spoke of each spacebetweenthespokesothatthewindcanpassthrough.This,ineffect,makesthewheelturn.

Thewheelshouldbeheldinplaceatthetopofthesupportingpostbyashaftpassingthroughthehubandboltedtothefrontofthewheelwithanut.Fig.2isagoodexampleofwhatthisshouldlooklike.Theshaftshouldbeabout1inchsquarewhereitpassesthroughthehub.Atthefrontend,itshouldbetightenedwith a nut andwasher. The square part,A,where the end of the hubwill be,shouldbeweldedatBtoholdthehubintheproperplace.Aboutaninchbeyondthe square shoulder, anotherone,C, shouldbewelded to the shaft.Thishelpsbalancethewheel.

Nowacrankcanbe formed,2 incheswideand3 inchesout fromtheshaft.

Another collar,C,C, should be welded onto the crank and then, beyond thispoint,theshaftshouldstickoutabout6inches.

Thetotallengthoftheshaftis15inches,andthewholedevicecanbepainted.Toattachthefantail,aheadmadeoutoftwoblocksofwoodshouldbeattachedand fastened 5 inches apart on the lower rails (Fig. 3).The upper ends of theblocksshouldbecutsoastoallowtheshafttoenterthem.Thecollars,CandC,C,areplacedat the insideof theblocks.Tohold theshaft inplace,small ironstrapscanbescrewedtightlyoverthetopofeachblock.

Windmillpumpdetails.

This head rests on the top of a hollow square post through which the rodpasses,connectingthecrankwiththepiston-rodofthepump(Fig.4A).Aflatironcollar,B, shouldbe screwed tightlyat the top.Tokeep theheadproperlysecured,fourironcleats(Fig.4C)shouldbescrewedtightlyunderthecornersoftheheadtohelpgriptheprojectingedgeofthecollar.Thiswillholdtheheadrigidwhileallowingittomoveaboutwiththeforceofthewind.

ApplyalittlebitofgreaseorVaselinetothetopofthecollarsotheheadwillmoveeasily.Thetopoftheconnectingrodshouldbeattachedtothecrankandboltedtothetopofthehardwoodrod(Fig.4D).

The tail,which is33 inches longand24 incheswideat theend, ismadeofboardsthatare¾inchthick.Thetailshouldbeattachedtothehead(Fig.5).

Toplacethewindmilloverapump,buildaplatformthatisbracedwithpiecesofwood(seetheillustration).Wirescanalsoberunfromtheupperpartofthetrunkdowntopegsdrivenintotheground.Thiswilladdadditionalsupportandsteadinesstotheuprightshaft.

Tostartthewheel,snaptheendsofthesheetstothespokeends.Tostopthewheel,unsnaptheendsandfurlthesailsaroundthespokes,tyingthemsecurely

withapieceofyarnoracottoncord.

The use of large scale windmills is often controversial. They can provide asignificantamountofcleanenergy,buttheyalsoclutterridgelines,producealotofnoise,andhurtthebirdpopulation.

Whatwouldhappenifweusedmorewindenergy?

AccordingtotheAmericanWindEnergyAssociation,ifweincreaseournation’swindenergycapacity to20percentby2030, itwouldhavethefollowingeffects:

ReduceGreenhouseGasEmission:Acumulativetotalof7,600milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2030,andmorethan15,000milliontonsofCO2wouldbeavoidedby2050.ConserveWater:Reducecumulativewaterconsumptionintheelectric sector by 8 percent or 4 trillion gallons from 2007through2030.Lower Natural Gas Prices: Significantly reduce natural gasdemand and reduce natural gas prices by 12 percent, savingconsumersapproximately$130billion.Expand Manufacturing: To produce enough turbines andcomponents for the 20 percent wind scenario, the industrywould require more than 30,000 direct manufacturing jobsacross the nation (assuming that 30 to 80 percent of majorturbine components would be manufactured domestically by2030).Generate Local Revenues: Lease payments for wind turbineswouldgeneratewellover$600millionforlandownersinruralareasandgenerateadditionallocaltaxrevenuesexceeding$1.5billionannuallyby2030.From2007through2030,cumulativeeconomicactivitywouldexceed$1 trillionormore than$440billioninnetpresentvalueterms.

Hydropower

Waterisconstantlymovingthroughavastglobalcycle,evaporatingfromlakesandoceans,formingclouds,precipitating,andthenflowingbackintotheocean.Theenergyofthiswatercycle,whichismainlydrivenbythesun,canbetappedto produce electricity or to power machines—a process called hydropower.Hydropoweruseswaterasatypeoffuel that isneitherreducednorusedupinthe process. Since thewater cycle is endless andwill constantly recharge thesystem,hydropowerisconsideredarenewableenergy.

Hydropower(alsoknownashydroelectricpower)ismadewhenflowingwateris captured and turned into electricity. There are many types of hydroelectricfacilitiesthatareallpoweredbythekineticenergyderivedfromflowingwateras it moves downstream. Generators and turbines convert this energy intoelectricity.Thisisthenfedintotheelectricalgridforuseinhomes,businesses,andotherindustries.

ABriefHistoryofHydropower

Humans have been using water to help them perform work forthousandsofyears.Waterwheelshavebeenemployedforgrindinggrains into flour, to saw wood, and to power textile mills. Thetechnologytouserunningwatertocreatehydroelectricityhasbeenaround for over a hundred years. Themodern hydropower turbinewascreated in themiddleof theeighteenthcenturyanddevelopedintodirectcurrenttechnology.Today,analternatingcurrentisinuseandcameaboutwhentheelectricgeneratorwascombinedwiththeturbine.ThefirsthydroelectricplantintheUnitedStateswasbuiltinAppleton,Wisconsinin1882.

TypesofHydropowerPlantsThere are three types of hydropower plants: 1. Impoundment—Impoundmentfacilitiesarethemostcommontypeofhydroelectricpowerplants.Thisfacility,typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in areservoir. Water that is released from the reservoir flows through a turbine,spinningit.Thisactivatesagenerator toproduceelectricity.Thewatermaybereleasedeither tomeet thechangingelectricityneedsor tomaintainaconstantreservoirlevel.

2. Diversion—A diversion facility, sometimes referred to as a run-of-riverfacility,channelsaportionofariverthroughacanalorpenstock.Thisdoesnotalwaysrequiretheuseofadam.

Diagramofahydropowerplant.

Water’sneverendingcycle.

3. Pumped storage—A pumped storage facility stores energy by pumpingwaterfromalowerreservoirtoanupperreservoirwhenelectricitydemandsarelow.Duringtimeswhenelectricaldemandsarehigh,wateristhenreleasedbackintothelowerreservoirtogenerateelectricity.

Some hydropower plants use dams and others do not. Many dams wereoriginally built for other purposes and then hydropower was added at a later

date. In theUnitedStates,only2,400of the80,000damsproducepower—therest are used for recreation, farm ponds, flood control, water supply, andirrigation.

SizeofHydropowerPlantsHydropower plants range in size from small and micro systems, which areoperatedfor individualneedsor tosell thepower toutilities, to largerprojectsthatproduceelectricityforutilities,supplyingmanyconsumerswithelectricity.

Micro hydropower plants have a capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. Smallhydropower plants have a capacity between 100 kilowatts and 30megawatts.Largehydropowerplantshaveacapacityofmorethan30megawatts.Thesmallandmicrosystemscanproduceenoughelectricity forahome, farm,orevenasmallvillage.

HydropowerTurbinesThere are twomain types of hydropower turbines: impulse and reaction. Thetypeofturbineselectedforaprojectisbasedontheheightofthestandingwater(the “head”) and the flow (volume) of thewater at a particular site. It is alsodeterminedbyhowdeeptheturbinemustbeset,itsefficiency,anditscost.

Amicrohydropowerplant.

Diagramofahydroelectricmotor.

ImpulseTurbine

Animpulseturbinetypicallyusesthevelocityofwatertomovetherunneranddischarges toatmosphericpressure.Thewater stream thenhitseachbucketonthe runner. Thewater flows out of the bottom of the turbine after hitting therunner.Theseturbinesaresuitableforhighhead,lowflowapplications.

ReactionTurbine

A reaction turbine generates power by the combined action of pressure andmovingwater.The runner isplaced in thewater stream,which flowsover thebladesinsteadofstrikingeachoneseparately.Theseturbinesareusedforsiteswithlowerheadandhigherflows.

AdvantagesofHydropowerItisfueledbywater,makingitacleanenergysource.Itdoesnotpollutetheairsinceitdoesnotburnanyfossilfuels.Itisadomesticenergysource.Itreliesonthewatercycleandisarenewableenergysource.Itisusuallyavailableasneeded.The water flow can be controlled through the turbine toproduceenergyondemand.The plants provide reservoirs for recreation (fishing,swimming,boating),watersupply,andfoodcontrol.

DisadvantagesofHydropowerIt can negatively impact fish populations by hampering fishmigrationupstreampastdams, thoughtherearewaystoallowforpassagebothup-anddownstream.It can impact the quality and flow of water, causing lowdissolved oxygen levels that can negatively impact theriverbankhabitats.The plants can be impacted by drought, and if they are notreceivingadequatewater,theycannotproduceelectricity.Theplantscompeteforlanduseandcancausehumans,plants,

andanimalstolosetheirnaturalhabitat.

Evenasmallwaterfallcanprovidealotofpower.

GeothermalEnergy

Geothermalenergy(theheatfromtheearth)isaccessibleasanalternativesourceof heat and power. Geothermal energy can be accessed by drilling water orsteamwellsusingaprocessmuchlikedrillingforoil.Thisresourceisenormousbut is sadly underused as an energy source.When it is employed, though, itprovestobeclean(emittinglittleornogreenhousegases),reliable,economical,and domestically found (geothermal energy can be harnessed from almostanywhereandthusmakescountrieslessdependentonforeignoil).

Wellsamileormoredeepcanbedrilled intounderground reservoirs to tapsteamandveryhotwater.Thiscanthenbebroughttothesurfaceandusedinavariety of ways—such as to drive turbines and electricity generators. In theUnited States,most geothermal reservoirs are located in thewestern states, inAlaska,and inHawaii.People inmore than120 locations in theUnitedStatesareusinggeothermalenergyforspaceanddistrictheating.

Geothermal resources can range from shallow ground water to hot waterfound in rocks several miles below the surface of the earth. It can even beharnessed,insomecases,frommagma(hotmoltenrockneartheearth’score).Geothermalreservoirsoflowtomoderatetemperature(roughly68to302°F)canbeusedtoheathomes,offices,andgreenhouses.Curiously, thedehydrationofonionsandgarliccomprisesthelargestindustrialuseofgeothermalenergyintheUnitedStates.

Ageothermalpowerplantinaction.

AdditionalResources

TheU.S.DepartmentofEnergy, inconjunctionwith theGeo-HeatCenter, conducts research, provides technical support, anddistributes information on a wide range of geothermal direct-useapplications. Some information that is provided revolves aroundgreenhouse informational packages, cost comparisons of heatpumps, low temperature resource assessments, cost analysis forhomeowners,andinformationdirectedtoaquaculturedevelopers.

The greenhouse informational package provides information forpeople who are looking to develop geothermal greenhouses. Thispackage includes crop market prices for vegetables and flowers,operating costs, heating system specifications, greenhouse heatingequipmentselectionspreadsheets,andvendorinformation.

Groundwater heat pumps have also been identified as offeringsubstantialsavingsoverothertypesofpumpsystems.Informationalpacketsaboutheatpumpsystemsareprovidedtoanswerfrequentlyaskedquestionsconcerningtheapplicationandusageofgeothermalheatpumps.

The Geo-Heat Center examined the costs associated with theinstallation of district heating systems in single-family residentialsectors.Theydiscoveredthatcost-savingareasincludedinstallation

inunpavedareas,usingnon-insulatedreturnlines,andinstallationinareasthatareunencumberedbyexistingburiedutilitylines.

ThreeMainUsesofGeothermalEnergySome types of geothermal energy usage draw from the earth’s temperaturescloser to the surfaceandothers require, asnotedabove,drillingmiles into theearth.Thethreemainusesofgeothermalenergyare:1. Direct Use and District Heating Systems—These use hot water from

springsandreservoirsneartheearth’ssurface.2. Electricity Generation—Typically found in power plants, this type of

energyrequireshigh-temperaturewaterandsteam(generallybetween300and 700°F). Geothermal power plants are built where reservoirs arepositionedonlyamileortwofromtheearth’ssurface.

3. GeothermalHeat Pumps—These use stable ground orwater temperaturesneartheearth’ssurfacetocontrolbuildingtemperaturesabovetheground.

DirectUseGeothermalEnergySince ancient times, people have been directly using hotwater as a source ofenergy.TheChinese,NativeAmericans,andRomansusedhotmineralspringsforbathing,cooking,andheatingpurposes.Currently,anumberofhotspringsarestillusedforbathingandmanypeoplebelievethesehot,mineral-richwaterspossessnaturalhealingpowers.

Besides bathing, the most common direct use of geothermal energy is forheating buildings. This is through district heating systems—these types ofsystems provide heat for roughly 95 percent of the buildings in Reykjavik,Iceland.Districtheatingsystemspipehotwaterneartheearth’ssurfacedirectlyintobuildingstoprovideadequateheat.

Directuseofgeothermal resources is aproven, economic, andcleanenergyoption. Geothermal heat can be piped directly into facilities and used to heatbuildings, grow greenhouse plants, heat water for fish farming, and evenpasteurize milk. Some northern U.S. cities pipe hot water under roads andsidewalkstomeltthesnow.

You can combine solar and geothermal energy to produce more consistentpowerinyourhome.

GeothermalHeatPumpsEven though temperatures above the surface of the earth change daily andseasonally,ingeneral,temperaturesinthetop10feetoftheearth’ssurfacestayfairly constant at around 50 to 60°F. This means that, in most places, soiltemperaturesaretypicallywarmerthanairtemperaturesinthewinterandcoolerinthesummer.Geothermalheatpumps(GHPs)usethisconstanttemperaturetoheat and cool buildings. These pumps transfer heat from the ground (orundergroundwatersources)intobuildingsduringthewinteranddothereverseprocessinthesummermonths.

Geothermal heat pumps, according to the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA), are themost energy-efficient, environmentallyclean, andcost-effectivesystemsformaintainingaconsistenttemperaturecontrol.Thesepumpsarebecomingmorepopular,eventhoughmosthomesstillusefurnacesandairconditioners.Sometimes referred to as earth-coupled,ground-source,orwater-source heat pumps, GHPs use the constant temperature of the earth as theexchange medium (using ground heat exchangers) instead of the outdoor airtemperature.Inthisway,thesystemcanbeveryefficientoncoldwinternightsincomparisontoair-sourceheatpumps.

Ageothermalpowerplant.

Geothermalheatpumpscanheat, cool, and, in somecases, even supplyhotwatertoahouse.Thesepumpsarerelativelyquiet,long-lasting,needlittletonomaintenance, and do not rely on outside temperatures to function effectively.Whilegeothermalsystemsareinitiallymoreexpensivetoinstall,thesecostsarequicklyreturnedinenergysavingsinaboutfiveto10years.Systemshavealife-span of roughly 25 years for inside components and more than 50 years forground loop systems. Each year, about 50,000 geothermal heat pumps areinstalledintheUnitedStates.

TypesofGeothermalHeatPumpSystemsThere are four basic types of ground loop heat pump systems: horizontal,vertical, pond/lake, and open-loop systems. The first three are closed-loopsystemswhilethefourthis,asitsnamesuggests,open-loop.Thetypeofsystemused is generally determined based on the climate, soil conditions, landavailability,andlocalinstallationcostsofthesiteforthepump.Allfourtypesofgeothermalheatpumpsystemscanbeusedforbothresidentialandcommercialbuildingapplications.

HorizontalHeatPumpSystem

This closed-loop installation is extremely cost-effective for residential heatpumpsandiswellsuitedfornewconstructionwhereadequatelandisavailablefor the system. Horizontal heat pump systems need 4-foot trenches to beinstalled.Thesesystemsaretypicallylaidoutusingtwopipes—oneburied6feetandtheotherburied4feetbelowtheground—orbyplacingtwopipessidebysideat5feetundergroundina2-foot-widetrench.

Ahorizontalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem.

Averticalclosed-loopheatpumpsystem.

VerticalHeatPumpSystem

Schoolsandlargercommercialbuildingsuseverticalheatpumpsystemsbecausetheyrequirelesslandtobeeffectivelyused.Thesesystemsarebestusedwherethe soil is too shallow for trenching. They also minimize any disturbance toestablished landscaping. To install a vertical system, holes that are roughly 4inchesindiameteraredrilledabout20feetapartand100to400feetdeep.Twopipes are inserted into these holes and are connected at the bottomwith aU-bend, forming a loop.The vertical loops are then connectedwith a horizontalpipe,placedinthetrenches,andconnectedtotheheatpumpinthebuilding.

Pond/LakeHeatPumpSystem

Another closed-loop system is the pond/lake heat pump system. If a site hasenoughwater—usuallyintheformofapondorevenalake—thissystemmaybethemostcost-effective.Thisheatpumpsystemworksbyrunningasupplylinepipeundergroundfromabuildingtothewatersource.Thepipingiscoiledinto

circlesnolessthan8feetunderthesurface—thispreventsthewaterinthepipesfromfreezing.Thecoilsshouldbeplacedonlyinawatersourcethatmeetstheminimumvolume,depth,andqualitycriteria.

Aclosed-looppond/lakeheatpumpsystem.

Open-LoopHeatPumpSystem

Anopen-loopsystemuseswellorsurfacebodywaterastheheatexchangefluidthatwillcirculatedirectlythroughthegeothermalheatpumpsystem.Oncethiswaterhascirculated through the system, it is returned to theground througharechargewellorassurfacedischarge.Thesystemisreallyonlypracticalwherethereisasufficientsupplyofcleanwater.Localcodesandregulationsforpropergroundwaterdischargemustalsobemetinorderfortheheatpumpsystemtobeutilized.

Anopen-loopheatpumpsystem.

SelectingandInstallingaGeothermalHeatPumpSysteminYourHome

The heating efficiency of commercial ground-source and water-source heatpumpsisindicatedbytheircoefficientofperformance(COP)—theratioofheatprovidedinBtuperBtuofenergyinput.Thecoolingefficiencyismeasuredbythe energy efficiency ratio (EER)—the ratio of heat removed to the electricityrequired (in watts) to run the unit. Many geothermal heat pump systems areapprovedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyasbeingenergyefficientproductsandso,ifyouarethinkingofpurchasingandinstallingthistypeofsystem,youmay want to check to see if there is any special financing or incentives forpurchasingenergyefficientsystems.

EvaluatingYourSite

Before installingageothermalheatpump,consider the site thatwillhouse thesystem. The presence of hot geothermal fluid containing lowmineral and gascontent, shallow aquifers for producing the fluid, space availability on yourproperty, proximity to existing transmission lines, and availability ofmake-upwater for evaporative cooling are all factors thatwill determine if your site isgoodforgeothermalelectricdevelopment.Asaruleofthumb,geothermalfluidtemperatureshouldbenolessthan300°F.

Averticalclosed-loopsystem.

In the western United States, Alaska, and Hawaii, hydrothermal resources(reservoirsofsteamorhotwater)aremorereadilyavailablethantherestofthecountry. However, this does not mean that geothermal heat cannot be usedthroughout the country. Shallow ground temperatures are relatively constantthroughout theUnitedStates and thismeans that energy canbe tapped almostanywhereinthecountrybyusinggeothermalheatpumpsanddirect-usesystems.

To determine the best type of ground loop systems for your site, youmust

assess the geological, hydrological, and spatial characteristics of your land tochoosethebest,mosteffectiveheatpumpsystemtoheatandcoolyourhome:

1.Geology—This includes the soil and rock composition and properties onyoursite.Thesecanaffectthetransferratesofheatinyourparticularsystem.Ifyouhave soilwithgoodheat transferproperties, your systemwill require lesspipingtoobtainagoodamountofheatfromthesoil.Furthermore,theamountofsoil that is available also contributes to which system you will choose. Forexample,areasthathavehardrockorshallowsoilwillmostlikelybenefitfromaverticalheatpumpsysteminsteadofasystemrequiringlargeanddeeptrenches,suchasthehorizontalheatpumpsystem.

2. Hydrology—This refers to the availability of ground or surface water,which will affect the type of system to be installed. Factors such as depth,volume, andwater quality will help determine if surfacewater bodies can beusedasasourceofwaterforanopen-loopheatpumpsystemor if theywouldwork best with a pond/lake system. Before installing an open-loop system,however, it is best to determine your site’s hydrology so potential problems(suchasaquiferdepletionorgroundwatercontamination)canbeavoided.

3. Available land—The acreage and layout of your land, as well as yourlandscapingandthelocationofundergroundutilities,alsoplayanimportantpartin the typeofheatpumpsystemyouchoose. Ifyouarebuildinganewhome,horizontal ground loops are an economical system to install. If you have anexistinghomeandwanttoconvertyourheatandcoolingtogeothermalenergy,verticalheatpumpsystemsarebesttominimizethedisturbancetoyourexistinglandscapingandyard.

InstallingtheHeatPumps

Geothermalheatpumpsystemsaresomewhatdifficulttoinstallonyourown—thoughitcancertainlybedone.Beforeyoubeginanydigging,contactyourlocalutilitycompanytoavoiddiggingintogaspipesorelectricalwires.

Thegroundheatexchangerinageothermalheatpumpsystemismadeupofclosed-or open-loop pipe—depending on which type of system you’vedeterminedisbestsuitedforyoursite.Sincemostsystemsemployedareclosed-loopsystems,highdensitypolyethylenepipeisusedandburiedhorizontallyat4to6feetdeeporverticallyat100to400feetdeep.Thesepipesarefilledwithanenvironmentallyfriendlyantifreeze/watersolutionthatactsasaheatexchanger.Youcanfindthisatyourlocalhomestoreorcontactacontractortoseewhereit

isdistributed.Thissolutionworksinthewinterbyextractingheatfromtheearthandcarryingitintothebuilding.Inthesummertime,thesystemreverses,takingheatfromthebuildinganddepositingitintotheground.

Airdeliveryductworkwilldistributethehotorcoldairthroughoutthehouse’sductwork like traditional, conventional systems. An air handler—a box thatcontains the indoor coil and fan—should be installed to move the house airthrough the heat pump system. The air handler contains a large blower and afilter,justlikestandardairconditioningunits.

Cost-EfficiencyofGeothermalHeatPumpSystems

By installing and using a geothermal heat pump system, you willsave on the costs of operating and maintaining your heating andcooling system.While these systems are generally a bit pricier toinstall,theyprovetobemoreefficientandthussaveyoumoneyonamonthly and yearly basis. Especially in the colder wintermonths,geothermal heat pump systems can reduce your heating costs byabouthalf.Annualenergysavingsbyusingageothermalheatpumpsystemrangefrom30to60percent.

BenefitsofUsingGeothermalEnergyIt is clean energy. Geothermal energy does not require theburningoffossilfuels(coal,gas,oroil)toproduceenergy.Geothermal fields produce only about ⅙th of the carbondioxide that natural gas-fueled power plants do. They alsoproduce little to no sulfur-bearing gases, which reduces theamountofacidrain.Itisavailableatanytimeofday,allyear-round.Geothermal power is homegrown, which reduces dependenceonforeignoil.It isarenewablesourceofenergy.Geothermalenergyderivesits source fromanalmostunlimitedamountofheatgeneratedby the earth. And even if energy is limited in an area, thevolume taken out can be reinjected, making it a sustainablesourceofenergy.Geothermal heat pump systems use 25 to 50 percent lesselectricitythanconventionalheatingandcoolingsystems.They

reduceenergyconsumptionandemissionsbetween44and72percentandimprovehumiditycontrolbymaintainingabout50percentrelativehumidityindoors(GHPsareveryeffectiveforhumidpartsofthecountry).Heatpumpsystemscanbe“zoned” toallowdifferentpartsofyour home to be heated and cooled to different temperatureswithoutmuchaddedcostorextraspacerequired.Geothermal heat pump systems are durable and reliable.Underground piping can last for 25 to 50 years and the heatpumpstendtolastatleast20years.Heatpumpsystems reducenoisepollutionsince theyhavenooutsidecondensingunit(likeairconditioners).

Alternate“Geothermal”CoolingSystem

Truegeothermalenergysystemscanbeveryexpensivetoinstallandyoumaynotbeabletouseoneinyourhomeatthistime.However,here is a fun alternative way to use the concepts of geothermalsystems to keep your house cooler in the summer and your airconditioningbillslower.Allyouneedareabasement,smallwindowfan,anddehumidifier.

Yourbasement isawonderfulexampleofhow the top layersofearthtendtoremainatastabletemperaturethroughouttheyear.Inthewinter,yourbasementmayfeelsomewhatwarm;inthesummer,it’sniceandrefreshinglycool.Thisisduetothetemperatureofthesoilpermeatingthroughthebasementwalls.Andthiscoolbasementaircanbeused toeffectively reduce the temperature inyourhomebyuptofivedegreesduringthesummermonths.Herearethestepstoyouralternative“geothermal”coolingsystem:

ThehotspringsatYellowstoneareanaturalexampleofgeothermalheating.

1. Run the dehumidifier in your basement during the night,bringingthehumiditydowntoabout60percent.

2. Keepyourblindsandcurtainsclosed in thesunniest rooms inyourhome.

3. Inthemorning,whenthetemperatureinsidethehousereachesabout 77°F, open a small window in your basement, just acrack, and open one of the upstairswindows, placing a smallfaninitanddirectingtheroomairoutofthewindow.

4. Withallotherwindowsandoutsidedoorsclosed, the fanwillsuckthecoolbasementairthroughyourhomeandouttheopenwindow. Doing this for about an hour will bring down thetemperatureinsideyourhome,buyingyouacoupleofhoursofreprievebeforeswitchingontheAC.

Compostingtoiletsarebeingusedmorefrequentlyinparksaroundtheworld.

CompostingToilets

Toiletscomeinthreecommonvarieties:siphon-jetflushvalvetoilets(commonin most homes), pressurized tank toilets, and gravity flow. These toilets,generallyspeaking,useuplargeamountsofwaterandthewasteisflushedintoasewer system and then dumped in a variety of locations. Composting toiletsrequire little to no water, which provides a solution to sanitation andenvironmental problems in areas that are rural, without sewers, and in thesuburbs throughout theworld.Although composting toilets are rare in privatehomes—theyaregenerallyfoundinparkfacilitiesandsmallhighwayreststops—thesewaterlesstoiletscanbeutilizedbytheregularhomeowner.

ItisastonishingthatAmericansflushabout4.8billiongallonsofwaterdowntoiletseveryday,according to theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Justreplacing all existing U.S. toilets with 1.6-gallon-per-flush, ultra-low-flow(ULF)modelswouldsaveabout5,500gallonsofwaterperpersonperyear!So,ifyouareunabletoinstallacompostingtoiletinyourhomeoronyourproperty,youmay choose to install ULFmodels in your home to help conserve waterusage.

Diagramofacompostingtoilet.

TheBasicsoftheCompostingToiletComposting(orbiological) toiletsystemscontainandprocessexcrement, toiletpaper, carbon additive, and, at times, food wastes. These systems rely onunsaturatedconditionswhereaerobicbacteriabreakdownwaste—unlikesepticsystems—much like a compost heap for your gardening necessities. Theresulting soil-like material—humus—must be buried or removed. It’s a goodideatocheckstateandlocalregulationsregardingproperhandlingmethods.

Inmanypartsofthecountry,publichealthofficialsarerealizingthatthereisadefinite need for environmentally sound humanwaste treatment and recyclingmethods, and compost toilets are an easy way to work toward these needs.Because they don’t require anywater, composting toilets are ideal for remoteareasandplacesthathavehighwatertables,shallowsoil,androughterrain.

Thesesystemssavewaterandallowforvaluableplantnutrientstoberecycledintheprocess.

Thereareafewkeycomponentsforestablishingacompostingtoilet:Compostingreactorthatisconnectedtoamicro-flushtoiletScreenedairinletandexhaustsystemtoremoveodorsandheat,plusCO2andotherdecompositionbyproductsMechanismtoprovideproperventilationthatwillhelpaerobicorganismsinthecompostheapProcesscontrolsAccessdoorfortheremovaloftheendproduct

It is important that the composting toilet separates the solid from the liquidwasteandproducesahumus-likematerialwithlessthan200MPNpergramoffecal coliform. The compost chamber can be solar or electrically heated tomaintaintherighttemperatureforyear-rounduseandbacterialdecomposition.

MainObjectiveoftheCompostingToiletThesesystemsaredesignedtocontain,immobilize,anddestroypathogens.Thisreducestheriskofhumaninfectionandensuresthatthetoiletsdonotpollutetheenvironment.Ifdonecorrectly,thecompostedmaterialcanbehandledwithlittletonoriskofharmingtheindividualworkingwithit.

Acompostingtoiletconsistsofawell-ventilatedcontainerthatbreedsagoodenvironment for unsaturated,moist human excrement that can be decomposedundersanitaryconditions.Acompostingtoiletcanbelargeorsmall,depending

onthespaceanditsuse.Organicmatteristransformedintoahumus-likeproductthrough thenaturalbreakingdown frombacteria and fungi.Most systems likethisusetheprocessofcontinuouscomposting,whichincludesasinglechamberwhere theexcrement isaddedto the topand theendproduct is takenfromthebottom.

AdvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletscanbeusedpracticallyanywhereaflushtoiletcanbe.Theyaremost likely to be used in homes in rural areas, seasonal cabins, recreationareas,andotherplaceswhereflushtoiletsareeitherunnecessaryorimpractical.Theyaremorecost-effectivethanestablishingacentralsewagesystemandthereisnowaterwasted.Thesesystems—sincetheyaren’tusingcopiousamountsofwater—also reduce the quantity of wastewater that is disposed of on a dailybasis.These toilets canalsobeused to recycleandcompost foodwastes, thusreducing the amount of household garbage that is dumped every day. Finally,thesetoiletsystemsarebeneficialtotheenvironmentastheydivertnutrientandpathogencontainingeffluentfromthesoil,surfacewater,andthegroundwater.

DisadvantagesofUsingaCompostingToiletComposting toilets are a big responsibility; the owner of a composting toiletmust be committed tomaintaining the system. Removing the compost can beunpleasantifthetoiletisnotproperlysetupandtheycouldenduphavingodorissues.

FactorsThatAffecttheRateofComposting

1. Microorganisms—A mix of bacteria and fungi need to bepresent in order for the excrement to turn into compostedmaterial.

2. Moisture—This helps the microorganisms to make simplercompounds before they are metabolized. Moisture should bekeptbetween40and70percent.

3. pH—ThebestpHforthecompostingtoiletmaterialshouldbebetween6.5and7.5.

4. Carbon to nitrogen ratio—It is important to balance out thenitrogenfoundinurinewithaddedcarboninyourcomposting

toilet.5. Proper care—Managing your composting toiletwellwill help

keepitefficientandproductive.

SuccessfulManagementoftheCompostingToiletCompostingtoiletsdonotrequirehighlytrainedpeopletodealwiththesewageas it is relativelyharmless tohandle.Butbesure tomaintainyourcompostingtoiletsoitcanbeeffectiveandsafe.Somecompostingtoiletsmayneedorganicbulking agents added to aid the composting process. Adding grass clippings,sawdust,andleavestoyourcompostingtoiletreservoirwillhelpaidtheprocess.Theendproductshouldberemovedeverythreemonthsforsmallersystemsand,ifcompostedcorrectly, shouldnotsmellandshouldnotbe toxic tohumansoranimals. Be sure to dispose of the waste materials in accordance with yourparticularstateandlocalregulations.

MakingYourOwnCompostingToiletBuildingyourowncompostingtoiletcanbeinexpensiveandtakesonlyashortamountoftimetoassemble.Toconstructacompostingtoilet,youwillneedthefollowingmaterials:

Twoorthree5-gallonbucketswithlidsAstandardtoiletseat(ausedonewillworkjustfine)withlid¾x3x18-inchplywoodsheetsBoardstobecutandusedforthesidesofthetoiletboxandforthelegsTwohingesScrewsSawandmeasuringtapeBag of sawdust, to be used for soaking up excess moisture in thecompostingbucket

Tobegin,cutaholeinoneofthepiecesofplywoodsothatitfitsthesizeofthebucket.Then,attachthepiecesofplywoodtogetherusingthehinges.Buildaboxwith the boards and then screw in the solid piece of plywood to the box,allowingforthepartwiththeholetoremainonthetop.Attachlegstothebox,allowing the bucket to lift just slightly above the hole cut in the top piece ofplywood.Then,attachthetoiletseattotheplywoodtop,fittingitsecurelyovertherimofthebucket.Finally,stainorpainttheentirecompostingtoiletsoitwill

lastlongerandmatchthedécorofyourbathroom.

Before using your homemade composting toilet, sprinkle 1 to 2 inches ofsawdustintothebottomofthebucket.Thiswillhelpabsorbextramoistureandwillalsoaddanecessarycarbonelementthatisusefulincomposting.Sprinklesawdustintothetoiletaftereachusetofacilitatethecompostingprocessandtominimizeodors.When the firstbucket is full, removeandcover (allowing thecompostingprocesstocontinue),insertanotherbucket,andcontinueuse.Whenbothbucketsarefull,removethemtoyourcompostingpileinyouryard.Makeasmall indent in thecenterofyourcompostingpileanddumpthenewcompostintothedepression,layingoldcompostandotherorganicmaterialsontopofthenewaddition.Ifusedproperly,yourcompostingtoiletwillbeodorlessandyourcompostwillberichandreadyforuseinyourgarden.

Compostwillenrichthesoilinyourgardentohelpgrowhealthierplants.

Greywater

Greywater is just wastewater. Greywater, however, does not include toiletwastewater,which isknownasblackwater.These twodifferentkindsofwatershould not be mixed together for basic health reasons. The main differencesbetweengreywaterandblackwaterare:

Greywater contains less nitrogen than blackwater (and about half of thenitrogen that is found ingreywater isorganicnitrogen thatcanbefilteredoutandusedbyplants).Greywater contains fewer pathogens than blackwater and thus is not aslikelytospreadorganismsthatcouldbepotentiallyharmfultohumans.Greywater decomposes faster than blackwater and is less likely to causewaterpollutionbecauseofthisfactor.

Greywaterisnotnecessarilysewagetobeginwith,butif leftuntreatedforacouple of days, it will become like blackwater and thus will be unusable.Therefore,itisimportanttoknowhowbesttotreatandmanagegreywatersoitcan be successfully and safely reused.Much of thematerial in this section isadaptedfromCarlR.Lindstrom’sexcellentsite,www.greywater.com.

WhatisGreywater?Simplyspeaking,greywateriswashwater—bath,dish,andlaundrywaterthatisfree from toilet waste and garbage disposal remnants. Greywater, when it ismanaged properly, can be useful for growing things in your garden or yard.Greywater, in effect, is an excellent source of nutrients for plants when usedproperly.

GreywaterIrrigationSystemsThe practice of irrigatingwith greywater is common in areaswhere thewatersupply isshort.Tohaveeffectivegreywater irrigationthatsuccessfullyutilizesthenutrientsinthegreywater,takeprecautionsbeforeusingitinirrigation.

Planningagreywatersystemrequireseitheranassumptionthatthesystemisrightforyouandyourfamilyoranunderstandingthatthesystemisneededfor

thehouseindependentofwholivesinit.

To assess whether your household could benefit from a greywater system,takeinventoryofall thesourcesofgreywater in thehouse.Lookathowmanygallonsofwateryouuse,perperson,perday,whendoingthelaundry,runningthe dishwasher, and taking a bath or shower, and then add up these numbers.Rememberthatthetypicalwashingmachineuses30gallonsofwaterpercycle,adishwasherusesbetween3and5gallonspercycle,andsimplywashingyourhandsandbrushingyourteethdailywastesabout1to5gallonsofwaterperday.Ifyouwereabletorecycleandreuseallofthatwastedwater,youcaneffectivelyreduce theamountofwaterconsumptionyour familyhaseverydayandeveryyear.

Onceyou’vedecidedtouseyourgreywater,checkwithyourlocalauthoritiestoseeifthereareanystateorlocalregulationsforgreywaterusageinyourarea.Onceyouhavethego-aheadtoproceed,youcanbeginreusingyourgreywatertothebenefitofyourgardenandhousehold.

AerobicPretreatment

This type of greywater treatment is suitable for shower, hand-washing, andlaundry water. Aerobic pretreatment is a stretch filter technique that removeslarge particles and fibers to protect the pipes from clogging and transfers thegreywater into a biologically active, aerobic soil-zone environment. Here,microorganisms can survive and flourish.Stretch filters retain fibers and largeparticlesandallowtherestofthematerialstotraveltothenextprocessingstage.Thefilterisgoodforsinksandshowersatpublicwaterfacilities.

Greywaterirrigation.

Greywaterpretreatment.

AnaerobictoAerobicPretreatment

Ifyouhavefoodwasteenteringthewatersystemfromdishwashersandkitchensinks, this is the better option for treatingyour greywater.This system shouldhaveathree-stageseptictanktoseparatethesludgeandgreasefromthewater.Thiswaste can then be removed easily.The outgoingwaterwill be anaerobicandwillneedasandfiltertorestoretheaerobicconditionstothegreywater.Thefinaltreatmentleadsthepurifiedwatertobetreatedinaplanterbed.Thesystem,while not inexpensive, is effective and is simple to maintain. A plan for thissystemcanbeseenabove.

PlanterSoilBox

Since1975, soilboxeshavebeenused topurifygreywater.Whenusinga soilbox,however, it isvital that theplanterbedbewelldrained topreventwater-loggedzonesfromforming.Therefore,thebottomofthesoilboxshouldcontainalayerofpolyethylenepeagravel toprovideforeffectivedrainage.Alayerofplasticmosquitonettingshouldbeplacedoverthegraveltopreventthelayerofcoarse sand from falling through. Atop the coarse sand should be a layer ofconcrete-mixsandandthetop2feetshouldconsistofhumus-richtopsoil.Claysoilsshouldnotbeusedinsoilboxesastheydonoteffectivelyallowwatertopassthroughanddrain.

Aplantersoilbox.

Pressure infiltration pipes should be designed to allow for the evendistributionofwater in both level anduneven terrain.Thesepipes are easy tocleanandshouldbeplacedonthesoilsurfaceafterplanting.Then,theyshouldbecoveredbya2-to4-inchlayerofwoodchipmulch.Thepressureinfiltrationpipes consist of two concentric pipes that expand slightly due to the waterpressurewhenthesystemisturnedon.Thiscausesthewatertorunoutalongtheslot at the bottomof the soil box.When thewater pressure is turned off, thiscausesthesleevetocloseandpreventsworms,insects,androotsfromenteringandcloggingthepipe.

Pipingcanusuallybefoundin5-footsections.

Gravity/PressureLeachingChambers

Leaching chambers can be successful in loading and receiving2.4 gallons persquare footperdayofgreywater froma three-bedroomhome.Usinghalfof aPVC pipe that is 6 inches in diameter, this leaching chamber can be placedwithina trenchona1-to2-inchmeshplasticnetting toprevent thewalls fromsinking into the soil. No pre-filtration is used in these chambers. All that isrequired is a dosing pump chamber to pump every eight hours. The trenchshouldhaveaminimumsurfaceareaofabout100squarefeet—thiswillallowfor a loading rate of around 2 to 2½ gallons per square foot per day for anaverage-sizedhome.

Aleachingchamber.

GravityandAutomaticSwitch

Theillustrationbelowshowsanexampleofanautomaticswitchsystemfromashallowleachchambertoonethatisbelowthefrostline—animportantfeatureof any greywater system in the northern United States. If a shallow trenchfreezesandbecomescloggedwithice,thewaterwillbackupandspilloverintothe pipe to the deeper, belowthe-frost-line trench. It is worth noting thatgreywateristypicallywarmerthancombinedsewageandthattheshallowleachzones that are operating in your system tend to stay freer of ice for longerperiodsoftimethaninplaceswithcombinedwastewater.

Automatic switching usingpumppressure is different fromgravity pressureswitching. In an automatic switch system, a loop must be arranged indoorswherethepressureneededfortheshallowinfiltrationisnormallylowerthanthepressurerequiredtoforcethewateruptothetopoftheloop.Thetopoftheloopmust, then, be no higher than the shut-off head of the pump.About 3 feet ofwater isagoodmarginfor thissystem.Thesystemcanalsobedesignedtobeswitched manually by the opening and closing of the valves that feed thedifferentzonesandlevelsofthegreywaterbox.

Anautomaticswitchsystem.

About3feetofwaterisagoodmarginforthisautomaticswitchsystem.

OptionsforUsingGreywaterinColdWeather

ThroughoutNewEngland,thereareseveralgreywater-irrigatedgreenhousesthatfeatureacombinationofautomaticallyirrigatedandfertilizedgrowingbedsthatprovide effective greywater treatment. Since these greenhouses are found incolder,northernstates,itisimportantthatthesesoilbedsbedeepertostoreheatfromboththesunandthegreywater.

Thegreenhouseshownhereprovidesenoughsaladgreensforafamilyoffourtosixpeoplethroughoutthelong,coldnortheasternwinters.Growingbroccoli,spinach, lettuce, mustard greens, and sorrel in these colder-climate greywatersystems can be effective and profitable. To facilitate better distribution ofgreywaterinthesoilbed,apipe-loopsystemcanalsobesimplyconstructedtofeedthebedfrombothsides.

Anactivecooling/passiveheatinggreywaterirrigatedgreenhouse.

OutdoorPlantersThere are many variations of outdoor raised soil beds that are effective inreplacing the soil needed for successful leach field treatment of greywater.Houseson ledgesor inverysandysoilscanbe fittedwithmasonrysoilboxesthat serve to build up the site’s soil profile. Such a strategy has been used inmoundsor evapo-transpirationbeds (a namederived from the assumption thatallofthewaterwillevaporatetotheatmosphereeveninwetandcoldclimates).

Inparts of the countrywhere constructiondensitymakes it verydifficult tobuild a largemound or to locate planters for treating a significant volume ofgreywater,twoadjacentneighborscanagreetobuildpropertydividersandplanthedges in their leaching area. This alternative combines privacy, landscaping

aesthetics, and good environmental protection. Greywater gardens offer theaddedbenefitofbeingabletogardenatahigherelevationandinaraisedgardenbed.

Outdoorplanterswillhavealesseffectivetreatmentduringthewinterseasonsand during deep freezes.Yet,when relativelywarmgreywater is injected intothesoil,increasedbiologicalactivityaswellaswarmingofthesoiltendstokeeptheinjectionareaunfrozenforlongerperiodsoftimethanthesurroundingarea.Raised beds or planters can also be ideal for compost bins in the fall. Thedecomposingleavesandgrassesactasaninsulatoraswellasacompostingfuelsourcethatfurtherinsuresthatthesoilbeneathdoesnotgointoadeepfreeze.

Aninjectorpipeforkinthesoilbed.Use1-inchpipinganddrill¼-inchholesoneachside.Coverwithcanvasandalayerofsoiltohidethepipearrangement.

Greywaterisespeciallyusefulinareasthatareverydry.

ShallowSubsoilIrrigation

This type of irrigation (2 to 6 inches below the soil level) ispreferabletosurfaceirrigationwhenthesefactorsareinplay:

Thewaterusedis“grey”(neithercleannorfreeofsalts)The irrigation system is located in a high evaporation localewithwatershortagesItisdesiredtoproduceleaforgardenwastecompostquicklySelectiveirrigationisneeded(foraflowerborder,shrub,bush,tree,etc.)Youwanttoautomaticallyirrigateadrainedplanterindoorsoroutdoors

PartSixCrafts

“Craftsmakeusfeelrooted,giveusasenseofbelonging,andconnectuswithourhistory.Ourancestorsusedtocreatethesecraftsoutofnecessity,andnowwedothemforfun,tomakemoneyandtoexpressourselves.”

—PhyllisGeorge

“Theartistmustcreateasparkbeforehecanmakeafireandbeforeartisborn,theartistmustbereadytobeconsumedbythefireofhisowncreation.”

—AugusteRodin

Many people think of arts and crafts as something involving markers andconstructionpaperthatthekidsdoatsummercamp.Certainly,thecreativitythatchildren expresswith scissors, tape, colored pencils, or clay is at the heart ofcrafting,but there’smore to it than that.Most craft projectsdone forpleasurenowwere once done out of necessity—making candles, soaps, or baskets, forexample—andmanyarestillusefultoday.Beyondthat,makingthingswithyourhands can be soothing, stimulating, or even enlightening, depending on theprojectandyourframeofmind.Manypeoplefindknittingespeciallyrelaxing,and potters often discover within their art philosophical principles of

intentionality, change, flexibility, and acceptance. In addition, crafting canbecomealucrativeandfulfillingbusiness;handmadeitemsaresought-aftergiftsandcanbesoldforsignificantlymorethantheirfactory-producedcounterparts.In thesepagesyou’ll find an introduction to several diverse formsof crafting,from making soap and candles to kites and boomerangs. Use the directions,descriptions,andimagesasajumping-offpointforyourowncreativeendeavors,alteringtheprojectsasyou’reinspiredtocreateone-of-a-kindpiecestouse,giveaway,orsell...orjustbecausethey’refuntodo.

HandmadeCandles

Beforethedaysofelectricity,candleswereanecessityineveryhome.Nowtheyare enjoyed primarily for the unique way that they create ambience, or, forcandlesmadewith essential oils, for their aromaticproperties.Turningoff thelightsforafewhoursandenjoyingtheeveningbycandlelightcansavemoneyonyourelectricbill,too,andisapleasantreminderofdaysgoneby.

Whenmakingcandlesoutofhotwax, it’sagood idea tokeepsomebakingsodanearby. Ifwax lightson fire, it reacts similarly to agrease fire,which isonly aggravated by water. Douse a wax fire with baking soda, and it willextinguishquickly.Ratherthanpouringleftoverwaxdownthedrain(whichwillclog your drain and is bad for the environment), dump it into a jar and set itaside.Ifyoucontinuetomakecandles,eventuallyyourleftoverswillbecomeauniquelayeredjarcandle.

RolledBeeswaxCandleThisisthesimplesttypeofcandleyoucanmakeandonethatisgreattodowithchildren.Beeswaxcandlesarecheap,eco-friendly,non-allergenic,dripless,andnon-toxic,andtheyburncleanlyandbeautifully.Andyoucanmakeabeeswaxcandleinabout20minutes!So,ifyouarepressedfortimeandwanttomakeanicehomemadegift—oryou’djustliketohavesweet-smellingcandlesinyourhome—makingbeeswaxcandlesisthewaytogo.

Purchase beeswax in sheets from crafts stores or gather them from your ownhives.

Materials

Sheets of beeswax, any color youwant (you can find this at yourlocalartsandcraftsstoreorevenfromabeekeeperoratafarmers’market)Wick(youcanpurchasecandlewicksatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)

Supplies

Scissors(tocutthewickandexcessbeeswax)Hairdryer(optional)

Directions1. Takeonesheetofbeeswaxandfolditinhalf.Cutalongthefoldededgeso

youhavetwoseparatepieces.2. Cutyourwicktobeabout2 inches longer thanthe lengthof thebeeswax

sheet.3. Laythewickontheedgeofthebeeswaxsheet,closesttoyou.Makesure

thewickhangsoffofeachendofthesheet.4. Start rolling the beeswax over the wick,making sure it is tucked tightly

aroundthewick.Thetighteryoubeginrollingthebeeswax,themoresturdyyourcandlewillbeandthebetteritwillburn.

5. Carefully roll up the wick in the beeswax (as you would roll modelingclay).Stopabout2inchesfromtheothersideandmakesuretheendsaresmooth and straight. Apply slight pressure as you roll to keep the waxtightlybound.

6. Whenyoureachtheend,youmustsealoffyourcandle.Todoso,startinthemiddleof

Beeswaxcandlesareeasytomake,non-allergenic,anddripless.

theedgeandgentlypressitintothecandle,lettingyourbodyheatmeltthewaxintotherolledcandle.Trimthewickonthebottom(youmayalsowanttocutthebottomslightlyso

itwillstandupstraight)andthencutthewicktoabout½inchatthetop.Note: Ifyouarehaving troubleusing thebeeswaxandwant to facilitate the

adheringprocess,youcanuseahairdryertosoftenthewaxandtohelpyourollit.Startattheendwiththewickand,movingthehairdryeroverthewax,heatitup.Keeprollinguntilyoureachasectionthatisnotaswarm,heatthatup,andcontinueallthewaytotheend.

TaperCandlesTapercandlesareperfectforcandlesticks,andtheycanbemadeinavarietyofsizesandcolors.

Materials

Wick(besuretofindaspoolofwickthatismadespecificallyfortapercandles)Wax(paraffinisidealformakingtapercandles)Candlefragrancesanddyes(optional)

Supplies

Pencilorchopstick(towindthewickaroundtofacilitatedippinganddrying)Weight(suchasafishinglure,bolt,orwasher)Dippingcontainer(thisshouldbetallandskinny.Youcanfindthesecontainersatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore,oryoucansubstituteaspaghettipot)StoveLargepotforboilingwaterSmalltrivetorrackNewspaper(topreventspills)

GlassorcandlethermometerDryingrack

Directions1. Cutthewicktothedesiredlengthofyourcandle,leavingabout5additional

inchesthatwillbetiedontothepencilorchopstickfordippinganddryingpurposes. It’s also a good idea to put aweight on the dipping endof thewick(afishinglure,bolt,orheavymetalwasher)tohelpwiththefirstfewdipsintothewax.

2. Readyyourdippingcontainer.Putthewax(preferablyinsmallerchunkstospeedupthemeltingprocess)intothecontainerandsetaside.

3. Inalargepot,starttoboilwater.Beforeputtingthedippingcontainerfullof wax into the larger pot, place a small trivet, rack, or other elevatingdevice into the bottom of the larger pot. This will keep the dippingcontainer from touching thebottomof the largerpot andwill prevent thewaxfromburningandpossiblycombusting.

4. Putthedippingcontainerintothepotandstarttomeltthewax,keepingathermometerinthewaxatalltimes.Thewaxshouldbeheatedandmeltedbetween150and165°F.Stirfrequentlytokeepthechunksofparaffinfromburningandtoensureallthewaxisthoroughlymelted.(Ifyouwanttoaddfragranceordye,dosowhenthewaxiscompletelymeltedandstiruntiltheadditivesaredissolved.)

5. Onceyourwaxiscompletelymelted,it’stimetostartthedippingprocess.Removing the container from the stove, takeyourwick that’s tiedonto astickanddipitintothewax,leavingitthereforafewminutes.Continuetolower thewick in and out of the dipping container, and by the eighth orninth dip, cut off the weight from the bottom of the wick—the candle

shouldbeheavyenoughnowtodipwellonitsown.6. Tospeedup thecoolingprocess—andtohelp thewaxcontinue toadhere

and build up on the wick—blow on the hot wax each time you lift thecandleoutofthedippingpot.

7. Whenthecandleisatthedesiredlengthandthickness,youmaywanttolayitdownonaverysmoothsurface(suchasacountertop)andgentlyroll itintoshape.

8. On a drying rack (which can be made from a box long enough so thecandles do not touch the bottom or from another device), carefully hangyourtapercandletodryforagood24hours.

9. Once the candle is completely hardened, trim thewick to just above thewax.

JarredSoyCandlesSoy candles are environmentally friendly and easy candles tomake. You canfindmostof the Ingredientsandmaterialsneeded tomakesoycandlesatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore—oreveninyourownkitchen!

Materials

1lbsoywax(eitherinbarsorflakes)1ounceessentialoil(forfragrance)Naturaldye(tryusingdriedandpowderedbeetsforred,turmericforyellow,orblueberriesforblue)

Supplies

StovePantoheatwax(adoubleboilerisbest)SpoonGlassthermometerCandlewick(youcanfindthisatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)Metalwashers

PencilsorchopsticksHeatproofcuptopouryourmeltedwaxintothejar(s)Jartoholdthecandle(jellyjarsorotherglassjarsworkwell)

Directions1. Put thewax in a pan or a double boiler and heat it slowly overmedium

heat.Heatthewaxto130to140°Foruntilit’scompletelymelted.

2. Removethewaxfromtheheat.Addtheessentialoilanddye(optional)andstirintothemeltedwaxuntilcompletelydissolved.

3. Allowthewaxtocoolslightly,untilitbecomescloudy.4. Whilethewaxiscooling,prepareyourwickintheglasscontainer.Itisbest

tohaveawickwithametaldiskontheend—thiswillhelpstabilizeitwhilethecandleishardening.Ifyourwickdoesnotalreadyhaveametaldiskattheend,youcaneasilyattacha thinmetalwasher to theendof thewick,tyingaknotuntilthewickcannolongerpassthroughthewasher.Positionthewick in theglass container and,usingapencilor chopstick,wrap theexcesswickaroundthemiddleandthen,layingthepencilorchopstickontherimofthecontainer,positionthewicksoitfallsinthecenter.

5. Using a heatproof cup or the container from the double boiler, carefullypourthecloudywaxintotheglasscontainer,beingcarefulnottodisturbthewickfromthecenter.

6. Allowthecandle todryforat least24hoursbeforecuttingoff theexcesswickandusing.

Jellyjarsworkwellforpouredcandles.

MakingYourOwnSoap

Making your own soap can be a very rewarding process. It does, however,require a good amount of time, patience, and caution, becauseyou’ll beusingsome caustic and potentially dangerous ingredients—the main one being lye(sodiumhydroxide).Itisimportant,wheneveryouaremakingsoap,thatyouarecareful to avoidcoming intodirect contactwith the lye.Weargoggles, rubbergloves, and long sleeves, andwork in awell-ventilated area.Be sure, aswell,thatyouneverbreatheinthefumesproducedbythelyeandwatermixture.

Soapismadeupofthreemainingredients:water,lye,andfatsoroils.Whilelard and tallow were once used exclusively for making soaps, it is perfectlyacceptabletouseacombinationofpureoilsforthe“fat”neededtomakesoap.For these ingredients to become soap, they must go through a process calledsaponification, in which the mixture becomes completely blended and thechemicalreactionsbetweenthelyeandtheoils,overtime,turnthemixtureintoahardenedbarofusablesoap.

Once you’ve become comfortable with the basic soap-making process, youcan experiment with adding different colored dyes, essential oils, and otheringredientstomakeapersonalizedandinterestingbarofsoap—perfectforyourownuseorforgivingasagift.

BasicRecipeforCold-PressedSoapIngredients

6.9ounceslye(sodiumhydroxide)2cupsdistilledwater,cold(fromtherefrigeratoristhebest)2cupscanolaoil2cupscoconutoil2cupspalmoil

Supplies

Goggles,gloves,andmasktowearwhilemakingthesoapMoldforthesoap(acakeorbreadloafpanwillworkjustfine;youcanalsofindflexibleplasticmoldsatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore)PlasticwraporwaxpapertolinethemoldsGlassbowltomixthelyeandwaterWoodenspoonformixing2thermometers(oneforthelyeandwatermixtureandonefortheoilmixture)StainlesssteelorcastironpotforheatingoilsandmixinginlyemixtureHandheldstickblender(optional)

Directions

1. Puton thegoggles andgloves andmake sureyouareworking in awell-ventilatedroom.

2. Ready your mold(s) by lining with plastic wrap or wax paper. Set themaside.

3. Addthelyetothecold,distilledwaterinaglassbowl(neveraddthewaterto the lye) and stir continually for at least a minute, or until the lye iscompletelydissolved.Placeonethermometerintotheglassbowlandallowthe mixture to cool to around 110°F (the chemical reaction of the lyemixingwiththewaterwillcauseittoheatupquicklyatfirst).

4. Whilethelyeiscooling,combinetheoilsinapotonmediumheatandstirwelluntiltheyaremeltedtogether.Placeathermometer

intothepotandallowthemixturetocoolto110°F.5. Carefullypourthelyemixtureintotheoilmixture(makesureyoupourthe

lyesolutioninasmall,steadystream),stirringcontinuouslysothatthelye

andoilsmixproperly.Continuestirring,eitherbyhand(whichcantakeavery long time)orwith a handheld stickblender, until themixture traces(hastheconsistencyofthinpudding).Thismaytakeanywherefrom30to60minutesormore,sojustbepatient.Itiswellworththetimeinvestedtomake sure yourmixture traces. If it doesn’t trace all theway, itwill notsaponifycorrectlyandyoursoapwillberuined.

6. Onceyourmixturehastraced,pourcarefullyintothemold(s)andletsitforafewhours.Then,whenthemixtureisstillsoftbutcongealedenoughnottomeltbackintoitself,cutthesoapwithatableknifeintobars.Letsitforafewdays, then take thebarsoutof themold(s)andplaceonbrownpaper(grocerybagsareperfect)inadarkarea.Allowthebarstocureforanother4weeksorsobeforeusing.

Ifyouwantyoursoaptobecolored,addspecialsoap-coloringdyes(youcanfindtheseatthelocalartsandcraftsstore)afterthemixturehastraced,stirringthemin.Ortrymakingyourowndyesusingherbs,flowers,orspices.

Tomake a yummy-smelling bar of soap, add a few drops of your favoriteessentialoils(suchaslavender, lemon,orrose)afterthetracingofthemixtureandstirin.YoucanalsoaddaloeandvitaminEatthispointtomakeyoursoapsofterandmoremoisturizing.

Toaddtextureandexfoliatingpropertiestoyoursoap,youcanstirsomeoatsintothetracedmixture,alongwithsomealmondessentialoiloradabofhoney.This will not only give your soap a nice, pumice-like quality but it will alsosmellwonderful.Tryaddingbitsoflavender,rosepetals,orcitruspeeltoyoursoapforvariety.

Tomake soap in different shapes, pour yourmixture intomolds instead ofmakingthemintobars.Forroundsoaps,youcantakeafewbarsofsoapyou’vejustmade,place them intoa resealableplasticbag,andwarm thembyputtingthe bag into hotwater (120°F) for 30minutes. Then, cut the bars up and rollthemintoballs.Thesesoapsshouldsetinaboutanhourorso.

You canpour your soap intomolds, use stamps, or carve the finishedbars tomakethemunique.

NaturalDyesforSoaporCandles

Light/DarkBrown Cinnamon,groundcloves,allspice,nutmeg,coffee

Yellow Turmeric,saffron,calendulapetals

Green Liquidchlrophyll,alfalfa,cucumber,sage,nettles

Red Annattoextract,beets,grapeskinextract

Blue Redcabbage

Blue Redcabbage

Purple Alkanetroot

PotpourriFromYourGarden

Rose petals and sweet geranium leaves are the primary ingredients in mostpotpourri.Otheradditions topotpourri include lavender, sweetverbena leaves,bay leaves, rosemary, dried orange peels, and orrisroot powder.You can alsoexperiment by adding spices to give your potpourri an extra “punch” (such ascinnamonorpineneedlesforChristmaspotpourribatches).

Driedappleslicesandcinnamonsticksmakeafestivepotpourri.

TypesofPotpourriTherearetwotypesofpotpourri:dryandmoist.Drypotpourriismucheasiertomake:simplycombinefullydriedflowersandafixativesuchasorrisroot,spicesorseedsforfragrance,andessentialoilsasdesired.Moistpotpourriisabitmoredifficulttomake,astheingredientsmustbemadelimpandleatherybutnottoowetortoodry,buttheresultwillbeamuchmorefragrantpotpourri.Trialanderrorisreallytheonlywaytogettheingredientstotheperfectconsistencyformoist potpourri. When you do have the ingredients at the perfect state ofmoistness, pack them tightly into jars and add a bit of salt to retain the rightamount of dampness and to preserve the potpourri from any mold ordecomposition.

PreparingIngredientsforMoistPotpourri

RosePetals

Rose petals should be in full bloomwhen picked, not faded ormarred in anyway,andshouldbethoroughlydriedout.Rosestendtoholdwaterwell,soit’sbesttoharvesttherosepetalsonawarm,sunny,dryday.

Cutahandfulofroses(orbuyafewatyourgardencenterorfarmers’market).Lay out the roses on a cloth in a dry, shady place and begin to pluck off thepetals,separatinganythattendtosticktogether.

Leavetheseparatedpetalsontheclothfortwotothreedayssotheylosetheirmoistureandbegintodryout.Oncetheyareshriveledtoabouthalf theirsize,theyarereadytobejarred.Acylindershapedjarisbest,asthepetalsneedtobepressed and laid out flat, one on top of another. Once two handfuls or so of

petalsareinthejar,sprinkleamixtureofseasaltandkitchensalt(equalpartsofeach) over the petals. Continue adding handfuls of petals into the jar andsprinklingwiththesaltmixture.Whenallthepetalsareinthejar,placeaheavyobject(aheavywasherorrock)ontopofthepetalsandclosethejar.Nowyourpetals canwaituntilyouare ready tocombine themwithother fragrantpetalsandspicesintoajarofpotpourri.

SweetGeraniumPetals

Follow the same process as for preparing rose petals for potpourri, except besure to take thepetalsoff theirstalksbefore theyaredriedand teareach largepetalintothreeorfoursmallerpieces.Laythepetalsouttodryaswiththerosepetals,andthenpackthemintoasmalljarwithamixtureofsaltaswell.

SweetVerbena,BayLeaves,andRosemary

Sweetverbena,bayleaves,androsemaryalldryextremelyquickly,sotheycanbe jarred immediately after being picked. Remember to layer the leaves andsprinklewiththesaltmixtureandpresseachkindasyouwouldforrosepetals.

OrangePeels

Removepeel fromtheorangeandcut it intopieceshalfan inchwideand twoincheslong.Pokeholesintothesepiecesandstickashaftofcloveintoeach,sothecloveheadsarenearlytouchingoneanother.Packthesestripsintoajarandsprinklethesaltmixtureovereachlayerandonthetop.

Onceyourvarious ingredientsare in jars, it isbest to leave themthereforalittlewhile,evenfora fewmonths ifyouwant.Thepetals, leaves,andorangepeelswillretaintheirfragranceandwillevenbecomemorepungentthelongeryouleavetheminthejars.

Displayyourpotpourriinaprettybowlorapenjar.

AddingSpicesandOrrisroottoYourPotpourriTo enhance the fragrance of your potpourri, add spices and orrisroot (ifavailable) to your final mixture. Gather violet powder (this will enhance thesmell of the orrisroot but is not necessary), ground allspice, ground cloves,groundmixedspice,groundmace,wholemace,and/orwholecloves.Howmuchpotpourriyouintendtomakewilldeterminehowmuchofthespicesyouuse—butexperimentandseewhatworksbest.

MixingTogetherYourPotpourriGatherallofyourvariousjarsofpetals,leaves,andorangepeelsandanyspicemixtures you’ve created and clear a large spot on your counter or a tabletop.Onceyouhaveallyouringredients,dumphandfulsofeachitemandspicesontothecountertoportableandmixthemtogetherbyhand.Dependingonhowmuchpotpourriyouintendtoplaceinabox,jar,orsachet,youwillcombineasmanyof the ingredientsasneededon themixingsurface tomakeyourpotpourri.Besure towait until the very end to distribute the orangepeel slices, as they areratherpungentandonlyafewneedtobeaddedtoeachbagorjarofpotpourri.

If youwant amore fragrant and pungent smell to your potpourri, store themixtureinacrockwithatight-fittinglidoraliddedjarforafewweeksorevenmonths before usingor distributing as gifts.As themixture sits, the fragrancetendstobecomemuchricher.Whenyoufeelthatyourpotpourriisfinallyreadyfor use, dish a small amount into a glass jar or bowl to freshen up a roomorscoopsomeintoasachetandplaceinadrawertogiveanicefragrancetoyourclothingorlinens.

“YouChoose”PotpourriRecipe

Potpourricanbecomprisedofamixofflowers, leaves,andherbs—dependingon which of these are available to you. The ingredients in this recipe areinterchangeableandcanallbeusedtogetheroryoucanpickandchoosewhichyouwanttouseinmakingyourownpotpourri.

EssentialIngredients

1ounceorrisroot1ounceallspice1ouncebaysalt1ouncecloves

AssortedIngredients(toaddasyoulike)

RosepetalsLemonplantMyrtleBayleafThymeEssenceoflemonLavenderVerbenaRosemaryVioletsMintEssenceoflavender

Mix theorrisroot, allspice, bay salt, and cloves together.Combine thiswithabout12handfulsof thedriedpetals and leaves and store in an airtight jar orbowl.Asmallquantityofessenceof lemonand/or lavendermaybeaddedbutthesearenotnecessary.Letthemixturestandforafewweeks.Ifitbecomestoomoist, add additional powdered orrisroot. Once the potpourri is dry and veryfragrant,parcel it intobowls tosetaround thehouseorgiveasgifts in jarsorsachets.

RosePotpourri

Ingredients

1lbrosepetals(alreadypressedandfromajar)Driedlavender(anyproportionyoulike)

Lemonverbenaleaves(anyproportionyoulike)

AdashoforangethymeAdashofbergamot1dozenyoungbayleaves(driedandbrokenup)Apinchofmusk2ouncesorrisroot,crushed

1ouncecloves,crushed1ounceallspice,crushed½ouncenutmeg,crushed½ouncecinnamon,crushed

Combinealltheingredientstogetherinalargecrock,jar,orbowlwithalid.Sealandallowittositforafewweeks,untilthearomaistoyourliking.Parcelintosmallbowlstofragranceroomsorgiveasgifts.

ASimpleRecipeforSachetPotpourri

Ifyouareunabletoprocurelargeamountsofpetalsandleaves,hereisasimplerecipe,usingoilsassubstitutes,thatmakesfinepotpourrisachets.

Ingredients

2gramsalcohol10dropsbergamot20dropseucalyptusoil4dropsoilofroses½tspcloves1ounceorrisroot¼tspcinnamon½tspmace1ouncerosesachetpowder

Throughlymixtheseingredientstogetherinalargestonecrockorinalargeglassbowl.Storethepotpourriinsmallwoodenboxesorsachetsandplacethemaroundthehouse.Thispotpourrigivesoffapleasingfragrancetoanyroomordrawer.

Sachetsmakespecialgiftsforweddingshowersorotheroccations.

Becreativewithmaterialsandribbonsforyoursachets.

PotteryBasics

Potteryisenjoyabletomakebecauseofitsflexibilityandsimplicityasameansofartexpression,itsutility,anditstimelessness.

Clay is the basic ingredient for making pottery. Clay is decomposed rockcontainingwater (both in liquid andchemical forms).Water in its liquid formcanbeseparatedfromtheclaybyheatingthemasstoaboilingpoint—aprocessthatrestores theclayto itsoriginalconditiononcedried.Thewater in theclaythat is found in chemical forms can also be removed by ignition—a processcommonly referred toas“firing.”Afterbeing fired, claycannotbe restored toany state of plasticity—this is what we term “pottery.” Some clay requiresgreaterheattobefired,andtheseareknownas“hardclays.”Thesetypesofclaymustbesubjectedtoa“hardfiring”process.However, in themakingofsimplepottery,softclayisgenerallyusedandisfiredinanover-glaze(softglaze)kiln.

Potteryclayscaneitherbefoundincertainsoilsorboughtfromcraftstores.Ifyouhaveclaysoilavailableonyourproperty,theprocessofseparatingtheclayfromtheothersoilmaterialsissimple.Puttheearthenclayintoalargebucketofwater towash the soil away.Any rocksorotherheavymatterwill sink to thebottomofthebucket.Themilkyfluidthatremains—whichisessentiallywatermixed with clay—may then be drawn off and allowed to settle in a separatecontainer, the clearwater eventually collectingon the top.Remove the excesswaterbyusingasiphon.Repeatingthisprocesswillrefinetheclayandmakeitreadyforuse.

Making pottery takes patience and practice, but the process can be veryenjoyable.

Apottercarefullyformsabowlthatwilleventuallybeglazedandfiredinakiln.

Youcanalsopurchaseclayatyourlocalcraftstore.Usually,claysoldinthesestoreswillbeinadryform(agrayishoryellowishpowder),soyouwillneedtoprepareitbeforeusingitinyourpottery.Toprepareitforuse,youmustmixthepowderwithwater.Iftherearedirectionsonyourclaypacket,thenfollowthosecloselytomakeyourclay.Ingeneral,though,youcanmakeyourclaybymixingequalpartsofclaypowderandwaterinabowlandallowingthemixturetosoakfor10to12hours.Afterithassoaked,kneadthemixturethoroughlytodispersethewaterevenlythroughouttheclayandpopanyairbubbles.Airbubbles,ifleftintheclay,couldbedetrimentaltoyourpotteryoncekilned,becausethebubbleswouldgeneratesteamandpossiblycrackyourcreation.However,becarefulnotto knead your claymixture toomuch, or youmay increase the chance of airbubblesbecomingtrappedinthemixture.

If, after kneading, you find that the clay is too wet to work with (test thewetnessoftheclayonyourhandsandifitslipsaroundyourpalmveryeasily,itisprobablytoowet),theexcesswatercanberemovedbysqueezingorblottingoutwithadrytowelordryboard.

Themaintoolsneededformakingpotteryaresimplyyourfingers.Therearewoodentoolsthatcanbeusedforaddingfinerdetailordecoration,buttypically,allyoureallyneedareyourowntwohands.Alooptool(apieceoffine,curvedwire)mayalsobeusedforscrapingoffexcessclaywhereitistoothick.Anothertoolhas raggededges and this canbeused tohelp regulate the contourof thepottery.Rememberthathomemadepotterywillnotalwaysbesymmetrical,andthatiswhatmakesitsospecial.

Sticksandothertoolscanbeusedtohelpyouformanddecorateyourpottery.

BasicVaseorUrnTrymakingthissimplevaseorurntogetusedtoworkingwithclay.1. Takea lumpofclay.Theclayshouldbeabout thesizeofasmallorange

andshouldbeelasticfeeling.Then,begintomoldthebaseofyourobject—let’ssayitiseitherabowloravase.

2. Continuemoldingyourbase.Bynow,you’llhavearatherheavyandthickmodel,hollowedtolookalittlelikeabird’snest.Now,usingthisbaseassupport,startaddingpiecesofclayinaspiralshape.Presstheclaytogetherfirmly with your fingers. Make sure that your model has a uniformthicknessallaround.

3. Continue molding your clay andmaking it grow. As you work with theclay,yourhandswillbecomemoreaccustomedtoitstextureandthewayitmolds, andyouwill have less difficultymaking it dowhat youwant.Asyoustarttoelongateandlengthenthemodel,remembertokeepthewallsofthepiecesubstantialandnottoothin—itiseasiertoremoveextrathicknessthanitistoaddit.

4. Don’t become frustrated if your first model fails. Even if you are beingextracarefultomakeyourbowlorvasesturdy,thereisalwaystheinstancewhenanearlycompletevasewillfallover.Thisusuallyhappenswhenonesideof thestructurebecomes too thinor theclay is toowet.Tokeep thisfrom happening, it is sometimes helpful to keep one hand inside thestructureandtheotheroutside.Ifyouarebuildingavase,youcanextractonefingeratatimeasyoureachcloserandclosertothetopofthemodel.

5. The clay should be moist throughout the entire molding process. If youneedtostopmoldingforanextendedperiodoftime,covertheitemwithamoistclothtokeepitfromdryingout.

6. Whenyourmodel has reached the size youwant, youmay turn it upsidedownandsmoothandrefinethecontoursoftheobject.Youcanalsomakethebasemuchmoredetailedandshapedtoamorepleasingdesign.

7. Allowyourmodeltoairdry.

EmbellishingYourClayModelsYoumayeventuallywanttomakesomethingthatrequiresahandleoraspout,suchasacuporteapot.Addinghandlesandspoutscanbetricky,butonlyifyoudon’t remember some simple rules. Spouts can bemodeled around a straw orany othermaterial that is stiff enough to support the clay and light enough toburnoutinthefiring.Inthedesigningofspoutsandhandles,itisstillimportant

to keep them solid and thick. Also, keeping them closer to the body of yourmodel ismorepractical,ashandlesandspouts thatareelongatedareharder tokeep firm and can also break off easily. Although more time-consuming anddifficulttomanage,handlesandspoutscanaddaniceaesthetictoyourfinishedpottery.

Thesimplestway todecorateyourpottery isbymaking line incisions.Lineincision designs are best made with wooden, finger-shaped tools. It is

completelyuptoyouastohowdeepthelinesareandintowhatpatterntheyaremade.

Wheel-workingandFiringPotteryIf youwant to take your pottery-makingone step further, you can experimentwith using a potters’ wheel and also glazing and firing your model to createbeautiful pottery. Look online or at your local craft store for potters’ wheels.Firingcanleaveyourpotterylookingtwodifferentways,dependingonwhetheryoudecidetoleavetheclaynatural(soitmaintainsadullandporouslook)ortogiveitacolorglaze.

Keepspoutsandhandlesthicksotheywillnotcrackorbreakoff.Useastickordoweltocreatelineincisionsliketheseshownhere.

Usingdifferentglazeswillgiveyourpotteryvariancesincolorandtexture.

Coloredglazescomeintheformofpowderandaregenerallymetallicoxides,such as iron oxides, cobalt oxide, chromium oxide, copper oxide, and coppercarbonate. The colors these compounds become will vary depending on theatmosphere and temperature of the kiln. Glazes often come in the form ofpowder and need to be combined with water to be applied to the clay. Onlyapply glaze to dried pottery because it won’t adhere well to wet clay. Use abrush,sponge,orputtyknifetoapplytheglaze.Yourpotteryisthenreadytobefired.

There are various different kinds of kilns inwhich to fire your pottery.Anover-glaze kiln is sufficient for all processes discussed here, and you canprobably find a kiln in your surrounding area (check online and in yourtelephonebook forplaces thathavekilnsopen to thepublic).For schools thathave pottery classes, over-glaze kilns may be installed there. It is important,whenever you are using a kiln, that you arewith a skilled potterymakerwhoknowshowtoproperlyoperateakiln.

Afterthepotteryhasbeencoloredandfired,asimpledesignmaybemadeonthe pottery by scraping off the surface color so as to expose the original orcreamy-whitetintoftheclay.

Unglazedpotterymaybeworkedwithafterfiringbyrubbingfloorwaxontheouter surface. This fills up the pores and gives amore uniform quality to thewholepiece.

Pottery offers so many opportunities for personal experimentation andenjoyment; therearenosetrulesas tohowtomakeapieceofpottery.Keepajournal about the different things you try while making pottery so you canrememberwhatworksbestandwhatshouldbeavoidedin thefuture.Note thekindofclayyouusedanditsconsistency,thetypesofcolorsthathaveworkedwell, and the temperature and positioning within the kiln, if you use firing.Aboveall,enjoymakinguniquepiecesofpottery!

MakingJars,Candlesticks,andBowlsMakingpotteryathomeissimpleandeasy,andisagreatwayforyoutomakepersonalized,uniquegiftsforfamilyandfriends.Claycanbepurchasedatlocalarts and crafts stores.Claymust always be kneaded before youmodelwith itbecause it contains air that, if left in the clay,would formair bubbles inyourpottery and spoil it.Work out this air by kneading it the same way that you

kneadbread.Alsoguardagainstmakingtheclaytoomoist,becausethatcausesthepotterytosag,andsagging,ofcourse,spoilstheshape.

Tomakeyourownpottery, youneedmodeling clay, a boardonwhichyoucanwork,apietinonwhichtobuild,aknife,ashortstick(onesideshouldbepointed),andaruler.

Jars

Tostartajar,putahandfulofclayontheboard,patitoutwithyourhanduntilitis an inch thick, and smoothoff the surface.Then, takea coffee cup, invert ituponthebase,and,withyourstick,trimtheclayoutsidetherim.

Tobuildup thewalls,putahandfulofclayon theboardanduseaknife tosmoothitoutintoalongpiece,¼inchthick.Withtheknifeandaruler,trimoffoneedgeof thepieceandcutanumberof strips¾ inchwide.Takeonestrip,stand iton topof thebase,and rub itsedge into thebaseonboth sidesof thestrip. Take another strip and add it to the top of the first one, and continuebuilding in this way, placing one strip on another, joining each to the onebeneathit,andsmoothingoverthejointsasyoubuild.Keepdoingthisuntilthewallsareashighasyouwantthemtobe.Remembertokeeponehandinsidethejarwhileyoubuild, forextra support.Fillunevenplaceswithbitsofclayandsmoothout rough spotswithyour fingers,havingmoistenedyour fingerswithwaterfirst.Whenyouarefinished,youmayalsoadddecorations,orornaments,toyourjar.

Candlestick

Makingapotterycandlestickrequiresaroundbase½inchthickand4inchesindiameter.Afterpreparingthebase,putalumpofclayinthecenter,workitintothebase,placeanotherlumpontop,workitintothepiece,andcontinueinthisway until the candlestick has been built as high as youwant it. Then, force acandle into themoist clay, twisting it around until it hasmade a socket deepenoughtoplaceacandleinto.

Acardboard“templet,”withoneedgetrimmedtothepropershape,willmakeiteasytokeepthewallsofthecandlesticksymmetricalandtheprojectingcaponthetopequalonallsides.Runtheedgeofthetempletaroundthewallsasyouwork, and itwill showyouexactlywhereandhowmuch to fill out, trim, andstraightentheclay.

Ifyouwanttomakeacandlestickwithahandle,makeabasejustasdescribedearlier.Thencutstripsofclayandbuildupthewallasifbuildingajar,leavingacenterholejust largeenoughtoholdacandle.Whenthedesiredheightforthewallhasbeenreached,cutastripofclay½inchwideand½inchthick,andlayitaroundthetopofthewallwithaprojectionof¼inchoverthewall.Smooththispieceontop,inside,andoutsidewithyourmodelingstickandfingers.Forthehandle,prepareastrip1inchwideand⅜inchthick,andjoinoneendtothetop band and the other end to the base. Use a small lump of clay for fillingaroundwhereyoujointhepiece,andsmoothoffthepieceonallsides.

Whenthecandlestickisfinished,runaroundstickthesamesizeasthecandledownintothehole,andletitstayputuntiltheclayisdry,tokeepthecandlestickstraight.

Bowls

Bowlsarefairlyeasytomake.Startingwithabase,laystripsofclayaroundthebase, building upon each strip as you didwhenmaking a jar. Once the bowlreachesitsdesiredheightandwidth,allowittodry.

GlazingandFiringMostpotterythatyoubuyisglazedandthenfiredinapotterykiln,butfiringisnotnecessarytomakebeautiful,sturdypottery.Theclaywilldryhardenough,naturally, to keep its shape, and the only thing you must provide for iswaterproofing (if thepotterywillbeholding liquids).Todo this,youcan takebathtubenamelandapplyittotheinside(andoutside,ifdesired)ofthepotterytosealoffanycracksandkeeptheitemfromleaking.

Ifyoudowanttotryglazingandfiringyourownpottery,youwillneedakiln.Belowareinstructionsformakingyourown.

SawdustKiln

This small, homemade kiln can be used to bake and fire most small potteryprojects.Itwillonlygetuptoabout1,200degreesFahrenheit,whichisnothotenough to fire porcelain or stonewear.However, itwill suffice for clay pinchpotsandotherdecorativepieces.

Youwillneed:Sawdust20–30redororangebricksChickenwireSheetmetalNewspaperandkindling

1. Chooseaspotoutdoorsthatisprotectedfromstrongwinds.Clearawayanydried branches or other flammables from the immediate area.A concretepatioorpavedareamakesan idealbase,butyoucanalsoplacebricksorstonesontheground.

2. Stack bricks in a square shape, building eachwall up at least four brickshigh.Fillthekilnwithsawdust.

Potterymaybeornamentedbyscratchingadesignonitwiththeendofamodelingstick.Youcandoasimple,straight-linedesignbyusingarulertoguidethestick.

3. Placethechickenwireontopofthebricksandaddanotherlayerortwoofbricks.Carefullyplaceyourpottery in thecenterof themesh,spacingthepiecesatleast½inchapart.Coverthepotterywithsawdust.

4. Addanotherpieceofchickenwire,addbricksandpottery,andcoverwithsawdust.Repeatuntilyourkilnisthedesiredheight.

5. Light the top layer of sawdust on fire, using kindling and newspaper ifneeded.Coverwiththesheetmetal,usinganotherlayerofbrickstoholditinplace.

6. Oncethekilnstopssmoking,leaveitaloneuntilitcompletelycoolsdown.Thencarefullyremovethesheetmetallid.

PermanentHomemadePotteryKiln

Asyoucontinue tocreatepottery,youmayfind thatyouenjoy theartenoughthatyouwouldliketocontinuethiscraftforyearstocome.Inthatcase,andifyou have enough space in your yard, you may think about constructing apermanent kiln for all of your pottery needs. This kiln requires some intenseconstruction, but havingyour ownwood-burningpottery kilnwillmake firingyourcreationseasierandmoreeffective.

Theessentialsof thiskilnare:a firebox,anoven,andachimney.Thekilnworksbyallowingthefiretopassupfromthefireboxthroughtheovenfloor,betweenthebricks(spacedabout1½inchesapart),andoutthroughthechimneyatthetopoftheoven.

Redfirebricksarebestformakingakiln.

TheConstructionoftheKiln1. Beginbylayingoutaspaceforthefoundationofthekiln.Thisshouldbe

on solid, dry ground. It is advisable tomake an excavation a few inchesbelowthesurfaceandfillitinwithcindersorbrokenbrick.Theplaceyouchoose for your kiln should also allow water to run off and not collectunderneath.

2. Build thewallsof thekiln threebricksdeeponeachof the sidesand theback.Leavethefrontofthekilnopenforthefiremouths.

3. Halfwaybetweenthetwosidewalls,buildathin,centralsupport,madeofthreecoursesofbrickontheedge.Thiswillleaveanarrowledgewherethegratesofthefireboxescanrest.Buildtheotheredgeofeachgrateintothesidewall.The sizeof thekilnwillbedependenton theamountofbricksyoulay.Laybricksendwisetomakeastrongerwall.

4. Makethemortarofcommonclay(oryoucanbuyitifyoudesire).Mixtheclaywithwater intoamortar.Youcanaddsomeregularsand togive themortarbetterworkingqualities,andthiswillalsohelppreventshrinkage.

5. Spreadthemortaroverthecinderfoundationandstarttolaythebricks.Inbuilding thewallsandcentralsupport,make the jointsbetween thebricksas tightand thinaspossible.Tap thebricks intoplaceso therewillbenosettlingofthewalllateron.

Thetopillustrationsshowsplanandfrontviewofthekilnfoundationuptotheovenfloor.Thewallsarethreebricksthickoneachsideandthefrontisleft open. The bottom illustration shows the bricks that rest on the sidewallsandonthecentralsupport.Theseshouldbemadeoffirebricks,since

they’llbesubjectedtothemostextremeheat.

6. Buildthewallsandcentralsupportuptothepointwheretheovenfloorwillbe. Tomake the oven floor, arrange the bricks on their edges about 1½inchesapartfromthefronttothebackofthekiln.Thesebricksshouldreston thesidewallsandcentralsupport.Since thisovenfloor isgoing tobesubjectedtohighheat,usefirebricks.Alsobesuretoprojectthebricksoutinthefrontfortheovendoortositon.

7. Continuetobuild thesideandbackwallsupninemorebricks.Then,youcan start to taper the bricks into a chimney formation. Lay the next twolevels of bricks (on the sidewalls only) in toward the center of the kilnabout1½inchesorso.Thespacebetweenthewallsatthetopshouldnotbemorethan9inches.Bridgetheopeningatthetopacrossthefrontandbackof the kiln, leaving an opening in the center just large enough for thechimney(about8or9inchessquare).Youcandothisbyusinglargepiecesofterracottafluelining(purchasedatanyhardwareorhomecenterstore).Thesizeoftheflueliningshouldbeabout2feetx8inchesx6inches.

8. Carefully cut lines in the flue lining from end to end, until the side fallsaway.Cut this in twoanduse the twohalvesforclosing in the topof thekiln.Putthesebricksinplacewithplentyofmortarandfinishouttherestofthebrickingoverthewallswithotherpiecesoffluelining,makingthemlevel.

Cross sectionof the finishedkiln.The spacebetween thewallsat the topshouldnotbemorethannineinches.

CutlinesintheflueliningfromendtoendatABandCD.ThencutintwoatEFandusethetwohalvesforclosinginthetopofthekiln.

9. Build twomore levelsofbrickallaround, leaving thechimneyopening9inchesby9inches.

10. Now build the chimney straight upwith a single layer of bricks (or twobricks to each layer, if you desire). The inside diameter of the chimneyshouldnotbelessthan7inchesby7inches.Whencomplete,thechimneyshouldbeabout3feethigh.

11. Youcanalsobuildthechimney1foothighandthenletonebrickoneachside project into the chimney cavity about 2 inches. Then, fit ordinarystovepipewithasquareendtorestontheseprojectionsinsidethechimney.Thisisalightermethodthanbuildingbrickallthewayup.

12. Install grates to produce a better and cleared fire.You can find grates atyourlocalhardwarestoreoruseoldstovegrates.Buildthesegratesintothewallsof the fireboxandcentral support.Leave the frontendof theovenopen.

13. Placepotteryintheoven.Brickupthefrontoftheovenwithoutanymortarandfillinthejointswithwetsand.

14. Thekilnwillnowneedtobeheatedwithwood.Youshouldbeginwithaverysimplefirelastingaboutanhourortwo.Thisisextremelyimportant,astheflamecomesintocontactwiththerawclay,which,unlessitisheatedverygradually, couldcrackand split apart.After thoroughlywarming thekiln,increasetheheatmorerapidly.Afterthefiringiswellunderway(threeorsohourslater),closethedoorsofthefireboxeswithpiecesofsheetironor bricks piled up in front. Only allow air in through the grates. Onlyremovethetemporarydoorstoaddfueltothefire.

Youcanmakeyourownpotterywheelusingwood,anoldlazysusan,andatire.Placebagsofsandinsidethetiretogiveyourwheelasturdierbase.

HandmadeJewelry

Makingjewelrycanbeassimpleorasintricateasyoulike.Startwithasimple,single-strand beaded bracelet andwork yourwayup tomulti-strand necklacesandexperimentwithdifferentbeads,shells,andknots.Jewelrymakeswonderfulgifts,andeverypieceyoumakewillbeunique.

BeadedJewelryBead-weaving is a traditionalwayofmaking jewelry andpossesses a distinct,

artisticvalue.

Small spots of pure color—where light can play—are juxtaposed in simplepatterns, giving an effect unlike that of any othermaterial. Beaded jewelry isperfectfornecklaces,bracelets,earrings,smallpouches,andbelts.

Abeadedbracelet.

Materials

StrongthreadNeedleBeadsofanysizeandcolor

Asimplestrandofbeads.

BeginningYourBeadwork

Tomakeasimplestrandofbeads, take twoneedles (No.12beadneedleswillworkwell),stringthemwiththread,andfastentheendofeachthreadsecurelytoabead.Oneach,threadfivebeads,moreifthebeadsaresmall,andthenguideboth threads through a bead. Again, take the same number of beads on eachthread and guide the threads through a single bead, and so on, repeating theprocessuntilanecklaceorbraceletofthedesiredlengthiscompleted.Youcanalter this type of beading by guiding both threads through three beads at thecenter.Thiswillchangethepatternandthelookofthebeadwork.

Guideboththreadsthroughthreebeadsatthecenterforthisnecklace.

To make a different kind of necklace or bracelet, use two threads drawnthrough a single bead in opposite Directions . Next, string a bead onto eachthread,boththreadsagainthroughasinglebeadfromoppositesides,andsoon.Inthisdesignusetwocolors,alightandadark,makinganXpattern.

There isanotherbeadedweavethat ismadeupofdiagonalsandrequiresnoloom.Fastenabeadto theendof the threadand,countingitasone,stringtherequired number of beads—in this case, eight. String a bead and, carrying theneedlethroughtheseventhbead,drawthethreadtight.Stringanotherbeadandpasstheneedlethroughthefifthone.Continueinthisway,stringingabeadeachtimebeforepassingtheneedlethroughthenextbead,untiltheendofthelineisreached.Whenyouturntheworkover,stringabeadandpasstheneedlethroughthe next bead but not the one at the edge.Repeat this process until the entirelength is woven. With large beads, you can use fine wire instead of thread,especiallyifyoudesireastrongchain.

DrawtwothreadsthroughasinglebeadinoppositeDirections.

Stringabeadontoeach thread, thendrawboth threads throughasinglebeadagain.

Asimplebeadedweave.

CornstarchJewelryBeads for necklaces, pendants, bracelets, and all kinds of jewelry, large andsmall, can be made from cornstarch. Cornstarch jewelry is especially fun forchildrenbut,ifdonecarefullyandthoughtfully,thesepiecescanlookexquisite.

Materials

1tbspcornstarch2tbsptablesalt1tbspcoldwaterFoodcoloring,naturaldye,orwatercolors

PreparingtheCornstarchMixture

Makethecornstarch,salt,andwaterintoamixturebycombiningallingredientsandstirring.Ifdesired,addfoodcoloring,naturaldyefromplantsorspices,orwatercolorstothemixture.

TwoTypesofCornstarchJewelry1. Bracelets—Roll the cornstarchmixture between the palms of your hands

untilperfectlyroundballsareformed.Then,pierceholesthroughtheballsbefore they harden so they can be easily strung. When you’ve strungenoughbeadstomakethebraceletofyourchosensize,knottheendsofthestringtightly.

2. Pendants—Useasmallbobbypinextendingfromthetopdownthroughthecenterofthecornstarchpendant,withjustenoughoftheloopleftexposedatthetoptoformaring,throughwhichyoucanpassanecklacechain.

Acrosspendant.

Dyecornstarchbeadswithnaturaldyessuchasbeetjuiceorcoffee,orwithafewdropsoffoodcoloring.Alternateyourbeadswithbitsofshellorsea

glassforvariety.

HandcraftedPaper

Insteadofthrowingawayyouroldnewspapers,officepaper,orwrappingpaper,use it to make your own, unique paper! The paper will be much thicker androugher than regular paper, but it makes great stationery, gift cards, and giftwrap.

Materials

Newspaper(withoutanycolorpicturesoradsifpossible),scrappaper,orwrappingpaper(non-shinypaperispreferable)2cupshotwaterforevery½cupshreddedpaper2tspinstantstarch(optional)

Supplies

BlenderoreggbeaterMixingbowlFlatdishorpan(a9x13-inchorlargerpanwilldonicely)Rollingpin8x12-inchpieceofnon-rustscreen4piecesofclothorfelttouseasblottingpaper,oratleast1sheetofFormica10piecesofnewspaperforblotting

Directions1. Tearthenewspaper,scrappaper,orwrappingpaperintosmallscraps.Add

hotwatertothescrapsinablenderorlargemixingbowl.2. Beatthepaperandwaterinablenderorwithaneggbeaterinalargebowl.

If youwant,mix in the instant starch (thiswillmake thepaper ready forink).Thepaperpulpshouldbetheconsistencyofacreamysoupwhenitiscomplete.

3. Pourthepulpintotheflatpanordish.Slidethescreenintothebottomofthepan.Movethescreenaroundinthepulpuntilitisevenlycovered.

4. Carefullyliftthescreenoutofthepan.Holditlevelandlettheexcesswater

dripoutofthepulpforaminuteortwo.5. With thepulpsideup,put thescreenonablotter (felt) that issituatedon

topofsomenewspaper.Putanotherblotteronthetopof thepulpandputmorenewspaperontopofthat.

6. Usingtherollingpin,gentlyrollthepinovertheblotterstosqueezeouttheexcess water. If you find that the newspaper on the top and bottom isbecomingcompletelysaturated,addmore(carefully)andkeeprolling.

7. Remove the top levelofnewspaper.Gently flip theblotterand thescreenover.Verycarefully,pullthescreenoffofthepaper.Leavethepapertodryontheblotterforat least12 to24hours.Oncedry,peel thepaperoff theblotter.

ToaddvarietytoyourhomemadepaperIfyouwouldliketohavecoloredpaper,addalittlebitoffoodcoloringornaturaldyetothepulpwhilemixingintheblenderorwiththeeggbeater.Tryaddingdriedflowers(thesmootherandflatter,thebetter)andleavesorglittertothepulp.To make unique bookmarks, add some small seeds to your pulp (hardyplantseedsareideal),makethepaperasinthedirections,andthendryyourpaperquicklyusingahairdryer.Whenthepaperiscompletelydry,cutoutbookmark shapes and give to your friends and family. After they arefinished using the bookmarks, they can plant them and watch the seedssprout.

Driedflowersandleavescanbeaddedtoyourpaper.Chooseflatflowersforbestresults.

Knitting

TheartofknittingwassupposedlyinventedbytheSpanishnobilityasameansof relaxation fornoblewomen in thecountry.TheScottishalsoclaim tohavedevelopedknitting,andKingHenryVIIwasthefirsttowearknittedstockingsinEngland. Queen Elizabeth also wore knitted silk stockings made by MistressMontegue.

Wheneverandwhereverknittingwasfirst“discovered,”itisuseful,relaxing,andcanbedonewhileenjoyingagoodconversationwithafriend.

KnittingBasics

Stitches

Knitting can be done in rows of plain or purl stitches or by incorporating avarietyofstitchesandknittingtechniquesinoneproject.However, thesimplerstitchesarebetterwhenfirststartingtoknit.Justbesurenot topull the threadtootightorkeepittooloose—asyoucontinuetoknit,youwilllearntheproperamountoftensiontoapplytoyourstringsoyoucreateaperfect,knitteditem.

GeneralTipforBeginningKnitters

Hold theneedles loosely inyourhandsandclose to thepoints.Toknit easily andquickly, yourhands shouldneithermove toomuchnorshouldyoumakelargegestureswiththeneedles.

ToolsNeededforKnitting1. Gauge—This measures the knitting needles. Most needles already have

theirgaugelistedonthem,butifyourneedlesdonot,youshouldfindthis

measuringtoolatyourlocalartsandcraftsstore.

2. Knittingneedles—Thesearemadeofsteel,wood,orplasticandareusedtoknityourmaterialtogether.

3. Knittingshields—Althoughthesearenotanecessarytoolforknitting,youmay find that you want these so the material does not slip off of yourneedle.

4. Material tobeknitted—Beginners shoulduse thickeryarn in theirknitteditems. When you have become more proficient in knitting, you canexperiment with different types of threads and materials to create yourvariousknitteditems.

KnittingTerminology

Tobringthethreadforward—Thismeanstopassthethreadbetweentheneedlestowardtheknitter’sbody.

Tocast off—Youdo thisbyknitting two stitches, passing the first over thesecond,andproceedinginthismanneruntil thelaststitch,whichissecuredbypassingthethreadthroughit.

To cast on the loops or stitches—Take thematerial in your right hand and

twist it around the little finger, bringing it under the next two fingers, andpassingitoverthepointerfinger.Then,taketheendofthematerialinyourlefthand (holding theneedlewithyour right),wrap it around the little finger, andthenbringitoverthethumbandaroundthesecondandthirdfingers.Bydoingso,youwillhaveformedaloop.Now,bringtheneedleunderthelowerthreadofthe material and above the material that is over the right-hand pointer fingerundertheneedle.Thethreadinthelefthandshouldbepulledtightly,completingthisstep.Youcanrepeatthisprocessasmanytimesasneededuntilyou’vecasttheamountofstitchesyouwant.

Tocastover—Thismeanstobringthematerialaroundtheneedle(bringingitforward).

To fasten on—This refers to fastening the end of the material when it’sneededduringtheprocessofknitting.Thebestwaytofastenonistoplacethetwoendsinoppositedirectionsandknitafewstitcheswithboth.

Knitting stitch—In this stitch, the needle must be put through the cast-onstitchandthematerialshouldbeturnedover.Thiswillbetakenupandundertheloop(orstitch)andthenletoff.Thisisalsoknownasaplainstitchandwillbecontinueduntilanentireroundiscomplete.

Aloopstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadbeforetheneedle.

Narrowing—This is to decrease the number of stitches by knitting twotogether,soyouonlyformoneloop.

Purlstitch—Thisisalsoknownasaseam,ribbed,orturnstitch.Itisformedbyknittingwiththematerialbeforetheneedleandinsteadofbringingtheneedle

overtheupperthread,thematerialisbroughtunderit.Thisistheoppositeofaknittingstitch.

Raising—This is to increase thenumberof stitches and ismadebyknittingone stitch in the usualway and then omitting to slip out the left-hand needle.Then,thematerialispassedforward,andasecondstitchisformedbypullingtheneedleunderthestitch.Thematerialmustbeputbacktoitsnormalplacewhentheextrastitchiscompleted.

To rib—To alternately knit plain and purled stitches (three plain then threepurl,etc.).

Around—Thisisallofthestitchesontwo,three,ormoreneedles.

Arow—Thisreferstothestitchesfromoneendoftheneedletotheother.

Toseam—Toknitapurlstitcheveryalternaterow.

Aslipstitch—Thisismadebypassingthethreadfromoneneedletoanotherwithoutknitting.

Toturn—Tochangethetypeofstitch.

Holdtheneedleslooselyinyourhandswiththelooseyarnwrappedaroundyourpointerfinger.

Sliptherightneedleintothetoploopontheleftneedle,keepingtheleftneedleabovetherightneedle.Todoapurlstitch,therightneedlewouldgoontopof

theleftneedle.

Wrap the loose strand of yarn over and behind the right needle. For a purlstitch,wraptheyarnbehind firstandthenover theneedle.Slip the loopoffoftheleftneedletofinishthestitch.

Welts—These are alternating plain and ribbed stitches and are used foranythingthatyoudon’twanttotwistorcurlup.

HowtoKnit1. Tocaston,holdthetwoneedleslooselyinyourhands.Passaloopoverthe

left-hand needle near the end of the yarn and hold the right-hand needleloosely.Puttheright-handneedleintotheloop,passingitfromlefttorightandkeepingtheright-handneedle

Rowsofknitstitches.

under the leftneedle.Pass thestringover thisneedle—betweenitand the

left-hand needle—and pull the loop up toward the right. Now, bring therightneedleupandpassthestitchonittotheleftneedlebyputtingtheleftneedlethroughtheleftsideoftheloop,keepingtherightneedleintheloop.Itisreadytobeginthenextstitch.Repeat.

2. Knitting stitch:After youhavemade the correct number of stitches, holdthe needle that has the stitches on it in your left hand and pass the rightneedleintothefirststitchfromleft toright.Put theyarnbetweenthetwoneedles,pulltheloopthroughtheotherloopontheleftneedle,andslipthatloopofftheleftneedle.Repeat.

3. Purling stitch: Keep the yarn in the front of the work and put the rightneedle intoa stitch fromright to left,passing itupward through the frontloopof the stitch.The rightneedle shouldbe restingon the left.Pass theyarn around the front of the needle and bring it back between the twoneedles.Pulltherightneedleslightlyback,soastosecuretheloopontheright needle and then drawoff the loop on the left needle.Repeat.Note:Thisisbasicallytheknittingstitch,onlybackwards.

4. Slipping a stitch: This is done by passing a stitch from one needle toanotherwithout knitting it at the beginningof a row.This should alwaysbeen donewhen using two needles at the beginning of each row, so therowsremaineven.

5. Casting (binding) off: Knit two stitches, passing the first stitch over thesecond, and then knit a third stitch, passing the second over the third.Continueinthiswayuntilallthestitchesareofftheneedle.

Alternatingrowsofknitandpurlstitches.

SimpleKnittingPatterns1. PatentKnitting,orBriocheKnitting

Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.

Yarnforward,slipone,knittwotogether.Workeveryrowinthesameway.2. Cane-workPattern

Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebyfour.

FirstRow:makeone,knitone,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

SecondRow:purl.

ThirdRow:knitthree,makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchoverthetwoknittedtogether,makeone.Repeat.

FourthRow:purl.

FifthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

SixthRow:purl.

SeventhRow:repeatthethirdrow.

EighthRow:purl.

NinthRow:makeone,slipone,knittwotogether,passtheslip-stitchover,makeone,knitthree.Repeat.

TenthRow:purl.

Repeatfromthethirdrowuntiltheitemiscomplete.

SimpleScarf

Materials

Mid-weightor4-plyyarnofanycolor(useatleastonefullbundleofyarn)

Knittingneedles(size8to10.5arebestforknittingscarves)

Directions

1. Decide how wide you want your scarf to be (26 to 35 stitches are thestandardwidthforascarf).

2. Firstrow:knit26to36stitches.3. Second row: knit 26 to 35 stitches (if you want something a little more

intricate,purlthisrowinstead).4. Continue knitting (or knitting and purling alternately) until you reach the

desiredlength(60inchesisagoodlengthforascarf).5. Attheend,cast(bind)offthestitches.

Hat

Materials

Yarnofamedium-heavyweight,anycolorofyourchoosing

Knittingneedles(dependingontheheadsizeforthehat,useNo.6orNo.8needles)

Directions1. Caston72stitches.2. Firstrow:knit72stitches.3. Secondrow:purl72stitches.4. Continueinthisfashionuntilyourhatisabout9inchestall.5. Tobegintocast(bind)offyourhat,followthispattern:

a. Knit five stitches, knit two together, and continue to the end of therow.

b. Purlthenextrow.c. Knit four stitches, knit two together, and continue to the end of the

row.d. Purlthenextrow.e. Knit three stitches, knit two together, and continue to the endof the

row.f. Purlthenextrow.g. Knit two stitches, knit two together, and continue to the end of the

row.h. Purlthenextrow.i. Kniteverytwostitchestogether.

Thishatshowsthe“knitonerow,purlonerow”pattern.Youcanalsofollowthispatternforsixoreightrowsandthenswitchtojustknittingtogive yourhat a differentiatedbandaround thebottom. If desired,useroundneedles(twoknittingneedlesthatareattachedbyaplasticorrubbercord)toavoidhavingtosewaseamattheend.

7.Take the excess yarn, pull it through the last stitches, and cut off so onlyabout an inch and a half remains. Sew a seam, put the remaining yarnthroughtheloops,andfoldyourhatinsideout.

FingerlessMittens

Fingerlessmittensarewonderfultouseifyourhandsarecoldbutyoustillneedto have complete access to things, such as typing on a computer ormaking ameal.Theymakewonderfulgiftsforfriendsandfamilymembers.

Materials

150yardsofworsted-weightyarnorwool/yarnblendDouble-pointedknittingneedles,No.8

Directions1. Tomakethecuff,caston28stitches,makingsurethesestitchesareeven.

Then,begintoknitintheround.Donottwistthestitches.Usetheyarntailtokeeptrackoftheroundends.Knitthreerounds.Switchingtothetwistedribpattern,knitonestitch through theback loop to twist it.Purlone,andrepeatthispatternuntilthecuffmeasuresroughly2½inches.

2. Usingastockingstitch,beginthehandandthumbportionofthemitten.3. Firstrow:knitone,purlone,makeone(increasethestitch),knitone,make

one,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.4. Secondrow:knitone,purlone,knituntilyoureachthenextpurlstitchin

therowabove,purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.5. Thirdrow:knitone,purlone,makeone,knituntilthenextpurl,makeone,

purlone,knituntiltheendoftheround.

Youcaneasilymodifythepatterndescribedheretoincludetheseindividual

fingeropeningsandthefinger“hood.”Simplyfollowthestepstomakethethumbhole(steps8–10)foreachoftheadditionalfingeropenings.Forthe“hood,”followthedirectionsformakingahat(onlymakeitmuchsmaller)andsewitontothemittenabovetheknuckles.

6. Repeatthesecondandthirdrowsuntilyouhaveninestitchesbetweenthepurls.Thegloveshouldnowmeasureabout5½inchesfromtheedgeofthecast-offpoint.

7. Placetwopurlandninethumbgorestitchesonapieceofscrapyarn.Castoffthreestitchesandknitfourroundsofstockingstitch.Changetotwistedribstitchandmakesixrounds.Bindthisoffveryloosely.

8. Tomake the thumb, put 11 stitches on hold for the thumb onto an extraknittingneedle.Pickupthreestitchesatthebaseofthethumbandmake14stitches.

9. Knitoneroundofonly12stitches.10. Usingthetwistedribstitch,makesixmoreroundsandbindoffloosely.11. Tofinishup,weaveintheyarnendsand,ifnecessary,sewclosedanyholes

atthesidesofthethumbbase.

KnittedSquareBlanket

Materials

Thickyarn,anycoloryoulike(ifyouwantamulticoloredblanket,feelfreetousedifferent-coloredyarnforeachindividualsquare)Knittingneedles,No.6

Directions1. Beginbymakingsmallersquaresthatwillbesewntogethertoformalarger

blanket.2. Castonanynumberofstitchesdivisiblebythree.Forasquareof6inches,

you’llneed45stitches.3. Firstrow:Slipone,knittwo.Turntheyarnaroundtheneedleandbringit

againinfront.Then,slipone,knittwotogether.Purlthelasttwostitches.4. Secondrow:Turntheyarnaroundtheneedle,bringingittothefront.Slip

one,knittwotogether.Knitthelasttwostitchesintherow.

5. Continue the pattern in step 4 (alternating purled and knitted last twostitches)untilyoureachtheendandcastoffyoursquare.

6. Continuemaking asmany squares as youwant to get the desired size ofyourblanket.

7. When you have all your knitted squares, take a knitting needle and seweachsquaretogether.

If knitting your blanket for a baby, be sure to use soft yarn thatwill notirritateababy’ssensitiveskin.

Keepingyouryarninneatballswillmakeknittingeasierandfaster.

Bookbinding

SimpleHomemadeBookCoversIfyouhaveloosepapersthatyouwantboundtogether,thereisaneasywaytomakeabookcover:

1. Taketwopiecesofheavycardboardthatareslightlylargerthanthepagesofthebookyouwishtoassemble.Makethreeholesneartheedgesofeachcardboard piece with a holepunch. Then, punch three holes (the samedistancefromeachotherasthecardboardpieces) inthepapers thataretobeintheinteriorofthebook.

2. Stringanarrowribbonthroughtheseholesandtie theribbonsinknotsorbows. If the leavesofyourbookare thin,youcanpunchmore than threeholes into the paper and cardboard, and then lace strong string or cordbetweentheholes,likeshoelaces.

3. Todecorateyourcovers,youcanpaint themwithwatercolorsoryoucansimplyusecoloredcardboard.Youcanalsotakesomefabric,cutitsothefabricfoldsjustovertheinsideedgesofthecardboardpieces,andthenhotglue(oruseaspecialpaste—readon)thefabrictothecardboard.Or,youcanglueonphotographsorcutouts frommagazinesandprotect thecoverwithlaminatingpaper.

ToMakeFlourPasteforYourBookCoversMix½cupofflourwithenoughcoldwatertomakeaverythinbatter.Thismustbesmoothandfreeoflumps.Putthebatterontopofthestoveinatinsaucepanand stir it continuallyuntil it boils.Remove thepan from the stove, add threedropsofcloveoil,andpourthepasteintoacuportumblerandcover.

BindYourOwnBookMakingyourownbookorjournaltakescarefulmeasuring,folding,andgluing,buttheendproductwillbesomethinguniquethatyou’lltreasureforages.Youcanalsorebindold,wornoutbooksthatyou’dliketopreserveformoreyearstocome.

Beforebindinganythingveryspecial,trytobinda“dummy”book,orabookfullofblankpages—youcouldusethisblankbookasajournalifitcomesoutfairlywell,soyoureffortswillnotbewasted.Tomakeablankbook,youneedtoplanoutwhatyou’llneed—howthickthebookwillbe,whatthedimensionsare,thequalityofthepaperbeingused(atleastamedium-gradepaperinwhiteorcream),andsoon.Carefullyfoldandcutthepapertotheappropriatesize.

Supplies

Whiteorcream-coloredpaper(atleast32sheets)orthepagesyouwishtorebindDecorativepaper(2sheets)StiffcardboardClothorleatherSilkorclothcordGlueScissors(orametalrulerandExactoknife)

1. Make4 stacksof8 sheetsofpaper.These stacks, once folded, are called“folios,” Four stacks will make a 64-page book. If you wish to make itlonger or shorter you can domore or fewer stacks of 8 sheets.Carefullyfoldeachstackinhalf.

2. Unfoldthestacksandstapleorsewalongthecrease.Ifstapling,onlyusetwostaples:oneatthetopofthefoldandoneatthebottom.

3. Refoldallthestacksandpilethemontopofeachother.Usebinderclipsora vice to hold them together.Cut a rectangular piece of fabric that is thesamelengthasthespineofyourbookandaboutfivetimesaswide.Soifyourstackoffoldedpapersis8½incheslongand1inchhigh,yourfabricshouldbe8½incheslongand5incheswide.

4. Usingahotgluegunorregularwhiteglue,cover thespinewithglueandstickonthefabric.Thefabricshouldhangoffeithersideofthespine.

5. Forthecover,cuttwopiecesofsturdycardboardthatarethesamesizeasthepagesofyourbook.UsingametalrulerandanExactoknifewillhelpyoumakethecutsstraightandsmooth.Placeonepieceofcardboardatthebottomofyourstackofpapersandanotheronthetop.Cutanotherpieceofcardboard of same height and width as the book’s spine, including thepagesandbothcovers.

6. Selectapieceoffabric(orleather)tocoveryourbookandlayitflatonatable. Place the three pieces of cardboard on the fabric with the spinebetweenthetwocoverpieces.Usearulertomeasureandmarkarectangleonthefabricthatisoneinchlargeronallsidesthanthecombinedpiecesofcardboard.Removethecardboardpiecesandcutouttherectangle.

7. Lay the fabric on the table face down. Cover one side of the cardboardpieceswithwhite glue or rubber cement. If usingwhite glue, use a stiffbrush,puttyknife,orscrappieceofcardboardtospreadtheglueinaneven,thinlayersotherearenolumps.Placethecardboardglue-side-downonthefabric so that all three pieces are alignedwith the spine between the twocovers.Leaveagapofabouttwicethethicknessofthecardboardbetweenthespineandthetwocovers.

8. Smearglueon the topandbottomedgesof thecardboardpiecesandfoldoverthefabric.Repeatwiththeoutsideedges.

9. Smearglueon the insideedgesof thecoverboards.Don’tglue thespine.Place the stack of pages spine-side-downon top of the boards.The extramaterial hanging off of the spine should adhere to the glue on the coverboards.Placetwosolidbookends,rocks,orjarsoffoodoneithersideofthepaperstoholdthemuprightuntiltheydrythoroughly.

10. Selectadecorativepieceofpapertouseforendpapers.Thiswillcovertheinsidefrontandbackcoverssothatyouwon’tseethefoldedmaterialandcardboard.Itcanbeasolidcolororpatterned,accordingtoyourpreference.Cut it to be slightlywider than the pages you startedwith (before beingfolded)andnotquiteastall.

11. Openyourbookandcovertheinsidefrontcoverandfirstpagewithglueorrubbercement.Foldyourendpaperinhalftocreateacrease,openitback

up, and then stick it to the inside cover and first page, making sure thecrease slides into the space between the spine and front cover slightly.Allowtodryandthenrepeatatthebackofthebook.

12. Cuttwopiecesofthincordfortheheadandtailband,whichwillcoverthetopandbottomofthespine.Theyshouldbethesamelengthasthewidthofthespine.Useahotgluegunorwhiteglue toadhere themto the topandbottomofthespine,wherethepagesaregatheredtogether.

TyingKnots

Knowinghowtotiedifferenttypesofknotsisausefulskilltohave,especiallyifyouareinvolvedinboating,rockclimbing,fishing,orotheroutdooractivities.

Strongknotsaretypicallythosethatareneatinappearanceandarenotbulky.If a knot is tied properly, itwill almost never loosen andwill still be easy tountiewhennecessary.

QualitiesofaGoodKnot

1. Itcanbetiedquickly.2. Itwillholdtightly.3. Itcanbeuntiedeasily.

ThreePartsofaRope

1. Thestandingpart:thisisthelong,unusedpartoftherope.2. Thebight:thisistheloopformedwhenevertheropeisturned

back.3. Theend:thisisthepartusedinleading.

Thebestwaytolearnhowtotieknotseffectivelyistositdownandpracticewithapieceofcordorrope.Practice,inthiscase,definitelymakestyingknotsmuchfasterandeasier.Listedbelowareafewcommonknotsthatareusefulto

know:Bowlineknot:Fastenoneendofthelinetosomeobject.Aftertheloopismade,holditinpositionwithyourlefthandandpasstheendofthelineupthroughtheloop,behindandoverthelineabove,andthroughthelooponceagain.Pullittightlyandtheknotisnowcomplete.

Clovehitch:Thisknot is particularlyuseful if youneed the lengthof therunningendtobeadjustable.

Halter:Ifyouneedtocreateahaltertoleadahorseorpony,trythisknot.

Sheepshankknot:Thisisusedforshorteningropes.Gatheruptheamounttobeshortenedandthenmakeahalfhitcharoundeachofthebends.

Slipknot:Slipknotsareadjustable,sothatyoucantightenthemaroundanobjectafterthey’retied.

Timberhitch:Ifyouneedtosecurearopetoatree,thisistheknottouse.Itiseasytountie,too.

Twohalfhitches:Use thisknot to securea rope to apole,boatmooring,washer,tire,orsimilarobject.

Square/reef knot: This is the most common knot for tying two ropestogether.

Kites

Flying kites is awonderfulway to spend a breezy summer day.Making yourown kites is easy and fun and adds to the enjoyment and satisfaction of kiteflying. Here are a few examples of kites that can easily be made and areparticularlyfunforchildren.

HowtoPasteTissuePapertoYourKiteFrame

Make a good paste out of flour and water by boiling it until itreaches the consistency of starch. Put the paste on with a bristlebrush, make the seams hardly more than ¼-inch wide, and pressthemtogetherwithasoftrag.

Toadheretissuepapertoyourframe,placethetissuepaperonthegroundandlaytheframeoverit,holdingtheframedownwithheavybooks.Cut thepaperaroundtheframe, leavinga½-inchedge,andmakeaslit in theedgeevery6or7 inchesandat theangles.Withyourbrush,coattheedgewithpaste,onesectionatatime,turnthesectionsover,andpressdownwiththerag.

FrogKiteMaterials

Two2-foot-longsticks(withthethinnerpartbenttoformknees)1-foot,7-inch-longstick(forthespine)2-foot,5-inch-longpieceofrattan(tomakethebodyofthefrog)

1. Placethetwolegsticksoneabovetheotherandthenplacethespinestickontopofthem.Thetopsofallthreesticksshouldbeperfectlyeven.Eightinchesfromthetop,driveapinthroughallthreesticksandcarefullyclampitontheothersidewherethepointcomesthrough.

Frogkite.

2. For thebody,bend thepieceof rattan to formacircle (allow theendsofoverlap about an inch or so—thiswill help in the binding of the ends tomake a joint). The circle, when complete, should be about 8 inches indiameter.

3. Take the three sticks that are pinned together, lay themon the floor, andspreadthemaparttoformanirregularstar.Thetopofthespineshouldbejustabouthalfwaybetweenthetopsofthelegs(5inchesfromeach).Placethe rattan circle over the sticks, with the intersection of the sticks in themiddleofthecircle.

4. With pins and thread, fasten the frame together. The lower limbswill bespreadwide apart and theymust be carefully drawn together and held inpositionbyastringthatistiedneartheterminationofeachlegstick.

5. Cross-sticksforhandsandfeetmaynowbeaddedandthestringsattachedtovariouspoints.Coverthekitewithgreentissuepaperanddecorateittolooklikeafrog.

ButterflyKite1. Makeathin,straightstickoutofapieceofelasticwoodorsplitrattan.At

thetopofthis,attachapieceofthreadorstring.2. Bend the stick as you would a bow until it forms an arc or half circle.

Holdingthestickinthisposition,tietheotherendofthestring

Butterflykite.

toapointafewinchesabovethebottomendofthestick.Atapointonthestickaboutone-quarterthedistancefromthetop,tieanotherstring,drawittaut,andfastenittothebottomendofthebow.

3. Takeanotherstickofexactlythesamelengthandthicknessasthefirstandgothroughthesameprocess,makingaframethatisexactlythesameasthefirst. Fasten the two frames together, allowing the arcs to overlap severalinches,andbindthejointssecurelywiththread.

4. Maketheheadoftheinsectbyattachingtwopipecleanerstothetoppartofthewingswheretheyarejoinedtogether.Thestrawsmustbecrossedandtheprojectingendscanserveastheantennae.

5. Selectapieceofyelloworbluetissuepaper,placeyourframeoverit,cutitto the correctmeasurements, and paste. After the kite is dry, draw somemarkingsonthewingswithblackpaintorcutoutmarkingsindark-coloredpaperandpastethemon.

FishKite1. Cuttwostraightpinesticksandshavethemdownuntiltheyarethinenough

to bend easily. They should be exactly the same length and roughly thesameweight.Fastenthetopendstogetherbydrivingapinthroughthem.

2. Bendeachsticktoformabowandholdtheminthispositionuntilyouhavesecuredathirdstickacrossthematrightanglesaboutonethird

Fishkite.

thewaydownfromthe top.Thekiteshouldnowbehalfasbroadas it islong.

3. Letthelowerendsoftheside,orbow,stickscrosseachotherfarenoughuptoformatailforthefishandfastenthestickstogetherattheirintersection.

4. Before stringing the frame, see that the cross-stick protrudes an equaldistancefromeachsideofthefish.

5. Tomakethetail,tieastringacrossthebottomfromtheendofonecross-stick to the end of the other and tie another string to this string in themiddle.Passthestringuptothebaseofthetail,drawittaut,andfastenitthereattheintersectionoftheside-sticks.Thiswillmakeanaturallookforthecaudalfin.

6. The remainderof the stringscanbeputon.Takecare that thedorsalandbackfinaremadeexactlythesamesize.Chooseyellow,red,orgreentissuepapertocoverthekiteanddecorateasyouseefit.

7. Tie thestringsof thebreast-band to theside-sticksnear theheadand tail,andletthemcrosseachotherasinacommonkite.Attachthetail-bandtothetailofthefish.

ShieldKite1. Maketheframeoffoursticks:twostraightcross-sticksandtwobentside-

sticks.2. Coveritwithred,white,andbluetissuepaper(makingitlooklikeaflag)

oruseanycolorofyourchoosing.Makesure tocut thepaperso it lookslikeashield.

Shieldkite.

SquareKite1. Thiskiteisnotactuallyperfectlysquare.Itisrectangularandmadewitha

frameworkofverythinbambooorcanesticks,boundtogether.

Squarekite.

2. The frame should be covered with rice paper and all sides of the papershouldbeglueddownwell.

3. Thekiteshouldbebentbackwards,makingitslightlyconvexinthefront.Toholdthekiteinthisposition,usestringsthataretiedfromendtoendofthecross-sticksattheback.Thebreast-bandmaybeattachedlikeanyothersix-sidedkite.

4. Insteadofatailband,withasingletailattached,thiskitecarriestwotails,one tied at each side to the protruding ends of he diagonal sticks at thebottomofthekite.

Boomerangs

Tomakeaboomerang,scaldapieceofwellseasonedelm,ash,orhickoryplank(freefromanyknots)inapotofboilingwater.LeavethewoodinthewateruntilitbecomespliableenoughtobendintoaslightV-shapedform.Whenthewoodhas assumed the proper shape, nail on the side pieces to hold the wood inposition until it is thoroughly dry.After the plank is completely dry, the sidepiecescanberemoved—thewoodwillkeepthecurvedshape.

Sawthewoodintoasmanypiecesasitwillallowandeachpiecewillbecomea boomerang. If the edges are very rough, trim them with a pocketknife andscrapethemsmooth.Youcanusealargefiletohelpshapetheboomerang.Theefficiencyofyourboomerang(howwellitsoarsandreturnstoyou)willvaryineachpiece,dependingonthecurvature.

Nailonsidepiecestoholdthebentwoodinplace.

Sandandfinishyourboomerangforbestresults.

HowtoThrowaBoomerangGrasp the boomerang near one end and hold it like a club. Make sure theconcavesideisturnedawayfromyouandtheconvexsideistowardyou.Findsomething to take aim at and then throw the boomerang at the object. If theboomerangiswell-made,itshouldreturntoyouafteritsflight.Becarefulnottothrowtheboomerangwhenothersarecloseby—itmayenduphittingthemanditcanleaveabadwelt.Itisbesttothrowyourboomeranginalarge,openfieldbyyourself.

Oncethewoodisdry,sawthewoodintoseveralboomerangs.

Toboggans

Tobogganscanfitseveralpeopleonthem,thusmakingthesleddingexperienceallthemorefun.Toboggansaresuitablefordeepsnowandheavydrifts,duetotheirbroad,smoothbottoms,enablingthesledtoglidewellovercrustedsnow.

Tomake a toboggan, youwill need two pieces of quarter-inch pine lumberthatareeither8or10feet longand1 footwide.Place the twoboardssidebysideandjointhemtogetherbymeansofroundcross-sticks.Bindthecross-sticksto the lumbervia thongs thatpass throughholes in thebottomboardsoneachside of the cross-stick and are held tightly by hammock hitches. Where thethongspassunderneath,cutgroovesinthebottomboarddeepenoughtopreventthecordfromstickingout.Thesegroovesarenecessaryasanycordsthatwouldbestickingoutfromthetobogganwouldnotonlyslowdownthesledbutwouldeventuallywearout,causingthetoboggantofallapart.

Ontopofthecross-sticks,lashtogethertwosidebars.Curloverthefrontendsoftheboardsandholdtheminplacebytwothongsthataretiedtightlyontotheends.Thenyoucantakeyourhandmadetobogganoutduringthefirstbigsnowandgiveitatestride.

PreservingFlowers

PressedFlowersandLeavesPressedflowerscanbeusedtodecoratestationery,handmadeboxes,bookmarks,scrapbooks, or picture frames. Although these types of preserved flowers areperfectlyflat,theyseldomfade.1. Havealargebookoraquantityofoldnewspapersandblottingpaper,and

severalweightsready.2. Use the newspapers for leaves and ferns. Blotting paper is best for the

flowers.Boththeflowersandleavesshouldbefreshandwithoutmoisture.Place them as nearly as possible in their natural positions in the book orpapers,andpress,allowingseveralthicknessesofpaperbetweeneachlayer.

3. Remove the flowers and leaves onto dry papers each day until they areperfectlydried.

Someflowersmustbe immersed—allbut the flowerhead—inboilingwaterforafewminutesbeforepressing,topreventthemfromturningblack.Orchidsaretheprimeexampleofaflowerthatneedsboilingbeforepressing.

Topreserveawholeplant,graspitatthebaseofthestemandpullitoutofthesoilgently.Shakeoffexcessdirtbeforepressing.

To preserve your flowers forever, get a blank book or just pieces of stiff,whitepaperonwhich tomountyourpreserved flowers and leaves.Glue themdowntothepaperwithhotglueorregularElmer’sglue.Thesooneryoumountthe specimens, thebetter.Place themcarefullyon thepaperand,beneatheachflowerorleaf,writethenameoftheplant,whereitwasfound,andthedate.

NaturalWaxFlowersTomakewaxflowers,dipthefreshbudsandblossomsinparaffinthatisjusthotenough to be liquefied. First dip the stems of the flowers. When these havecooled and hardened, dip the flowers or sprays. Be sure to hold them by thestalks andmove them gently.When they are completely covered, remove theflowersfromthewaxandshakethemlightlytothrowofftheexcesswax.Allowthe flowers to dry completely. The flowers will keep their beautiful coloring,naturalforms,andeventheirfragranceforashortwhile.

Forleaves,ferns,orflatflowers,youcanplacetheplantbetweentwosheetsofwaxpaperandrunahot ironover thepaper.Allow thepaper tocoolslightlyandthencarefullyremoveit.

Preservebeautifulflowersbydippingtheminparaffin.

CornhuskDolls

This old-fashioned dollmakes awonderful gift for young children and also aunique, decorative, homemade item for your home or for sale at a craft fair.Cornhuskdollsareeasytomakeifyoujustfollowthesesimplesteps:

Onceyouhavethebasicsdown,tryaddingskirts,costumes,orotherdetailstoyourdolls.

1. Gather husks from several large ears of corn (you may have these fromyourgarden,ifyougrowcorn,oryoumightfindthematagardencenterorafarmers’marketinthefall).Selectthesoft,whitehusksthatgrowclosesttotheear.

2. Placethestiffendsoftwohuskstogether,foldoneofthelong,softhusksinastriplengthwise,andwrapitaroundtheends.

3. Choosethesoftestandwidesthuskyoucanfind,folditacrossthecenter,andplaceapieceofstrongthreadorstringarounditandtieittightlyinaknot.

4. Bring this down over the already-wound husks and tie it with a threadunderneath.Thiswillformtheheadandneckofthedoll.

5. Tomake the arms, divide the husk below the neck into two equal parts.Foldtwoorthreehuskstogetherandinserttheminthespaceyou’vemadebythedivision.Holdthearmsinplacewithonehand,anduseyourotherhand to fold several layers of husk over each shoulder, allowing them toextenddownthebackofthefigure.

6. When the figure seems substantial enough, use your best husks for thetopmostlayersandwrapthewaistwithstrongthread,tyingittightly.

7. Divide the husks below the waist band and make the legs by neatlywrappingeachportionwiththread.Trimthehusksoffevenlyforthefeet.

8. Twistthearmsonceortwice,tiethem,andtrimthemevenlyforthehands.9. Youcandrawafaceonthedollwithapenormarker,oryoucangluetiny

naturalitemsontheheadtomakeaface.10. If youwant your doll to have clothing or a specific “costume,” you can

makethesefromanykindofmaterialandinanywayyouwish.

Savecornhusksandsilkformakingcornhuskdolls.

Foravariationonatraditionalcornhuskdoll,trythefollowing:1. Gatherayoungearofcorn(whosesilkhasnotyetbrowned),acrabapple

forthehead,andaleaffromthecobforadress.2. Cut off the bottom of the ear of cornwhere the husks are puckered and

carefully take the silk from the other end,making sure not to disturb thecloselywrappedhusksremaining.

3. Rollpartoftheleafforthearmsandfastenthecrabappletotheleafarmswithasmallstick.Sticktheotherendofthetwigintothesmallendofthecorncob.

4. Nowyoucandress thedoll.Thehatfor thedollcanbemadefroma leaf(justwhereitjoinsthestalk.Thiscanbefastenedtothedoll’sheadwithasmall twigor thorn.Makesurethesilk isplacedontheheadtoformhairbeforesecuringthehat.

5. Make a scarf by folding a leaf around the shoulders and securing itwithsmallpinsorthorns.

6. Sticktinythornsintothecrabappletomakeeyesandanose.

Basketweaving

Basketweaving is one of the oldest, most common, and useful crafts. Thematerialsusedinmakingbasketsareprimarilyreedorrattan,raffia,cornhusks,splints, and natural grasses. Rattan grows in tropical forests, where it twinesabout the trees in great lengths. It is numbered according to its thickness, andnumbers 2, 3, and 4 are the best sizes for small baskets. Rattan should bethoroughlysoakedbeforeusing.Raffiaistheoutercuticleofapalm,andcomesfrom Madagascar. Cattail reeds are excellent for baskets and may be morereadily available, as they frequently grow near ponds or swampy areas.Mostbasket-makingmaterialscanalsobefoundatlocalcraftstores.

SmallReedBasketMostreedbasketshaveatleastsixteenspokes,andforsmallbasketsandwheresmall reedsareused, these spokesareoftenwoven inpairs.Youcanvary thelookofyour reedbasketbycombiningand interweaving twodifferent-coloredreeds.

MaterialsNeeded

Sixteen16-inchspokes,No.2reedFiveweaversofNo.2brownreed

Directions

1. Separate the sixteen spokes intogroupsof four.Mark thecenters and laythefirstgrouponthetable inaverticalposition.Acrossthecenterof thisgroupplacethesecondgrouphorizontally.Placethethirdgroupdiagonallyacrossthese,havingtheupperendsattherightoftheverticalspokes.Laythe fourthgroupdiagonallywith theupper ends at the left of theverticalspokes.

2. Soak the reedswell and then start the basket by laying theweaver’s endoverthegrouptotheleftoftheverticalgroup,justabovethecenter; thenbringitundertheverticalgroup,overthehorizontalandthenunder,andsoonuntilitreachestheverticalgroupagain.Repeatthisweavethreeorfourtimes.

3. Separatethespokesintotwosandbringtheweaveroverthepairattheleftoftheupperverticalgroup,andsoon,overandunderuntilitcomesaroundagain. At the beginning of each new row, the weaver passes under twogroups of spokes, always under the last of the two under which it wentbeforeandthegroupattherightofit.

Startofasmallreedbasket.

4. Continueweavinguntilyourbasketisthedesiredheight.Weavethebottomuntil it is4 inches indiameter; thenwetand turn thespokesgraduallyupandweave1inch.Afterthat, turnthespokesinsharplyanddrawtheminwithatleastthreerowsofweaving.

5. Trimthetopofyourbasket, leavingabout3inchesofthespokesstickingup.Turn your basket upside down in a basin ofwater and soak until thespokes become pliable. Gently bend down each spoke, skipping the reednexttoit,andtuckingitintothebasketweave.Continueallthewayaround.

Thereareendlessvariationsofbasketweavestoexperimentwith.

CoiledBasketSweet grass, corn husks, or any pliable grasses can be used for this type ofbasket.Usefulcolorfulraffiatoaddinterest.

Materials

AbunchofgrassesAbunchofraffia

Directions1. Gatherabunchoflonggrassesandtwistthemtogetherintoonelongcord.

Threadtheraffiathroughaneedleandusetheneedletohelpyouwrapthecordfromtoptobottomwiththeraffia.

2. Begin to coil thewrapped cord, sewing the coils together as you go. Tochangecolororstartanewcord,tucktheendsintotheweaveandstartupwiththenewpiecewhereyouleftoffwiththeoldone.

Avarietyofbasketsareusedtodisplaygoodsatafarmers’market.

3. When the base of the basket is as large as youwant, begin the sides byraisingeachcoilupslightlyhigherthantheonebelowit,continuingtosewthecoilstogetherasbefore.

4. Tofinish,tucktheendofthecoilintotheweaveandsewsecurelyinplace

BirchBarkBasket

Birchbarkbasketsareawonderfulwaytodisplaydriedwildflowersandmakenicegifts.Makingabasketintheshapeofacanoeworksverywell with the bark. Gather bark strips (do not string directlyfromthetree;trytofindtheseeitheroncutwoodorfromacraftorlumber store) that are 6½ inches long and 4 incheswide. Sew theends of the bark together with a thick thread, leaving one side of

eachstripunstitched.Sewaribbononeachendofthecanoe—thesewill serve as handles. Now the basket may be filled with driedwildflowers or other things from nature (such as pinecones) andhungonthewallfordisplay.

Birchbarktendstopeeleasilyfromthetreetrunks.

MarketingYourSkills

Ifyouareseriousaboutmakingcraftsorwould just like tomakea littleextramoney by selling your homemade candles, soaps, baskets, pottery, jewelry, orother items, you may want to consider finding ways to make your creationsvisible in the marketplace. Keep in mind that if you do begin to sell yourhomemadecrafts,andifyoudevelopamarketforthem,youmayneedtobeginmakingmoreofthemtomeetcustomerdemands.

To start, find outwhat other similar products are available andwhat pricesthey’regoingfor.Dosomemarketresearch:Gointostoresthatsellhomemadeitems like yours and look online as well—eBay is a great place to see whatpeople are willing to pay for homemade crafts—and price your itemsaccordingly.Alsothinkabouttheamountofmoneyyouspendonsuppliesandhowmuch time you spendmaking your craft item. If you are investing largeamountsofmoneyandtimeintomakingjustoneitem,youmostlikelywillnotbeabletomakeagoodprofitfromit.

Advertisingiskeytosellingyouritems.Printupflyersthatyoucandistributetopeopleorhangoncommunitybulletinboards.Makebusinesscards,directingyour potential customers to anyWeb site or blog you have about your crafts,alongwithagoodway to reachyou if theywant tobuy.Getting thewordoutthere iskeywhenyouarefirststarting tosellyourhomemadeitems.Don’tbeafraidtotellfriendsandfamilymembersaboutyournewbusiness,andaskthemtoshareitwiththeirfriendsaswell.

If you set up a table or booth at a localmarket, be sure it is attractive andinvitingtoyourpotentialbuyers.Elevateyouritemssotheyareeasilyseenandarrange some in baskets to add a “homey” feel. Have flyers and/or businesscards available and always be friendly to anyone who approaches your table.Remember thatwordofmouthisawonderfulwaytofindpeoplewhowant tobuyyourspecificcraftitem.

WaystoSellYourHomemadeCrafts

SelltoYourFamilyandFriends

Thebestway tobeginmakingmoneyonyourhomemadeproducts is to reachout to your family and friends and see if they are interested in buying yourwares.Youmayalsowanttomarketyourgoodstoyourcoworkers.Puttingupflyersinyouroffice(getpermissionfirst,ofcourse)orsendingoutcatalogsorpostcards to friends, family, andneighborsadvertisingyourcrafts isnotabadwaytostartgettingthewordout.

Displayingyourgoodscreativelywillattractpotentialbuyerstoyourtable.

SellataGarageSale

Garage and yard sales are perfect places to sell your homemade items—especiallyifyoudonothaveenoughtosellatalocalmarketorstore.Youmightask a neighbor or two about hosting a combined garage sale or see if yourneighborhoodholdsanannualgaragesaleweekendandthensetupasmalltableon thesideof the road.Again,displayyour itemswellandbesure to letyourshoppersknowthattheyarehomemade.

SellatYourLocalFarmers’orFleaMarket

Visit your local farmers’ market or area flea market and see if they have a

consignmenttablewhereyoucansellyourcrafts.Findouthowmuchitwouldcost to rent a space to set up a table. Local markets are wonderful ways topresentyourcraftitemstothecommunityandmanypeoplevisitingthesetypesofmarketsarelookingforlocallyproducedproductsandgoodbargains.

SellYourCraftsonConsignment

Perhapsthereisalocalshopyoufrequentlyvisitthatsellshomemadeproducts,orahotelorairportgift shopnearby.Somestoresaremore thanhappy toselllocalgoods(especiallyif theycomplementtheitemstheshopalreadysells)onconsignment.Beforeyouwalkintoastorewithyourgoods,besureyouhaveasales pitch ready. Dress professionally and make sure you have information,prices, and samplesofyourproduct to show them.Tell theownerormanagerhow your product is different or better than others available, and why theircustomerswillwantit.Alwayshaveabusinesscardhandyaswell—justincase.If you and the store do come into agreement about selling your crafts, youprobablywanttodrawupacontractstatinghowmuchprofitthestorewilltakefromsellingyouritemsandwhatothertermsandconditionsmayapply.

Some stores that may be interested in selling homemade items onconsignment are: craft stores, airport and hotel gift shops, tourist stores, foodcoops,beautyshopsandhairsalons,flowershops,localantiquestores,andotherspecialtystores.

SellOnline

Moreandmore,consumersarechoosingtoshoponlineinsteadofinstores,somarketingyourgoodsinanonlinecapacity(evenifyouhaveitemsinstoresaswell)isagreatwaytosellyourcrafts.CheckouteBaytoseewhatothercraftsare selling and for how much, or try to sell your crafts at sites such aswww.etsy.com(anonlinecraftwebsitethatsellscertainhomemadeitems).Youwillhavetopayasmallfeeforanonline“booth,”butetsy.comwillhelpmarketyourwares,makingiteasyforyoutosellthem.Alsosearchforonlinefarmers’marketsandseehowtobegintosellyourcraftsinthatcapacity.Or,ifyouarereally ambitious and tech-savvy, you can create your ownWeb site and selldirecttocustomers.

Wrapyoursoapinabitofhandmadepaperortiewithasimplestringtomakethemattractivetopotentialcustomers.

PartSevenWell-Being

“Healthisastateofcompleteharmonyofthebody,mind,andspirit.Whenoneisfreefromphysicaldisabilitiesandmentaldistractions,thegatesofthesoulopen.”

—B.K.S.Iyengar

Onsomelevel,weallknowwhatweneedforoptimumhealth.Ourbodiesarebuilttogiveusclues,fromsimpleones—ifwe’retired,weprobablyneedrest—to ones that require a little more attention to discern, such as a headache orstomachache, which can stem from a wide range of issues. Many of usconsistently ignore the clues,masking exhaustionwith caffeine or popping anaspirineverytimeapainbeginstosurfacewithoutevenconsideringthecause.Well-beingbeginswithtakingthetimetolistentoourselves,beinghonestaboutwhatneedshealingorimprovement,andnurturingthedesiretoreachahealthierlevel of being.Once the desire for health is strong, youwill find amyriad ofchannelsforachievingit.Thissectionofferssuggestionsforfindingwell-beingthroughnaturalmeans,fromherbalmedicinetonaturalspaproductstomassagetechniques. You’ll also find information on how to prepare your home fornatural disasters, and instructions for basic first aid.There are timeswhen thebest thing to do is to go straight to a doctor, whether a doctor of Westernmedicine, a homeopath, or another type of medical practitioner. But part ofleadingaself-sufficient life is learning torecognizeandmeetyourownneeds,evenintheareasofhealthandsafety.Fromthere,youcanbegintohelpthosearoundyou,too.Sostartpayingattentiontoyourphysical,mental,andspiritualstate,andfindoutwhatyoucandotobethebestversionofwhoyoualreadyare.

HerbalMedicine

An herb is a plant or plant part used for its scent, flavor, or therapeuticproperties.Forcenturiesherbshavebeenusedinvariousformsfortheirhealthbenefits.Many are now sold as tablets, capsules, powders, teas, extracts, andfresh or dried plants. However, some have side effects andmay interact withotherdrugsyouaretaking.

Touseanherbalproductassafelyaspossible:Consultyourdoctorfirst.Donottakeabiggerdosethanthelabelrecommends.Takeitundertheguidanceofatrainedmedicalprofessional.Beespeciallycautiousifyouarepregnantornursing.

Herbalsupplementsaresoldinmanyforms:asfreshordriedproducts;liquidorsolidextracts;andtablets,capsules,powders,andteabags.Forexample,freshgingerrootisoftenfoundintheproducesectionoffoodstores;driedgingerrootissoldpackagedin teabags,capsules,or tablets;andliquidpreparationsmadefrom ginger root are also sold. A particular group of chemicals or a singlechemical may be isolated from a botanical and sold as a dietary supplement,usuallyintabletorcapsuleform.Commonpreparationsincludeteas,decoctions,tinctures,andextracts.

Atea,alsoknownasaninfusion,ismadebyaddingboilingwatertofreshordriedbotanicalsandsteepingthem.Theteamaybedrunkeitherhotorcold.

Someroots,bark,andberriesrequiremoreforcefultreatmenttoextracttheirdesiredingredients.Theyaresimmeredinboilingwaterforlongerperiodsthanteas,makingadecoction,whichalsomaybedrunkhotorcold.

Atinctureismadebysoakingabotanicalinasolutionofalcoholandwater.Tincturesaresoldasliquidsand

Herbscanbeutilizedmedicinallyintheformofteas,tinctures,extracts,orasanadditiontosoaps,lotions,orsalves.

areusedforconcentratingandpreservingabotanical.Theyaremadeindifferentstrengths that are expressed as botanical-to-extract ratios (i.e., ratios of theweightofthedriedbotanicaltothevolumeorweightofthefinishedproduct).

Anextractismadebysoakingthebotanicalinaliquidthatremovesspecifictypes of chemicals. The liquid can be used as is or evaporated tomake a dryextractforuseincapsulesortablets.

MakeYourOwnHerbalTinctureTinctures help concentrate and preserve the health benefits of your herbs. Touse,mix1teaspoonoftincturewithjuice,tea,orwateranddrinknomorethanthreetimesaday.

Addseveraldropsofyourtincturetoteaorjuicetoreceivethehealingbenefitswithoutthestrongflavor.

1. Pickthefreshherbs,removinganydirty,wilted,ordamagedparts.Donotwash.Besureyouknowwhether it is the stems, leaves, roots,or flowersthathavethehealthbenefits,anduseonlythoseparts.

2. Coarselychoptheplantparts.Flowerscanbeleftwhole.3. Cleananddryasmallglassjarwithanairtightlidandputtheherbsinside.

Fillthejarwith100-proofvodkaorwarmcidervinegaruntilplantpartsarefullyimmersed.Screwthelidonsecurelyandlabelthejar.

4. Storefor6to8weeks,gentlyshakingafewtimesaweek.5. Strainout theherbsandstore the liquid tincture inaclean,drybottle.Be

suretolabelthejarwiththeingredients,anddateandstoreitinasafeplaceawayfromchildren’sreach.

CommonHerbalRemediesHereisalistofcommonherbsthatcanbeusedtocureoralleviatethesymptomsofconditionsrangingfromcancertoacnetothecommoncold.Ifyouaretakinganyothermedicationsorsupplements,checkwithyourdoctorbeforetryinganyherbs.Aswithanymedication,everybodyisuniqueandcertainherbscanhaveadversesideeffectsforcertainpeople,sopayattentiontoyourbodyandceasetakinganyherbsthatmakeyoufeelworseinanyway.It’sagoodideatotryoneherbata timeperconditionandtokeepa journaldocumentingwhatyoutake,when,andhowyoufeel.Thiswayyou’llbeabletotellmoreeasilywhateffectstheherbsarehaving.

AloeVera

Uses: The clear gel in aloe is used topically to treat osteoarthritis, burns, andsunburn.Thegreenpart canbemade into a juice or dried and takenorally totreat a variety of conditions, such as diabetes, asthma, epilepsy, andosteoarthritis.

Cautions: Using aloe vera on surgical woundsmay inhibit their healing. Iftakenorally,aloeveracanproduceabdominalcrampsanddiarrhea,whichcandecreasetheabsorptionofmanydrugs.

If you have diabetes and take glucose-lowering medication, you should becareful of taking aloe orally, as studies suggest that aloemay decrease bloodglucoselevels.

Aloeveracanbeusedtopicallytotreatandsootheavarietyofskinirritations.

Astragalus

Uses:AstragaluswastraditionallyusedinChinesemedicineincombinationwithotherherbstohelpboosttheimmunesystem.ItisstillusedwidelyinChinaforchronic hepatitis and as an additional cancer therapy.Astragalus is commonlyusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelpcoldsandupperrespiratoryinfectionsandhasalsobeenusedtofightheartdisease.Theastragalusplantrootisusedinsoups, teas, extracts, and capsules and is generally usedwith other herbs, likeginseng,angelica,andlicorice.

Cautions:Astragalusmayinteractwithmedicationsthatsuppresstheimmunesystem(suchasthosetakenbycancerpatientsororgantransplantrecipients).

Bilberry

Uses:Bilberry fruit is used to treat diarrhea,menstrual cramps, eye problems,varicoseveins,andcirculatoryproblems.The leafofabilberry isused to treatdiabetes.It’sclaimedthatbilberryfruitalsohelpsimprovenightvision,butthisisnotclinicallyproven.Thebilberryfruitcanbeeatenormadeintoanextract.Likewise,itsleavescanbeusedinteaormadeintoanextract.

Cautions:Thoughbilberry fruit is considered safe, highdosesof the leaforleafextractmayhavepossibletoxicsideeffects.

Bilberriesareaclose relativeofblueberriesandcanbeeatenwholeormadeintoanextract.

Chamomileflowerscanbeusedtomakearelaxingtea.

Chamomile

Uses: Chamomile has a calming effect and is often used to counteractsleeplessness and anxiety, as well as diarrhea and gastrointestinal conditions.Topically,chamomileisusedinthetreatmentofskinconditionsandformouthulcers(particularlyduetocancertreatment).Thechamomileplanthasfloweringtops,whichareusedtomaketeas,extracts,capsules,andtablets.Itcanalsobeappliedasaskincreamorointmentorevenbeusedasamouthrinse.

Cautions:Somepeoplehavedevelopedrareallergicreactionsfromeatingorcoming into contact with chamomile. These reactions include skin rashes,swelling of the throat, shortness of breath, and anaphylaxis. People allergic torelated plants, such as daisies, ragweed, ormarigolds, should be carefulwhencomingintocontactwithchamomile.

Cranberry

Uses:Cranberryfruitandleavesareusedinhealingmanyconditions,includingwounds,urinarydisorders,diarrhea,diabetes, and stomachand liverproblems.Cranberriesareoftenusedintreatingurinarytractinfectionsandstomachulcers.Theymay also be useful in preventing dental plaque and in preventingE.colibacteriafromadheringtocellsalongtheurinarytractwall.Cranberryfruitcanbeeatenstraight,madeintojuice,orusedintheformofextracts,tea,ortabletsandtakenasadietarysupplement.

Cautions: Drinking copious amounts of cranberry juice can cause an upset

stomachanddiarrhea.

Dandelion

Uses:Dandelions, throughouthistory,havebeenmost commonlyused to treatliverandkidneydiseasesandspleenproblems.Dandelionsaresometimesusedin liver and kidney tonics, as a diuretic, and for simple digestive issues. Thedandelion’s leavesand roots (and sometimes theentireplant) areused in teas,capsules, and extracts. The leaves are used in salads or are cooked, and theflowersareusedtomakewine.

Cautions:Whileusingdandelionsistypicallysafe,thereareafewinstancesofupsetstomachanddiarrheacausedbytheplant,aswellasallergicreactions.Ifyour gallbladder is inflamed or infected, you should avoid using dandelionproducts.

Echinacea

Uses:Traditionally,echinaceahasbeenusedtoboosttheimmunesystemtohelpprevent colds, flu, and various infections. Echinacea can also be used forwounds, acne, andboils.The roots andexposedplant areused, either freshordried,forteas,juice,extracts,orinpreparationsforexternaluse.

Cautions: Echinacea, taken orally, generally does not cause any problems.Somepeopledohaveallergicreactions(rashes,increasedasthma,anaphylaxis),but typicallyonlygastrointestinalproblemsareexperienced.Ifyouareallergictoanyplantsinthedaisyfamily,itmaybebesttosteerclearofechinacea.

Echinaceaisbeautifulaswellasusefulmedicinally.Itgrowswellinmoderately

drysoil.

EveningPrimroseOil

Uses:Sincethe1930s,eveningprimroseoilhasbeenusedtofighteczemaandrecently, ithasbeenusedforother inflammatoryconditions.Eveningprimroseoil is also used in the treatment of breast pain during the menstrual cycle,symptoms of menopause, and premenstrual issues. It may also relieve painassociatedwithrheumatoidarthritis.

Theoilisextractedfromtheeveningprimroseseeds.You’llfinditincapsuleformatmanyhealthfoodstores.

Cautions:Theremaybesomemildsideeffects,suchasgastrointestinalupsetorheadache.

FlaxseedandFlaxseedOil

Uses: Flaxseed is typically used as a laxative and to alleviate hot flashes.Flaxseedoilisusedfortreatingarthritispain.Bothherbsareusedtofighthighcholesterolandcanbebeneficialforthosewithheartdisease.Flaxseed,ineitheritswholeorcrushedform,maybemixedwithwaterorjuiceandingested.Itisalsoavailableasapowder.Flaxseedoilcanbetakenineitheraliquidorcapsuleform.

Cautions: It is essential to take flaxseedwith lots of water, or constipationcouldworsen.Further,flaxseedfibermaydecreasethebody’sabilitytoabsorbotheroralmedicationsandsoshouldnotbetakentogether.

Garlic

Uses: Garlic is typically used as a dietary supplement for those with highcholesterol, heart disease, and high blood pressure. It may help decrease thehardeningofthearteriesandisalsousedinthepreventionofstomachandcoloncancer. It isalsoused topicallyororally tohealsomeinfections, includingearinfections. Garlic cloves may be eaten either raw or cooked, or they may bedriedorpowderedandusedincapsules.Oilandotherextractscanbeobtainedfromgarliccloves.

Cautions: Some common side effects of garlic are breath and body odor,

heartburn,upsetstomach,andallergicreactions.Garliccanalsothinbloodandsoshouldnotbeusedbeforesurgeriesordentalwork,especiallyifyouhaveableedingdisorder.ItalsohasanadverseeffectondrugsusedtofightHIV.

Part7:Well-Being

Ginger

Uses: Ginger is commonly used in Asian medicines to treat stomachaches,nausea,anddiarrhea.ManyU.S.dietarysupplementscontaininggingerareusedto help fight cold and flu and can be used to relieve post-surgery nausea ornausearelatedtopregnancy.Ithasalsobeenusedforarthritisandotherjointandmuscle pain. Ginger root can be found fresh or dried, in tablets, capsules,extracts,andteas.

Cautions:Sideeffectsare rarebutcan includegas,bloating,heartburn,and,forsomepeople,nausea.

GarlicgrowsbestinsoilthatispH6.5to7.0.

Ginkgo

Uses:Traditionally,extractfromginkgoleaveshasbeenusedinthetreatmentofillnessessuchasasthma,bronchitis,fatigue,andtinnitus.Peopleusegingkoleafextract in the hopes that it will help improve theirmemory (especially in thetreatmentofAlzheimer’sdiseaseanddementia). It isalso taken to treatsexual

dysfunction,multiplesclerosis,andotherhealthissues.Ginkgoleafextractsaremadeintotablets,capsules,orteas.Sometimestheextractscanalsobefoundinskincareproducts.

Cautions: Some common side effects are headache, nausea, gastrointestinalupset,diarrhea,dizziness,orskinirritations.Ginkgomayalsoincreasebleedingrisks,sothosehavingsurgeryorwithbleedingdisordersshouldconsultadoctorbefore using any ginkgo products. Uncooked ginkgo seeds are toxic and cancauseseizures.

Ginkgo leaves can bemade into an extract and ingested for a wide range ofhealthbenefits.

Ginseng(Asian)

Uses:Ginseng is used to help boost the immune system and contribute to theoverall healthof an individual. It hasbeenused traditionally andcurrently forimproving those who are recovering from illnesses, increasing stamina andmentalandphysicalperformance,treatingerectiledysfunctionandsymptomsofmenopause, and lowering blood glucose levels and blood pressure. In somestudies, ginseng has been proven to lower blood glucose levels and boostimmune systems. The ginseng root is dried and made into tablets, capsules,extracts,andteas.Itcanalsobemadeintocreamsforexternaluse.

Cautions:Limitingginseng intake to threemonthsata timewillmost likelyreduceanypotentialsideeffects.Themostcommonsideeffectsareheadachesandsleepissues,alongwithsomeallergicreactions.Ifyouhavediabetesandare

takingblood-sugarloweringmedications,itisadvisablenottouseginseng,asittoolowersbloodsugar.

GrapeSeedExtract

Uses:Grapeseedextract isusedfortreatingheartandbloodvesselconditions,suchashighbloodpressure,highcholesterol,andlowcirculation.Itisalsousedfor those struggling with complications from diabetes, such as nerve and eyedamage.Grape seed extract is also used in treating vision problems, reducingswellingaftersurgery,andcancerprevention.Extractedfromgrapeseeds, it isreadilyavailableintabletsandcapsules.

Cautions:Commonsideeffectsofprolongedgrapeseedoiluseareheadaches,dry,itchyscalp,dizziness,andnausea.

GreenTea

Uses:Greenteaanditsextractshavebeenusedinpreventingandtreatingbreast,stomach,andskincancers,aswellasimprovingmentalalertness,aidingweightloss, lowering cholesterol, and preventing the sun from damaging the skin.Greenteaistypicallybrewedanddrunk.Extractscanbetakenincapsuleformandsometimesgreenteacanbefoundinskincareproducts.

Cautions:Whilegreenteaisgenerallysafeformostadults,therehavebeenafew reports of liver problems occurring in those who take green tea extracts.Thus,theseextractsshouldalwaysbetakenwithfoodandshouldnotbetakenatallbythosewithliverdisorders.Greenteaalsocontainscaffeineandcancauseinsomnia,anxiety,irritability,nausea,diarrhea,orfrequenturination.

Lavender

Uses: Lavender, in the past, has been used as an antiseptic and to help withmentalhealth issues.Nowit ismorecommonlytakenforanxiety,restlessness,insomnia, and depression, and can also be used to fight headaches, upsetstomach,andhairloss.

Lavenderhasasoothing,relaxingaroma.Itcanalsobeingestedintheformofteaorextracts,oreveninbakedgoods.

Most commonly used in aromatherapy, lavender essential oil can also bedilutedwithotheroilsandrubbedontheskin.Whendried,lavenderflowerscanbemadeintoteasorliquidextractsandingested.

Cautions:Lavender oil applied to the skinmay cause some irritation and ispoisonous if ingested.Lavender teamaycauseheadache, appetite change, andconstipation.Ifusedwithsedatives,itmayincreasedrowsiness.

LicoriceRoot

Uses: Traditionally, licorice root is used as a dietary supplement for thetreatmentof stomachulcers,bronchitis, and sore throat. It is alsoused tohelpcure infectionscausedbyviruses.When licorice root ispeeled, itcanbedriedandmadeintopowder.Itisavailableincapsules,tablets,andextracts.

Cautions:Iftakeninlargedoses,licoricerootcancausehighbloodpressure,water retention, and low potassium levels, leading to heart conditions. Takenwithdiuretics,itcouldcausethebody’spotassiumlevelstofalltodangerouslylowlevels.Ifyouhaveheartdiseaseorhighbloodpressure,youshouldpracticecaution when taking licorice root. Large doses of licorice root may causepretermlaborinpregnantwomen.

MilkThistle

Uses:Milkthistleisusedasaprotectivemeasureforliverproblemsandinthetreatmentoflivercirrhosis,chronichepatitis,andgallbladderdiseases.Itisalsousedtolowercholesterol,reduceinsulinresistanceinthosewithtype2diabetes,andreducethegrowthofcancerouscellsinthebreast,cervix,orprostate.Milkthistleseedsareusedtomakecapsules,extracts,andstrongteas.

Milkthistlegrowsinawiderangeofsoiltypesandwillthriveinsunnyorpartlyshadyareas.

Cautions: Occasionally, milk thistle may cause diarrhea, upset stomach, orbloating.Itmayalsocauseallergicreactions,especiallyinthosewithallergiestothedaisyfamily.

Mistletoe

Uses: For hundreds of years, mistletoe has been used to treat seizures andheadaches.InEurope,mistletoeisusedtotreatcancerandtoboosttheimmunesystem.Theshootsandberriesofmistletoeareusedinoralextracts.InEurope,theseextractsareprescriptiondrugs,availableonlybyinjection.

Cautions: Eating raw and unprocessed mistletoe may cause vomiting,seizures,aslowingoftheheartrate,andevendeath.Americanmistletoecannotbeusedformedicalpurposes.Injectedmistletoeextractcanirritatetheskinandproduce low-grade fevers or flu-like symptoms. There is also a slight risk forsevereallergicreactionsthatcouldcausebreathingdifficulty.

PeppermintOil

Uses: Usually, peppermint oil is used to treat nausea, indigestion, and coldsymptomsanditcanalsobeusedtoallayheadaches,muscleandnervepain,andirritablebowelsyndrome.Peppermintessentialoilcanbe takenorally insmalldoses.Itcanalsobedilutedwithotheroilsandappliedtotheskin.

Cautions: Common side effects include allergic reactions and heartburn,thoughpeppermintoilisrelativelysafeinsmalldoses.

RedClover

Uses:Red clover has been used for treating cancer,whooping cough, asthma,

andindigestion.Itisalsousedtoallaymenopausalsymptoms,breastpain,highcholesterol,osteoporosis,andenlargedprostate.Theredcloverflowerisusedinpreparingextractsintabletsandcapsulesaswellasteas.

Cautions:Noserioussideeffectshavebeenreported,thoughitisunclearifitis safe for use by pregnantwomen,womenwho are breastfeeding, orwomenwith breast or other hormonal cancer. The estrogen in red clover may alsoincreaseawoman’schanceofcontractingcancerintheuterus.

Soy

Uses:Soyproductsaretypicallyusedfortreatinghighcholesterol,menopausalsymptoms,osteoporosis,problemswithmemory,breastandprostatecancer,andhighbloodpressure.Availableindietarysupplements,soycanbefoundintabletor capsule form. Soybeans may be cooked and eaten, or made into tofu, soymilk,andotherfoods.

Cautions: Using soy supplements or eating soy products can create minorstomach and bowel problems, and in rare cases, allergic reactions causingbreathingdifficultiesandrashes.While there isnoconclusiveevidence linkingsoy with increased risk of breast cancer, women who have or are at risk ofgettingbreastcancershouldconsultadoctoraboutusingsoyproducts.

St.John’sWort

Uses:St.John’sworthasbeenusedforhundredsofyearstotreatmentalillnessandnervepain.Ithasalsobeenusedasasedative,inmalariatreatment,andasabalm for wounds, burns, and insect bites. It is commonly used to treatdepression,anxiety,andsleepdisorders.Theflowersareused, inextract form,forteaandcapsules.

Cautions: A possible side effect of using St. John’s wort is increased lightsensitivity. Other common side effects are anxiety, dry mouth, dizziness,gastrointestinalsymptoms,fatigue,headache,andsexualdysfunction.St.John’swortalso interactswithdrugsandmay interferewith theway thebodybreaksdownthosedrugs.Itmayaffectantidepressants,birthcontrolpills,cyclosporine,digoxin, indinavirandotherHIVdrugs, irinotecanandothercancerdrugs,andanticoagulants.

Ifyouaretakingantidepressants,becarefulifalsotakingSt.John’swort,asitmayincreasethelikelihoodofnausea,anxiety,headache,andconfusion.

Turmeric

Uses: Traditionally used in Chinese medicine, turmeric was supposed to aiddigestion and liver function and to relieve arthritis pain. It was also taken toregulate themenstrual cycle.Applied directly to the skin, itwas used to treateczema and wounds. Now, turmeric is used in the treatment of heartburn,stomach ulcers, and gallstones. Turmeric is also used to reduce inflammationandinthepreventionandtreatmentofcertaincancers.

MakeSt. John’swort flowers into teaanddrink toboost yourmoodandeasetension.

The underground stems of the turmeric plant are dried and taken orally incapsules,teas,orliquidextracts.Itcanalsobemadeintoapastetobeusedontheskin.

Cautions: Considered safe for most adults, long-term use of turmeric maycause indigestion. Those with gallbladder problems should avoid turmeric,however,asitmayworsenthecondition.

Valerian

Uses: Formany years, valerian has been used for sleep disorders and to treatanxiety.Valerianhasalsobeenusedtoalleviateheadaches,depression,irregularheartbeat,andtrembling.Therootsandundergroundstemsofthevalerianplantareusuallymade into supplements in capsule, tablet, or liquid extract form. It

canalsosometimesbemadeintoteas.

Cautions:Valerianistypicallysafetouseforshortperiodsoftime(nomorethan sixweeks) but there is no proof about its long-term effectiveness. Somecommon side effects of valerian use are headaches, dizziness, upset stomach,andgrogginessthemorningafteruse.

HomemadeHerbalTeasHerbal teas can be very tasty and deliver between 50 and 90 percent of themedicinal qualities of the herbs used. Teas you make yourself will be morepotent and flavorful than those you can buy at the store, and much lessexpensive.Tryexperimentingwithdifferentherbalcombinations,butbecarefulto avoid any plants you cannot confidently identify as edible, or any plantssprayedwith pesticides. If using dried herbs, you can store your teamixes insealedcontainersformonths.Besure to labeleachcontainerwith thenameof

thetea.

Use1 to 2 teaspoonsof driedherbs per cupof hotwater or 3 teaspoonsoffresh herbs per pint of water. Steep the herbs for about 10 minutes and thenstrain.Thefollowingplantscanallbesafelyusedinteas:

Flowers

Alliums, bee balm, carnations, echinacea (roots and flowers), hibiscus,hollyhocks, honeysuckle (avoid thepoisonousberries), lavender,marshmallow(usetheroots),nasturtiums,redclover,roses(flowersorhips),violets.

Herbs

Basil, chamomile flowers, chives, dill, eucalyptus, ginger root, lemon balm,lemongrass, linden leaves, marjoram, mint, oregano, parsley, peppermint,rosemary,sage,thyme,valerianroot,verbena.

BushesandTrees

Birch leaves, blackberry leaves, citrus blossoms, elderberry flowers, gardenia,pineneedles,raspberryleaves.

Weeds

Chickweed,chicory,dandelions,goldenrod,stingingnettle.

TeafortheCommonCold

Combine the following herbs in any proportion you like.Boil for 10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.

Marshmallowroot(easesbodyaches,reducesinflammation)Peppermint(reducescongestion,easesheadaches,soothesstomach)Echinacearootsandflowers(booststheimmunesystem)Thyme(reduceschestandnasalcongestion,increasescirculation)Cinnamon(reducesinflammationandfightsinfection)Rosehips, finely chopped (full of vitamin C, which boosts the immunesystemandenergizes)Gingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped(warmsfromtheinsideout)Lavender,crushed(easesmigraines)Lemonpeel,finelygrated(fullofvitaminC)

CalmingTea

Combine the following calming herbs, using about¼ asmuch valerian as theother herbs (valerian canbeverypotent).Boil for 10minutes, strain, and addhoneytotaste.

LemonbalmleavesChamomileflowersValerianroot,crushedGingerroot,peeledandfinelychopped

Herbalteasarealsodeliciousservedcoldinthesummermonths.

Redcloverblossomspromoteestrogenandnourishtheuterus.

FertilityTea

Drinkone cupof fertility tea a day to helpbalanceyour hormones and to getnutrients that can aid in becoming pregnant. Combine the herbs in equalproportion,boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneytotaste.

Red clover blossoms (nourishes the uterus, promotes estrogen, rich inmagnesiumandcalcium)Nettleleaves(richincalcium,potassium,phosphorous,iron,andsulfur)Red raspberry leaves (aids the fertilized egg in attaching to the uterinelining,richinminerals,helpstotonemusclesinthepelvicregion)Peppermint(aidsinabsorptionofredraspberryleafnutrients)

CleansingTea

Theherbsinthisteawill improveyourdigestion,helpyourbodyinitsnaturaldetoxification process, and give you more energy. Combine the herbs in anyproportion(goeasyonthecayenne),boilfor10minutes,strain,andaddhoneyifdesired.

PeppermintleavesDandelionrootWholeallspiceberriesGingerroot,peeledandfinelychoppedLicoriceroot,crushedCayennepepper

Driedpeppermintleaves.

NaturalCosmeticsHOMEMADELIPGLOSS

Youonlyneedafewingredientstomakeyourownlipgloss, thoughonceyouunderstand the basic recipe you can begin to experiment by adding differentessentialoils,aloes,andfoodproductstocreateyourown,uniquetypeofgloss.

Homemadelipglosscontainerscanbeanysmallglass jaror tin,oryoucanreuse an old lip gloss container (justmake sure all the old gloss is out of thecontainer). To sterilize the container,washwith soap and hotwater, dunk thecontainerinajarofrubbingalcohol,rinseclean,andthenallowthecontainertocompletelydrybeforepouringinyourmeltedgloss.Allowtheglossmixturetocool completely before using (you can speed up this process by placing thecontainerofglossintotherefrigeratorforafewhours).

HoneyLipGloss

Ingredients

1 tsp beeswax (you can find this at a craft store or at your local farmers’market)

½tsphoney

2tspalmondoil(optional)

VitaminEoilfromacapsule(optional)

Directions1. Meltthebeeswaxandhoneyinaheat-proofjarinthemicrowaveorusea

doubleboilermethod.2. Whenthewaxandhoneyarejustmelted,removefromtheheatsourceand

whiskinthealmondoilandvitaminEoil,ifyousodesire.ToremovethevitaminEoilfromthecapsule,simplypricktheendofthecapsulewithasafetypinandsqueezeitout.

3. Pourthemixtureintothecontainersandallowtocoolfullybeforeusing.

Note:Ifyouwanttoaddacitrusflavoringtothislipgloss,youcanaddafewdropsoflemonorlimeessentialoilduringthewhiskingstage.

TintedLipBalm

If you have leftover make-up (such as blush, lipstick, or shimmering eyeshadow),don’tletitgotowaste.Youcanuseitinthis“recycled”lipbalm.

Ingredients

Petroleumjelly

Blush,mineral eye shadowwith shimmer, lipstick (only use one or two of

theseforyourbalm)

Essentialoilforflavoring(optional)

Directions1. Mixtogetherthepetroleumjellyandeithertheblush(addalittleatatime

untilthedesiredcolorisattained),eyeshadow,orthelastremnantsofanylipstick.Addessentialoilandmixthoroughly.

2. Scoopthemixtureintocontainersandputintherefrigeratortoharden.

Part7:Well-Being

Note:Youcanalsoexperimentbymelting the jellywithsomebeeswaxandthenaddingintheleftovermakeup.Thepossibilitiesareendless.

HOMEMADEBATHPRODUCTS

LavenderBathSalt

Pourseveral tablespoonsof this intoyourbathas it fills foranextra-soothing,relaxing, andcleansing experience.Youcan also addpowderedmilkor finelygroundold-fashionedoatmeal tomakeyourskinespeciallysoft.Toss ina fewlavenderbudsifyouhavethem.

Ingredients

2cupscoarseseasalt½cupEpsomsalts½cupbakingsoda4to6dropslavenderessentialoil

Redandblue foodcoloring, ifdesired (usemore red thanblue toachievealavendercolor)

Mix all ingredients thoroughly and store in a glass jar or other airtight

container.

CitrusScrub

Usethisinvigoratingscrubtowakeupyoursensesinthemorning.ThevitaminCinorangesservesasanastringent,makingitespeciallygoodforoilyskin.

Ingredients

½orangeorgrapefruit3tbspcornmeal2tbspEpsomsaltsorcoarseseasalt

Squeezecitrusjuiceandpulpintoabowlandaddcornmealandsaltstoformapaste.Rubgentlyoverentirebodyandthenrinse.

HealingBathSoak

Thisbathsoakwillrelaxtiredmuscles,helptocalmnerves,andleaveskinsoftandfragrant.Youmayalsowishtoaddblackberry,raspberry,orviolet leaves.Driedorfreshherbscanbeused.

Ingredients

2tbspcomfreyleaves1tbsplavender1tbspeveningprimroseflowers1tsporangepeel,thinlyslicedorgrated2tbspoatmeal

Combineherbsandtieupinasmallmuslinorcheeseclothsack.Leaveunderfaucetasthetubfillswithhotwater.Ifdesired,emptyherbsintothebathwateroncethetubisfull.

RosemaryPeppermintFootScrub

Use this footscrub toremovecalluses,softenskin,and leaveyourfeet feelingandsmellingwonderful.

Ingredients

1cupcoarseseasalt

¼cupsweetalmondoroliveoil

2to3dropspeppermintessentialoil

1to2dropsrosemaryessentialoil

2sprigsfreshrosemary,crushed,or½tspdriedrosemary

Combineall ingredientsandmassage into feetandankles.Rinsewithwarmwaterandfollowwithamoisturizer.

MintyCucumberFacialMask

Ingredients

1tbsppowderedmilk1tspplainyogurt(wholemilkyogurtisbest)1tsphoney1tspfreshmintleaves½cucumber,peeled

Blendingredients thoroughly,usingafoodprocessororblender ifavailable.Applytoface,avoidingeyes.Leaveonfor10to15minutes,thenrinse.

Citrusscrub.

After-SunComfreyLotion

Comfrey root soothes skin and minimizes inflammation. Apply this lotion tosunburnedskinforimmediatereliefandfasterhealing.

Ingredients

3tbspfreshcomfreyroot

1cupwater

1tbspbeeswax,unrefined

¾cupsweetalmondoilorlightcookingoil

¼cupcocoabutter

4vitaminEcapsules

¼cupaloeveragel

1tspboraxpowder

12to16dropsessentialoil(peppermint,lavender,orsandalwoodareallgoodchoices)

Directions1. Place the comfrey root and water in a small pot and bring to a boil,

simmering for about 30 minutes. Strain, retaining the water. Discard theroot.

2. In a double boiler, combine beeswax, oil, and cocoa butter, stirring overlowheatuntilmelted.Removefromheat.PiercethevitaminEcapsulesandaddtheoilfrominside,stirringtocombine.

3. In a separate saucepan, combine the comfrey water, aloe vera gel, andborax powder, stirring over low heat until the borax is fully dissolved.Allowtocool.

4. Oncebothmixturesarecooledtoroomtemperature,pourthebeeswaxandoil mixture in a thin stream into the comfrey water mixture, whiskingvigorouslytocombine(oruseafoodprocessor).Addtheessentialoilsandcontinuemixinguntilthoroughlycombined.

5. Coverandstoreinacool,darkplace.

Shampoo

Cleaningyourhaircanbeassimpleasmakingabakingsodaandwaterpaste,scrubbingitintoyourhair,andrinsingwell.However,ifyouenjoythefeelofasudsy, soapy, scented shampoo, try this recipe.You can substitute homemadesoapflakesforthecastilesoap,ifdesired.

Ingredients

4ouncesliquidcastilesoap

HerbsforYourHair

Herbsfordryhair

Burdockroot,comfrey,elderflowers,lavender,marshmallow,parsley,sage,stingingnettle

Herbsforoilyhair

Calendula,horsetail,lemonjuice,lemonbalm,mints,rosemary,witchhazel,yarrow

Herbstocombatdandruff

Burdockroot,garlic,onion,parsley,rosemary,stingingnettle,thyme

Herbsforbodyandluster

Calendula,catnip,horsetail,licorice,limeflowers,nasturtium,parsley,rosemary,sage,stingingnettle,watercress

Herbsforshine

Horsetail,parsley,nettle,rosemary,sage,calendula

Herbsforhairgrowth

Aloe,arnica,birch,burdock,catmint,chamomile,horsetail,licorice,marigold,nettles,parsley,rosemary,sage,stingingnettle

Herbsforcoloring

Brown:henna(reddishbrown),walnuthulls,sageBlonde:calendula,chamomile,lemon,saffron,turmeric,rhubarbroot

3 tbsp fresh or dried herbs of your choice, boiled for 30minutes in 2 cupswaterandstrained

Pour the soap and herbal water into a jar, cover, and shake until well-combined.

HairConditioner

Thisconditionerwilladdsoftnessandvolumetoyourhair.Avocado,bananas,andeggyolksarealsogreathairconditioners.Applyconditioner,allowtositinhair a minimum of five minutes (longer for a deeper conditioning), and thenrinsewell.Youmaywishtoshampooasecondtimeafterusingthisconditioner.

Ingredients

1cupoliveoil1tsplemonjuice1tspcidervinegar2tsphoney6to10dropsessentialoils,ifdesired

Whiskallingredientstogetherorblendinafoodprocessor.Storeinanairtightcontainer.

FruitsandVegetablesforYourSkinThese fruits and vegetables can be applied directly to your face or blendedtogether tomake amask. Leave on skin for 20 to 30minutes and then rinsethoroughlywithcleanwater.

Beneficialfor OilySkin

Beneficial for Normal Skin Beneficial forDrySkin

Lemons,grapes,limes,strawberries,grapefruits,apples

Peaches,papayas,tomatoes,apricots,bananas,persimmons,bellpeppers,cucumbers,kiwi,pumpkins,watermelons

Carrots,iceberglettuce,honeydewmelons,avocados,cantaloupes

TropicalFaceCleanser

ThevitaminCinkiwihasenzymaticandcleansingproperties,andtheapricotoilservesasamoisturizer.Thegroundalmondsactasanexfolianttoremovedeadskincells.Yogurthascleansingandmoisturizingproperties.

1kiwi¾ cup avocado, banana, apricot, peach, strawberry, or papaya (orsomeofeach)2tbspplainyogurt(wholemilkisbest)1tbspapricotoil(almondoilalsoworkswell)1tbsphoney1tspfinelygroundalmondsPuréeallingredientstogether.Massageintofaceandneckandrinsethoroughlywithcoolwater.Storeexcessinrefrigeratorforonetotwodays.

Papayaisofenusedinfacecreamsforitsanti-agingandanti-acneproperties.

NaturalDisasters

Hurricanes occur more frequently in coastal areas, but they can happenanywhere.

It is impossible to predict exactlywhen a stormwill come yourway, or howsevereitwillbe.However,youcanbeprepared.Therearemanystepsyoucantaketohelpensureyoursafety,aswellasthatofyourfamily,pets,andproperty.

HurricanesIf you live in an area particularly prone to hurricanes, taking precautions isespeciallyimportant.However,hurricanescanformanywhere,sodon’tassumethat just because you’re not in the tropics, you’re not at risk. Thinking aheadwill,attheveryleast,giveyougreaterpeaceofmind.

WhattoDoBeforeaHurricane

If you live in a hurricane-prone area, you may want to take the followingprecautions:

Install permanent shutters to protect yourwindows.Or you can board upwindows with ⅝-inchmarine plywood. Have the plywood cut to fit andreadytoinstall.Install straps or additional clips to fasten your roof securely to the framestructure.Thiswillreduceroofdamage.

Besuretreesandshrubsaroundyourhomearewell-trimmed.Clearlooseandcloggedrainguttersanddownspouts.Determinehowandwheretosecureyourboat,ifyouhaveone.

Ifthere’stimebeforeastormhits,remembertomooryourboatsecurely.

Shutterswillhelptoprotectyourwindowsduringwindstorms.

Ifyouareawareofahurricaneapproaching,youshould:ListentotheradioorTVforinformation.Secureyourhome,closestormshutters,andsecureoutdoorobjectsorbringthemindoors.Turnoffutilitiesifinstructedtodoso.Ifyouleavetheelectricityon,turntherefrigeratorthermostattoitscoldestsettingandkeepitsdoorsclosedsothefoodwillstaycolderlongeriftheelectricitygoesout.Turn off propane tanks. Avoid using the phone, except for seriousemergencies.Mooryourboatiftimepermits.Draw fresh water in jugs or in your bathtub or sink for use in drinking,

bathing,andflushingtoiletsiftheelectricitygoesout.

WhattoDoDuringaHurricane

Youshouldevacuateif:You are directed by local authorities to do so. Be sure to follow theirinstructions.You live in a mobile home or temporary structure—such shelters areparticularlyhazardousduringhurricanesnomatterhowwell-fastenedtotheground.You live in a high-rise building—hurricane winds are stronger at higherelevations.You live on the coast, on a floodplain, near a river, or on an inlandwaterway.Youfeelyouareindanger.

Ifyouareunabletoevacuate,gotoabasementorundergroundshelter.Ifyoudonothaveone,followtheseguidelines:

Stayindoorsduringthehurricaneandawayfromwindowsandglassdoors.Closeallinteriordoors—secureandbraceexternaldoors.Keepcurtainsandblindsclosed.Donotbefooledifthereisalull;itcouldbetheeyeofthestorm—windswillpickupagain.Takerefugeinasmallinteriorroom,closet,orhallwayonthelowestlevel.Lieonthefloorunderatableoranothersturdyobject.

Watchtheskyforwarningsignsofaseriousstormapproaching.

Floods

FloodsareoneofthemostcommonhazardsintheUnitedStates.However,notall floods are alike. Some floods develop slowly, sometimes over a period ofdays. Flash floods can develop quickly, sometimes in just a fewminutes andwithout any visible signs of rain. Flash floods often have a dangerouswall ofroaringwaterthatcarriesrocks,mud,andotherdebrisandcansweepawaymostthings in its path.Overland flooding occurs outside a defined river or stream,suchaswhenaleveeisbreached,butstillcanbedestructive.Floodingcanalsooccurwhenadambreaks,producingeffectssimilartoflashfloods.

Beawareoffloodhazardsnomatterwhereyoulive,butespeciallyifyoulivein a lowlying area, near water, or downstream from a dam. Even very smallstreams, gullies, creeks, culverts, dry streambeds, or lowlying ground thatappearsharmlessindryweathercanflood.Everystateisatriskofthishazard.

WhattoDoBeforeaFlood

Toprepareforaflood,youshould:Avoidbuildinginaflood-proneareaunlessyouelevateandreinforceyourhome.Elevate the furnace, water heater, and electric panel if susceptible toflooding.Install“checkvalves”insewertrapstopreventfloodwaterfrombackingupintothedrainsofyourhome.Contact community officials to find out if they are planning to constructbarriers(levees,beams,orfloodwalls)tostopfloodwaterfromenteringthehomesinyourarea.

If your home is by a river, lake, or canal, you are at a higher risk forflooding.

Seal thewalls in your basementwithwaterproofing compounds to avoid

seepage.

Ifafloodislikelyinyourarea,youshould:Listentotheradioortelevisionforinformation.

Insomeareasparticularlypronetoflooding,▶homesarebuiltonstilts.

Beawarethatflashfloodingcanoccur.Ifthereisanypossibilityofaflashflood,moveimmediatelytohigherground.Donotwaitforinstructionstomove.Beawareofstreams,drainagechannels,canyons,andotherareasknowntofloodsuddenly.Flashfloodscanoccurintheseareaswithorwithoutsuchtypicalwarningsasraincloudsorheavyrain.

WhattoDoDuringaFlood

Ifyoumustpreparetoevacuate,youshoulddothefollowing:Secure your home. If you have time, bring in outdoor furniture. Moveessentialitemstoanupperfloor.Turn off utilities at the main switches or valves if instructed to do so.Disconnectelectricalappliances.Donot touchelectricalequipment ifyouarewetorstandinginwater.

Ifyouhavetoleaveyourhome,remembertheseevacuationtips:Donotwalkthroughmovingwater.Sixinchesofmovingwatercanmakeyoufall.Ifyouhavetowalkinwater,walkwherethe

TIP

The following are important points to remember when driving in floodconditions:

Six inches of water will reach the bottom of most passenger cars,causinglossofcontrolandpossiblestalling.Afootofwaterwillfloatmanyvehicles.Two feet of rushing water can carry away most vehicles, includingsportutilityvehiclesandpickuptrucks.

waterisnotmoving.Useasticktocheckthefirmnessofthegroundinfrontofyou.Donotdriveintofloodedareas.Iffloodwatersrisearoundyourcar,abandon

thecarandmovetohighergroundifyoucandososafely.Youandthevehiclecanbequicklysweptaway.

WhattoDoAfteraFlood

Afteraflood,youshould:Listen fornews reports to learnwhether thecommunity’swater supply issafetodrink.Avoid floodwaters; water may be contaminated by oil, gasoline, or rawsewage. Water may also be electrically charged from underground ordownedpowerlines.Avoidmovingwater.Be aware of areas where floodwaters have receded. Roads may haveweakenedandcouldcollapseundertheweightofacar.Stay away from downed power lines, and report them to the powercompany.Returnhomeonlywhenauthoritiesindicateitissafe.Stayoutofanybuildingifitissurroundedbyfloodwaters.Useextremecautionwhenenteringbuildings;theremaybehiddendamage,particularlyinfoundations.Servicedamagedseptictanks,cesspools,pits,andleachingsystemsassoonaspossible.Damagedsewagesystemsareserioushealthhazards.Cleananddisinfecteverythingthatgotwet.Mudleftfromfloodwatercan

containsewageandchemicals.

TIP

Familiarizeyourselfwiththesetermstohelpidentifyafloodhazard:Flood Watch: Flooding is possible. Tune in to NOAA WeatherRadio,commercialradio,ortelevisionforinformation.

Flash Flood Watch: Flash flooding is possible. Be prepared tomovetohigherground;listentoNOAAWeatherRadio,commercialradio,ortelevisionforinformation.

Flood Warning: Flooding is occurring or will occur soon; ifadvisedtoevacuate,dosoimmediately.

Flash Flood Warning: A flash flood is occurring; seek highergroundonfootimmediately.

WildfiresThethreatofwildfiresforpeoplelivingnearwildlandareasorusingrecreationalfacilitiesinwildernessareasisreal.Dryconditionsatvarioustimesoftheyearand in various parts of the United States greatly increase the potential forwildfires.

Drygrassorothervegetationwill▶encouragefiretospreadquickly.

Advance planning and knowing how to protect buildings can lessen thedevastationofawildfire.Thereareseveralsafetyprecautionsthatyoucantaketo reduce the risk of fire losses. Protecting your home fromwildfires is your

responsibility.Toreduce the risk,you’llneed toconsider the fire resistanceofyour home, the topography of your property, and the nature of the vegetationcloseby.

Stuccohomesarelessvulnerabletofirethanhomesmadeofwood.

If you are consideringmoving to a home or buying land in an area prone towildfires, consider having a professional inspect the property and offerrecommendations for reducing the wildfire risk. Determine the community’sability to respond to wildfires. Are roads leading to your property clearlymarked? Are the roads wide enough to allow firefighting equipment to getthrough?

LearnandTeachSafeFirePractices

Buildfiresawayfromnearbytreesorbushes.Always have a way to extinguish the fire quickly andcompletely.Install smokedetectorson every levelofyourhomeandnearsleepingareas.Neverleaveafire—evenacigarette—burningunattended.Avoidopenburningcompletely,especiallyduringdryseason.

WhattoDoBeforeaWildfire

Toprepareyourhomeforawildfireyoushould:Create a 30-foot safety zone around the house. Keep the volume ofvegetationinthiszonetoaminimum.Ifyouliveonahill,extendthezoneonthedownhillside.Firespreadsrapidlyuphill.Thesteepertheslope,themoreopenspaceyouwillneedtoprotectyourhome.Swimmingpoolsandpatios can be a safety zone and stonewalls can act as heat shields anddeflectflames.Remove vines from the walls of the house and move shrubs and otherlandscaping away from the sides of the house. You should also prunebranchesandshrubswithin15feetofchimneysandstovepipes,removetreelimbswithin15 feetof theground,and thina15-foot spacebetween tree

crowns.Replace highly flammable vegetation such as pine, eucalyptus, junipers,andfirtreeswithlowergrowing,less-flammablespecieswithinthe30-footsafety zone. Check with your local fire department or garden store forsuggestions.Alsoreplacevegetationthathaslivingordeadbranchesfromthegroundlevelup(theseactasladderfuelsfortheapproachingfire).Cutthe lawnoften,keeping thegrassatamaximumof2 inches.Watchgrassand other vegetation near the driveway, a source of ignition fromautomobile exhaust systems. Finally, clear the area of leaves, brush,evergreencones,deadlimbs,andfallentrees.Createasecondzoneatleast100feetaroundthehouse.Thiszoneshouldbeginabout30feetfromthehouseandextendtoat least100feet.In thiszone, reduce or replace as much of the most flammable vegetation aspossible.Ifyouliveonahill,youmayneedtoextendthezoneforseveralhundredfeettoprovidetheappropriatelevelofsafety.Removedebrisfromundersundecksandporches.Anyporch,balcony,oroverhang with exposed space underneath is fuel for an approaching fire.Overhangsigniteeasilybyflyingembersandbytheheatandfirethatgettrapped underneath. If vegetation is allowed to growunderneath or if thespaceisusedforstorage,thehazardisincreasedsignificantly.Clearleaves,trash,andothercombustiblematerialsawayfromunderneathsundecksandporches. Extenda½-inch mesh screen from all overhangs down to theground. Enclose wooden stilts with non-combustible material such asconcrete,brick,rock,stucco,ormetal.Usenon-combustiblepatiofurnitureandcovers.Ifyou’replanningaporchorsundeck,usenon-combustibleorfire-resistantmaterials.Ifpossible,buildthestructureclosetothegroundsothatthereisnospaceunderneath.Enclose eaves and overhangs. Like porches and balconies, eaves trap theheatrisingalongtheexteriorsiding.Enclosealleavestoreducethehazard.Cover house ventswithwiremesh.Any attic vent, soffit vent, louver, orother opening can allow embers and flaming debris to enter a home andigniteit.Coverallopeningswith¼inchorsmallercorrosion-resistantwiremesh.Ifyou’redesigninglouvers,placethem

Donotattempttogobackinsideahousethatisalreadyburning.

intheverticalwallratherthanthesoffitoftheoverhang.Installsparkarrestors inchimneysandstovepipes.Chimneyscreateahazard

whenembersescapethroughthetop.Toprevent this, installsparkarrestorsonallchimneys,stovepipes,andventsforfuel-burningheaters.Usesparkarrestorsmade of 12-gauge welded or woven wire mesh screen with openings ½ inchacross.Ask your fire department for exact specifications. If you’re building achimney,usenon-combustiblematerialsandmakesurethetopofthechimneyisat least2feethigher thananyobstructionwithin10feetof thechimney.Keepthechimneyclean.Use fire-resistant siding such as stucco, metal, brick, cement shingles,

concrete,orrock.YoucantreatwoodsidingwithULAPPROVEDfireretardantchemicals,butthetreatmentandprotectionarenotpermanent.Choose safety glass for windows and sliding glass doors. Windows allow

radiatedheattopassthroughandignitecombustiblematerialsinside.Thelargerthepaneofglass, themorevulnerable it is to fire.Dual-or triple-pane thermalglassandfire-resistantshuttersordrapeshelpreducethewildfirerisk.Youcanalsoinstallnon-combustibleawningstoshieldwindowsanduseshatterresistantglazingsuchastemperedorwireglass.Prepare forwater storage; develop an externalwater supply such as a small

pond,well,orpool.Alwaysbe ready for an emergency evacuation.Evacuationmaybe the only

way toprotectyour family inawildfire.Knowwhere togoandwhat tobringwithyou.Youshouldplanseveralescaperoutesincaseroadsareblockedbyawildfire.

HandlingCombustibles

Installelectricallinesunderground,ifpossible.Askthepowercompanytoclearbranchesfrompowerlines.

Avoidusingbarkandwoodchipmulch.Stackfirewood100feetawayanduphillfromanystructure.Store combustible or flammable materials in approved safetycontainersandkeepthemawayfromthehouse.Keep thegasgrill andpropane tank at least 15 feet fromanystructure.Clear anarea15 feet around thegrill.Placea¼-inchmeshscreenoverthegrill.Alwaysusethegrillcautiouslyandrefrainfromusingitatallduringhighrisktimes.

SafetyMeasuresforNewConstructionorRemodelingChoose locations wisely; canyon and slope locations increase the risk ofexposuretowildfires.Use fire-resistant materials when building, renovating, or retrofittingstructures.Avoiddesignsthatincludewoodendecksandpatios.Usenon-combustiblematerialsfortheroof.Theroofisespeciallyvulnerableinawildfire.Embersandflamingdebriscan travel great distances, land on your roof, and start a new fire.Avoidflammable roofingmaterials such aswood, shake, and shingle.Materialsthat are more fire-resistant include single-ply membranes, fiberglassshingles, slate,metal, clay, and concrete tile. Clear gutters of leaves anddebris.

WhattoDoifaWildfireisApproachingEvacuate your pets and all family members who are not essential topreparing the home.Anyonewithmedical or physical limitations and theyoungandtheelderlyshouldbeevacuatedimmediately.Wearprotectiveclothing.Remove combustibles.Clear items thatwill burn from around the house,includingwoodpiles,lawnfurniture,barbecuegrills,tarpcoverings,andsoon.Movethemoutsideofyourdefensiblespace.Closeoutsideattic,eave,andbasementvents,andwindows,doors,andpetdoors.Removeflammabledrapesandcurtains.Closeallshutters,blinds,orheavynon-combustiblewindowcoveringstoreduceradiantheat.Close inside doors and open damper. Close all doors inside the house to

prevent draft.Open the damper on your fireplace, but close the fireplacescreen.Shutoffanynaturalgas,propane,orfueloilsuppliesatthesource.Connect garden hoses and fill any pools, hot tubs, garbage cans, tubs, orotherlargecontainerswithwater.Ifyouhavegas-poweredpumps forwater,makesure theyare fueledandready.Placealadderagainstthehouseinclearview.Backyourcarintothedrivewayandrollupthewindows.Disconnect any automatic garage door openers so that doors can still beopenedbyhandifthepowergoesout.Closeallgaragedoors.Place valuable papers, mementos, and anything you “can’t live without”insidethecar,readyforquickdeparture.Anypetsstillwithyoushouldalsobeputinthecar.Justbeforeevacuating,turnonoutsidelightsandleavealightonineveryroomtomakethehousemorevisibleinheavysmoke.Leave doors and windows closed but unlocked. It may be necessary forfirefighters to gain quick entry into your home. The entire area will beisolatedandpatrolledbypolice.

WhattoDoAfteraWildfireCheck the roof immediately. Put out any roof fires, sparks, or embers.Checktheatticforhiddenburningsparks.Ifyouhaveafire,getyourneighborstohelpfightit.

IfCaughtintheOpen

The best temporary shelter is in a sparse fuel area. On asteepmountainside,thebacksideissafer.Avoidcanyons,natural“chimneys,”andsaddles.Ifaroadisnearby, liefacedownalongtheroadcutor intheditchon theuphill side.Coveryourselfwith anythingthatwillshieldyoufromthefire’sheat.Ifhikinginthebackcountry,seekadepressionwithsparsefuel. Clear fuel away from the area while the fire is

approachingand then lie facedown in thedepressionandcoveryourself.Staydownuntilafterthefirepasses!

Thewateryouputintoyourpoolorhottubandothercontainerswillcomein handynow. If the power is out, try connecting a hose to the outlet onyourwaterheater.For several hours after the fire, maintain a “fire watch.” Re-check forsmokeandsparksthroughoutthehouse.

SurvivalinaVehicle

This is dangerous and should only be done in an emergency,butyoucansurvive thefirestormifyoustay inyourcar. It ismuchlessdangerousthantryingtorunfromafireonfoot.Roll up windows and close air vents. Drive slowly withheadlightson.Watchforothervehiclesandpedestrians.Donotdrivethroughheavysmoke.If you have to stop, park away from the heaviest trees andbrush. Turn headlights on and ignition off. Roll up windowsandcloseairvents.Getonthefloorandcoverupwithablanketorcoat.Stayinthevehicleuntilthemainfirepasses.Stay in the car. Do not run! The engine may stall and notrestart.Aircurrentsmayrockthecar.Somesmokeandsparksmayenterthevehicle.Temperatureinsidewillincrease.Metalgastanksandcontainersrarelyexplode.

EarthquakesOne of themost frightening and destructive phenomena of nature is a severeearthquake and its terrible aftereffects. Earthquakes strike suddenly, violently,andwithoutwarningatanytimeofthedayornight.Ifanearthquakeoccursinapopulated area, itmay causemany deaths and injuries and extensive property

damage.

Althoughtherearenoguaranteesofsafetyduringanearthquake, identifyingpotential hazards ahead of time and planning appropriately can save lives andsignificantlyreduceinjuriesandpropertydamage.

WhattoDoBeforeanEarthquakeCheckforhazardsinthehome.Fastenshelvessecurelytowalls,placelargeorheavy

Itisbesttostorechinaandotherbreakablesinclosed,latchedcabinets.

Evenarelativelyminorearthquakecanleaveahomeinshambles.

objectsonlowershelves,andstorebreakableitemssuchasbottledfoods,glass,and china in low, closed cabinets with latches. Hang heavy items such aspicturesandmirrorsawayfrombeds,couches,andanywherepeoplesit.Brace

overhead light fixtures. Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gasconnections and secure a water heater by strapping it to the wall studs andboltingittothefloor.Repairanydeepcracksinceilingsorfoundations,gettingexpert advice if there are signs of structural defects. Store weed killers,pesticides,andflammableproductssecurelyinclosedcabinetswithlatchesandonbottomshelves.Identify safe places indoors and outdoors. Safe places include under sturdy

furnituresuchasaheavydeskortable;againstaninsidewall;awayfromwhereglasscouldshatteraroundwindows,mirrors,pictures,orwhereheavybookcasesor other heavy furniture could fall over; or in the open, away from buildings,trees,telephoneandelectricallines,overpasses,orelevatedexpressways.Educate yourself and family members. Contact your local emergency

management office or American Red Cross chapter for more information onearthquakes.Teachchildrenhowandwhentocall911,police,orfiredepartmentandwhichradiostationtotunetoforemergencyinformation.Teachallfamilymembershowandwhentoturnoffgas,electricity,andwater.Have disaster supplies on hand, including a flashlight and extra batteries,

portable battery-operated radio and extra batteries, first aid kit and manual,emergency food and water, non-electric can opener, essential medicines, andsturdyshoes.Develop an emergency communication plan. In case family members are

separated fromoneanotherduringanearthquake,developaplan for reunitingafter thedisaster.Askanout-of-state relativeor friend to serveas the “familycontact.” After a disaster, it’s often easier to call long distance. Make sureeveryone in the family knows the name, address, and phone number of thecontactperson.

WhattoDoDuringanEarthquake

Beawarethatsomeearthquakesareactuallyforeshocksandalargerearthquakemightoccur.Minimizeyourmovementstoafewstepstoanearbysafeplaceandstayindoorsuntiltheshakinghasstoppedandyouaresureexitingissafe.

Ifindoors:Droptotheground,takecoverbygettingunderasturdytableorotherpieceof furniture, and hold on until the shaking stops. If there isn’t a table ordesknearyou,coveryourfaceandheadwithyourarmsandcrouchinaninsidecornerofthebuilding.Stayawayfromglass,windows,outsidedoorsandwalls,andanythingthat

couldfall,suchaslightingfixturesorfurniture.Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on andprotectyourheadwithapillow,unlessyouareunderaheavylightfixturethatcouldfall.Inthatcase,movetothenearestsafeplace.Useadoorwayforshelteronlyifitisincloseproximitytoyouandifyouknowitisastronglysupported,load-bearingdoorway.Stay inside until shaking stops and it is safe to go outside. Research hasshown that most injuries occur when people inside buildings attempt tomovetoadifferentlocationinsidethebuildingortrytoleave.Be aware that the electricitymay go out or the sprinkler systems or firealarmsmayturnon.

Ifoutdoors:Stayoutside.Moveawayfrombuildings,streetlights,andutilitywires.Once in the open, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest dangerexists directly outside buildings, at exits, and alongside exterior walls.Manyofthe120fatalitiesfromthe1933LongBeachearthquakeoccurredwhen people ran outside of buildings only to be killed by falling debrisfromcollapsingwalls.Groundmovementduringan earthquake is seldomthedirectcauseofdeathorinjury.Mostearthquake-relatedcasualtiesresultfromcollapsingwalls,flyingglass,andfallingobjects.

Ifinamovingvehicle:Stop as quickly as safetypermits and stay in thevehicle.Avoid stoppingnearorunderbuildings,trees,overpasses,andutilitywires.Proceedcautiouslyoncetheearthquakehasstopped.Avoidroads,bridges,orrampsthatmighthavebeendamagedbytheearthquake.

Iftrappedunderdebris:Donotlightamatch.Donotmoveaboutorkickupdust.Coveryourmouthwithahandkerchieforclothing.Tapon apipeorwall so rescuers can locateyou.Use awhistle if one isavailable. Shout only as a last resort. Shouting can cause you to inhaledangerousamountsofdust.

WhattoDoAfteranEarthquake

Expect aftershocks. These secondary shockwaves are usually less violentthanthemainquakebutcanbestrongenoughtodoadditionaldamagetoweakenedstructuresandcanoccurinthefirsthours,days,weeks,orevenmonthsafterthequake.

Inspectyourutilitiesafteranearthquake tobesure thereareno leaksorotherdamage.

Listen to a battery-operated radio or television. Listen for the latestemergencyinformation.Opencabinetscautiously.Bewareofobjectsthatcanfalloffshelves.Stayawayfromdamagedareasunlessyourassistancehasbeenspecificallyrequested by police, fire, or relief organizations.Return home onlywhenauthoritiessayitissafe.Beawareofpossible tsunamis ifyou live incoastalareas.Thesearealsoknownasseismicseawaves(mistakenlycalled“tidalwaves”).Whenlocalauthorities issue a tsunami warning, assume that a series of dangerouswavesisontheway.Stayawayfromthebeach.Help injured or trapped persons. Remember to help your neighbors whomayrequirespecialassistance,suchasinfants,theelderly,andpeoplewithdisabilities.Givefirstaidwhereappropriate.Donotmoveseriouslyinjuredpersonsunlesstheyareinimmediatedangeroffurtherinjury.Callforhelp.Cleanupspilledmedicines,bleaches,gasoline,orotherflammableliquidsimmediately. Leave the area if you smell gas or fumes from otherchemicals.Inspecttheentirelengthofchimneysfordamage.Unnoticeddamagecouldleadtoafire.Inspectutilities.Checkforgasleaks.Ifyousmellgasorhearablowingorhissingnoise,openawindowandquicklyleavethebuilding.Turnoffthegasat theoutsidemainvalve ifyoucanandcall thegascompanyfromaneighbor’shome.Ifyouturnoff thegasforanyreason, itmustbe turned

back on by a professional. Second, look for electrical system damage. Ifyouseesparksorbrokenorfrayedwires,orifyousmellhotinsulation,turnofftheelectricityatthemainfuseboxorcircuitbreaker.Ifyouhavetostepinwatertogettothefuseboxorcircuitbreaker,callanelectricianfirstforadvice. Finally, check for sewage andwater line damage. If you suspectsewage lines are damaged, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. Ifwaterpipesaredamaged,contactthewatercompanyandavoidusingwaterfromthetap.Youcanobtainsafewaterbymeltingicecubes.

Anexcavatorcleansupdebrisafteranearthquake.

FirstAid

It’simpossibletopredictwhenanaccidentwilloccur,butthemoreyoueducateyourself aheadof time, thebetteryou’llbeable tohelp should theneedarise.The first step in an emergency situation should alwaysbe to call forhelp,butthere aremany things you can do to help the victimwhile you’rewaiting forassistancetoarrive.Themostimportantproceduresaredescribedinthissection.

Keepabuoynearbywheneverspendingtimeinornearthewater.

Drowning1. Assoonasthepatientisinasafeplace,loosentheclothing,ifany.2. Empty the lungsofwaterby laying thebodybreastdownand lifting itby

themiddle,withtheheadhangingdown.Holdforafewsecondsuntil thewaterdrainsout.

3. Turnthepatientonhisbreast,facedownward.4. Give artificial respiration: Press the lower ribs down and forward toward

thehead,thenrelease.Repeatabouttwelvetimestotheminute.5. Applywarmthandfrictiontoextremities,rubbingtowardtheheart.

6. Don’t give up! Persons have been saved after hours of steady effort, andafterbeingunderwaterformorethantwentyminutes.

7. When natural breathing is reestablished, put the patient into awarmbed,withhot-waterbottles,warmdrinks,freshair,andquiet.

Sunstroke1. Movethepatienttoacoolplace,orsetupastructurearoundthepatientto

produceshade.2. Loosenorremoveanyclothingaroundtheneckandupperbody.3. Applycoldwateroricetotheheadandbody,orwrapthepatientincold,

dampcloths.4. Encouragethepatienttodrinklotsofwater.

BurnsandScalds1. Cover the burnwith a thin paste of baking soda, starch, flour, petroleum

jelly,oliveoil,linseedoil,castoroil,cream,orcoldcream.2. Covertheburnfirstwiththepaste,thenwithasoftragsoakedinthepaste.3. Shockalwaysaccompaniessevereburns,andmustbetreated.

ShockorNervousCollapseApersonsufferingfromshockhasapaleface,coldskin,feeblebreathing,andarapid,feeblepulse,andwillappearlistless.1. Placethepatientonhisbackwithheadlow.2. Givestimulants,suchashotteaorcoffee.3. Coverthepatientwithblankets.4. Rubthelimbsandplacehot-waterbottlesaroundthebody.

Asimplehandbandagecanbemadefromanysquareclothorhandkerchief.

CutsandWounds

1. Aftermakingsurethatnodirtorforeignsubstanceisinthewound,applyatightbandagetostopthebleeding.

2. Raisethewoundabovethehearttoslowthebleeding.3. Ifthebloodcomesoutinspurts,itmeansanarteryhasbeencut.Forthis,

apply a tourniquet:Make a big knot in a handkerchief, tie it around thelimb, with the knot just above the wound, and twist it until the flow isstopped.

FaintingFaintingiscausedbyalackofbloodsupplytothebrainandiscuredbygettingthehearttocorrectthelack.1. Havethepersonliedownwiththeheadlowerthanthebody.2. Loosentheclothing.Givefreshair.Rubthelimbs.Usesmellingsalts.3. Donotletthepersongetupuntilfullyrecovered.

HowtoMakeaTourniquet

The tourniquet is an appliance used to check severe bleeding. Itconsistsofabandagetwistedmoreorlesslightlyaroundtheaffectedpart.Thebandage—acloth,strap,belt,necktie,neckerchiefortowel—shouldbelongenoughtogoaroundthearmorlegaffected.Itcanthenbetwistedbyinsertingthehand,andthebloodstopped.

Ifastickisused,thereisdangeroftwistingtootightly.

The tourniquet should not be used if bleeding can be stoppedwithoutit.Whenuseditshouldbecarefullyloosenedevery15to20minutestoavoidpermanentdamagetotissues.

HemorrhageorInternalBleedingInternalbleedingusuallycomesfromthelungsorstomach.Iffromthelungs,thebloodisbrightredandfrothy,andiscoughedup;iffromthestomach,itisdark,andisvomited.1. Helpthepatienttoliedown,withheadlowerthanbody.

2. Encourage thepatient to swallowsmallpiecesof ice, andapply icebags,snow,orcoldwatertotheplacewherethebleedingiscomingfrom.

3. Hot applications may be applied to the hands, arms, feet, and legs, butavoidstimulants,unlessthepatientisveryweak.

SnakeBite1. Put a tight cord or bandage around the limb between thewound and the

heart.Thisshouldbelooseenoughtoslipafingerunderit.2. Keepthewoundlowerthantheheart.Trytokeepthepatientcalm,asthe

fastertheheartbeats,thefasterthevenomwillspread.3. Ifyoucannotgettoadoctorquickly,suckthewoundmanytimeswithyour

mouthoruseapoisonsuctionkit,ifavailable.

InsectStings1. Washwithoil,weakammonia,orverysaltywater,orpaintwithiodine.2. Apasteofbakingsodaandwateralsosoothesstings.

Poison1. First,get thevictimaway from thepoison. If thepoison is in solid form,

such as pills, remove it from the victim’s mouth using a clean clothwrapped around your finger. Don’t try this with infants because it couldforcethepoisonfurtherdowntheirthroat.

2. Ifthepoisoniscorrosivetotheskin,removetheclothingfromtheaffectedareaandflushwithwaterfor30minutes.

3. If the poison is in contact with the eyes, flush the victim’s eyes for aminimumof15minuteswithcleanwater.

HowtoPutOutBurningClothing1. Ifyourclothingshouldcatchfire,donot runforhelp,as thiswill fan the

flames.2. Liedownandrollupastightlyaspossibleinanovercoat,blanket,rug,or

any woolen article—or lie down and roll over slowly, at the same timebeating the firewithyourhands.Smother the firewithacoat,blanket,orrug.Rememberthatwoolenmaterialismuchlessflammablethancotton.

IceRescue1. Alwayshavearopenearbyifyou’reworkingorplayingonice.Thisway,if

someonefallsthrough,youcantieoneendtoyourselfandonetoatreeorothersecureanchoronshorebeforeyouattempttorescuetheperson.

2. Youcouldalsothrowoneendtothevictimifhisheadisabovewater.

Forelbow,arm,orwrist▶ injuries,a simple slingcanbemadeoutofapieceofclothorclothing.

3. Donotattempttowalkouttovictim.Pushouttohimorcrawloutonalongboardorrailortreetrunk.

4. Thepersoninthewatershouldnevertrytocrawluponthebrokenice,butshouldtrymerelytosupporthimselfandwaitforhelp,ifitisathand.

BrokenBoneAsimplefractureisoneinwhichtheboneisbrokenbutdoesnotbreaktheskin.Inacompoundfracture,theboneisbrokenandtheskinandtissuearepuncturedor torn. A simple fracture may be converted into a compound fracture bycarelesshandling,asabrokenboneusuallyhassharp,saw-toothedges,andjustalittletwistmaypushitthroughtheskin.1. Donotmovethepatientwithoutsupportingbrokenmemberbysplints.

Acompoundfracture▶isonethatbreaksthroughtheflesh.

2. In a compound fracture, bleeding must be checked—by bandage overcompress,ifpossible,orbytourniquetinextremecases.Thensplintsmaybeapplied.

3. Where skin is broken, infection is the great danger, so exercise care that

compressordressingissterileandclean.

DislocationAdislocationisaninjurywheretheheadofabonehasslippedoutofitssocketatajoint.1. Donotattempttoreplacethejoint.Eventhumbandfingerdislocationsare

moreseriousthanusuallyrealized.2. Coverthejointwithclothswrungoutinveryhotorverycoldwater.Forthe

shoulder—applypaddingandmakeaslingforthearm.3. Seekmedicalassistance.

Therearemanywaystocarrysomeonewithaninjury.Ifneckorspineinjuryissuspected,donotattempttomovethevictimifyoucangethelptocometothevictim instead. If the victim must be moved, the head and neck must first becarefullystabilized.

FirstAidChecklistToadministereffectivefirstaid,itisimportanttomaintainadequatesuppliesineachfirstaidkit.Afirstaidkitshouldinclude:

Adhesivebandages:Theseareavailableinalargerangeofsizesforminor

cuts,abrasions,andpuncturewounds.Butterflyclosures:Theseholdwoundedgesfirmlytogether.Rolledgauze:Theseallowfreedomofmovementandarerecommendedforsecuringawounddressingand/orpads.Theseareespeciallygoodforhard-to-bandagewounds.Nonstick sterile pads:These are soft, super-absorbent pads that provide agoodenvironmentforwoundhealing.Thesearerecommendedforbleedinganddrainingwounds,burns,orinfections.Firstaidtapes:Varioustypesoftapesshouldbeincludedineachkit.Theseincludeadhesive,whichiswaterproofandextrastrongfortimeswhenrigidstrappingisneeded;clear,whichstretcheswiththebody’smovementandisgoodforvisiblewounds;cloth,

Nature’sFirstAid

Antisepticorwound-wash:Ahandfulofsaltinaquartofhotwater.

Balm for wounds: Balsam fir. The gum can be used as healing salve,usuallyspreadonapieceoflinenandlaidoverthewoundforadressing.

Coughremedy:Slipperyelmorblackcherryinnerbarkboiled,apoundtothegallon,boileddowntoapint,andgivenateaspoonfuleveryhour.

Linseedcanbeused thesameway;addhoneyifdesired.Orboildownthe sapof the sweet birch tree anddrink it on its ownormixedwith theotherremedies.

Diuretic:Adecoctionoftheinnerbarkofelderisapowerfuldiuretic.

Inflammation of the eyes or skin:Washwith a strong teamade of thebarkofwitchhazel.

Lungbalm:Infusionofblackcherrybarkandrootisapowerfultonicforlungsandbowels.Goodalsoasaskinwashforsores.

Poisonivy:Washeveryhourortwowithhotsoapywater,thenwithhotsaltwater.

Witchhazelbarkcanbebrewedandusedtosootheirritatedskinoreyes.

recommendedformost firstaid tapingneeds, including tapingheavydressings(less irritating than adhesive); and paper,which is recommended for sensitiveskinandisusedforlightandfrequentlychangeddressings.Items that can also be included in each kit are tweezers, first aid cream,

thermometer,ananalgesicorequivalent,andanicepack.

ManagingandReducingStress

Stress is the body’s natural response to what it perceives as a threateningcondition,andinandofitselfitisnotabadthing.Stresscantriggerthereleaseof adrenaline in your system to help you get through difficult or dangeroussituations, and studieshave shown that brief stressful experiences can actuallyboost your immune system. However, prolonged periods of stress can take aserioustollonyourmentalandphysicalhealth.

Stresscancauseourbodiestoreactinanumberofphysicalways,includingtighteningofmusclesandrapidbreathing—resultinginrapidbloodflow,whichspreadstheincreasedoxygenthroughoutthebody—andnauseamaysetin,andthinkingprocessesbecomechaotic.Oncethestressisalleviated,ourbodythenslips into aweakened state as it recovers from the adrenaline surge.Althoughlifewould be dullwithout some stress, finding yourself in a constant state ofstresscan impair the immunesystem,making it lessable to resistviruses,andcanleadtoaconstantsenseofexhaustionandlossofenergy.

SymptomsofStressStresscanmanifest itself inavarietyofwaysandcanbeeasilyconfusedwithsymptoms of other problems. If it is not managed properly, stressmay causeproblemsthatcanreduceouroverallabilitytofunctioneffectively.

Spendingevena fewminutesoutdoors innatural light canhelp relieve stress,boostyourmood,andincreaseproductivity.

Commonsymptomsofstressalsoinclude:Constipation,diarrhea,orproblemswithurinationDifficultyconcentratingFatigueFeelingsofinadequacyFeelingsofirritabilityorhostilityFeelingsofnervousnessoranxietyFrequentheadachesIncreaseduseofalcoholordrugsWithdrawalfromfamilyandfriendsIncreasedappetite

MythsAboutStressThere aremanymyths about stress, including how stress affects us andwhatcausesit.Listedbelowarethemostcommon.

•Myth:Stressisthesameforeveryone.

Truth:Stress isdifferent for eachofus andwhat is stressful foronepersonmayormaynotbeforanother.There’snowaytosaythatonethingthatcausesstressis“bad”or“stressful,”becauseeveryoneisdifferent.

•Myth:Stressisalwaysbadforyou.

Truth:Stresscanoverwhelmyouor it canaddzest to life.Thedeterminingfactor is howwell youmanage your stress. If effectivelymanaged, stress canresultinincreasedproductivityandhappiness,whilepoorlymanagedstresscan

havetheoppositeeffect.

•Myth:Stressiseverywhereandisunavoidable.

Truth: Stress is everywhere, but this is a negative outlook. You can takecontrolofyourlifeandplansothatstressdoesnotoverwhelmyou.Learningtodelegateandprioritizecanhelpyoumanagestress.Asawisepersononcesaid,“Managing stress is like weeding your garden; you can never get rid of [theweeds]completely,butyoucankeepthemundercontrol.”

StrategiesforStressManagementStressmanagement is thewaywe respondand react to theeverydaypressuresanddemandsoflife.Developingeffectivestressmanagementskillsiscrucialforcontrollingstress.

Balancework and recreation. Take time out for yourself and do somethingyouenjoy,lettingyourselfrelaxandrecharge.Considerschedulingabreakintoyourbusyday,takingfiveor10minutestostopworkinganddosomethingyouenjoy.Workonacrosswordpuzzle,takeaquickwalk,stepoutsideforabreathoffreshair,sing,callafriendtoschedulealunchdate,orsimplystareoutthewindow.Ifyou’reathomeandstart tofeelstressed, turnoff theTVormusic,findaplacebyyourselfthatisquiet,andletyourselfrelax.

Takeatleastafewminuteseverydaytobestill.

Onceamonth,scheduleafewhoursorevenanentiredaythatisjustforyou.Rememberthatthistimeshouldbespecialandnotrushed.Duringthistime,dowhatmakesyoufeelhappyandrelaxed,whetherthatistakingawalkordrivingsomewhere, sleeping in, or reading a new book. Learning to integrate joyfulmoments into your daily life will go a long way toward alleviating andpreventingstress.

Deepbreathing,whendoneproperly,willrelaxthebodyevenasitconfrontshigh levels of stress or panic. It is physically impossible for yourmuscles toremain tensewhenyou takedeep, relaxingbreaths.Whenyou feel the tensionmounting, stop, close your eyes, and take a few long, deep breaths. Breathethroughyourdiaphragmandnotyourchest.Feel thebreathcomingin throughyournostrils and intoyourbelly—yourbellywill actually rise—andallow thebreathtoexpelthroughyourmouthasyourbellycontracts.Thispauseonlylastsaminuteorso,butitcanclearyourmindandallowyoutorefocusyourenergyon the task athand. Ifyoucan, try closingyour eyes, lettingyourselfbecome

consciousof the soundsand smells inyour surroundings.Whileyoureyesareclosed, relax themusclesofyourbody,startingwith thesmallmusclesaroundyour eyes, your cheeks, and your neck, then progressing to the larger ones inyourshouldersandarms,back,andlegsandfeet.

Considerthesource.Figuringoutwhatiscausingyourbodytofeelstressedisthe first step toward resolving the problem. Speaking with your boss aboutdifficulties at work or talking with your neighbor about his dog’s constantbarkingcanreduceyourstresssimplybecauseyou’vehadthechancetoexpressyour feelingson thematter.Remember thatnot all stress isbad, andeffectivestressmanagementmeanschanginghowyourespondtodifficultsituations.Youcan’t control all the outside events in your life, but you can change how youhandlethememotionallyandpsychologically.

With its focus on breath, yoga helps to strengthen and heal the body and todisciplinethemind.

Journalingcanbeahealthywaytoprocessstressfulsituations.

Getenoughrestandsleep.Althoughnoteveryonehasthesamerequirementsforrestandsleep,themajorityofusneedatleastseventoeighthourspernight.Trytodeveloparegularsleepschedule,goingtobedandgettingupataboutthesame time every day. Avoid alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, and exercise prior tobedtime. You may also want to develop a bedtime routine, like showering,soakinginawarmtub,reading,orlisteningtosoftmusic,priortofallingasleep.

Learn to laugh! Research has shown that laughter helps the body relax,enhances the immune system, and increases problem-solving abilities. Thinkabout how good you feel after a good laugh:You are breathingmore deeply,your face and neck aremore relaxed, and you feel happier.Making a specialefforttolookforhumor,noticingthelightersideofthings,andlearningtolaughatyourselfandwithotherswillgoalongwayinreducingyourstress.

Movingyourbodyisanexcellentwaytodissipatestress.Youcandevelopaformalexerciseplan,butalessformalapproachwillworkequallywell.Takingdailywalkscangoalongwaytowardreducingstressandincreasingyourenergylevel.Whenyoufeeltootiredtomove,getupanddance,walk,orjustjumpinplace.Doing any of these actionswill increase the flow of blood through thebodyandthebrain,reinvigoratingyouforthetasksahead.

Organizeandmanagetimeeffectively.Tryingtodotoomuchintoolittletimeisastresstrap.Sinceyoucannotmakemoretime,managingthetimeyouhaveis vital. The three Ps of effective timemanagement that can assist you are as

follows:Plan:Scheduleandsetrealistictimelines.Prioritize:Setgoalsforimportantthings.Protect:Learntosay“no”tounwanteddemandsandavoidtimewasters.

Seekoutsupport.Havinganetworkofsupportivefriendsandacquaintancesisavitalresourceincopingwithstress.Sharingandconfidingcanbufferthestressconnectedwithlife’sdailyhassles.Itisimportanttorememberthatyouarenotaloneandthatotherscanunderstandandempathize.

Seek professional assistance. Stress is a fact of life that may requirepermanent life style changes to manage. It gets easier with practice, but youmustbeconstantlyawareofthesymptomsandavoidslippingbackintoyouroldhabits.Ifyoucontinuetohaveproblemsmanagingyourstress,youmaywanttoseekprofessionalhelp.Ifyoutake thatroute, findacaring,knowledgable,andnonjudgmentalpersontoassistyou.Considerseeingapsychologist,psychiatrist,doctor, minister, social worker, or counselor. If you do seek professionalassistance, be preparedwith a list of the things in your life that are currentlycausingyoutofeelstressed.

Stress is a reality ofmodern society. Everyone confronts it daily andmustdecideforthemselveshowtheywilllivewithit.Recognizingthesymptomsofstress will allow you to address the source before the physical or emotionalconsequences become overwhelming. Learning to slow down, breathe deeply,andseethehumorinlifewillpromotehealthandwell-being.

Stress-ManagementTechniques

Try to have an ending and beginning to each task. Thisdefinitionwill program progress. Take at least aminute-longbreakbetweeneachtask.Throughouttheday,takeseveralsmallbreaksofjustacoupleof minutes each (up to five minutes). Using this time tooxygenate the lungs—fill your lungs to capacity by inhalingslowly, then exhale slowly, pursing your lips as if exhalingthroughastraw.Occasionally, close your eyes and become conscious of the

sounds and smells in your surroundings.While your eyes areclosed,relaxthemusclesofyourbody,startingwiththesmallmuscles around your eyes, your cheeks, your neck, yourshouldersandarms,yourback,legs,andfeet.Takeawalkforpleasure.Gototheforestorastreamandsit,relax,read,orjustsleep.Once amonth, schedule a few hours or a day, especially foryou. Write it down like an appointment with your doctor.Duringthistime,takeawalkordrive,sleep,write,draw,meetanewperson,orreadanewbook.Remember to care for your body with natural remedies andsupplements.

Massage

Massage therapy (and, in general, the laying on of hands for health purposes)dates back thousands of years. References to massage have been found inancientwritingsfrommanycultures,includingthoseofAncientGreece,AncientRome,Japan,China,Egypt,andtheIndiansubcontinent.

IntheUnitedStates,massagetherapyfirstbecamepopularandwaspromotedfor a variety of health purposes starting in the mid-1800s. In the 1930s and1940s, however, massage fell out of favor, mostly because of scientific andtechnological advances in medical treatments. Massage has been gaining inpopularity since the ’70s, as more and more people recognize its ability torehabilitatesportsinjuries,reducestress,increaserelaxation,addressfeelingsofanxietyanddepression,andaidgeneralwellness.

There aremore than80 typesofmassage therapy. In all of them, therapistspress, rub, and otherwisemanipulate themuscles and other soft tissues of thebody, often varying pressure andmovement. Theymost often use their handsandfingers,butmayusetheirforearms,elbows,orfeet.Typically,theintentistorelaxthesofttissues,increasedeliveryofbloodandoxygentothemassagedareas,warmthem,anddecreasepain.

Afewpopularformsofmassageare:

Aromatherapymassage:This issimilar toSwedishmassagebut incorporatesstrong-scentedplantoilsthatcontributetoasenseofrelaxationandwell-being.Aromatherapyhashelpedtocurearangeofconditions,evenincludingacneandwhoopingcough.

Deep tissuemassage:The therapist uses patterns of strokes and deep fingerpressure on parts of the bodywheremuscles are tight or knotted, focusing onlayersofmuscledeepundertheskin.

Shiatsumassage: The therapist applies varying, rhythmic pressure from thefingersonpartsof thebodythatarebelievedtobe importantfor theflowofavitalenergycalledqi(pronounced“chee”).IntraditionalChinesemedicine,qiisthevitalenergyorlifeforceproposedtoregulateaperson’sspiritual,emotional,mental,andphysicalhealthandtobe influencedbytheopposingforcesofyinandyang.

Swedishmassage:The therapistuses longstrokes,kneading,and frictiononthemusclesandmovesthejointstoaidflexibility.

Triggerpointmassage(alsocalledpressurepointmassage):Thetherapistusesa variety of strokes but applies deeper, more focused pressure on myofascialtrigger points. These “knots” that can form in the muscles are painful whenpressed,andcausesymptomselsewhereinthebodyaswell.

Massage is particularly powerful because it works on the physical,psychological, and often emotional and spiritual levels.When donewith love,care, and skill, it soothes and stimulates the skin, muscles, organs, mind,emotions,andspirit,allofwhichareconnectedmorethanweoftenconsider.Wecanobserve this in someobviousways; if youare stressed, for example,yourshoulders and neck tense up and the muscles can constrict and form knots.Likewise,whenyouhaveabadheadache,you’remore likely tobe irritableoremotional, which can then lead to stomach upset. Massage, when it is mosteffective,helpstohealthebody,emotions,andspirit.

PreparationAmassage canbe as simple as squeezing the topofyourown shoulderwhileyou stand in line at thegrocery storeorgently rubbingyour child’sback in acircularmotiontosoothehertosleep.However,ifyouwishtogiveafriendorlovedoneamorecompletemassage,youmaywanttodoalittlesettingup.

Chooseadraft-free,quietroomwheretherewillbefewdistractions.Besureitiswarmenough that the person receiving themassagewill not get coldwhilelying still for a length of time. Lighting should be soft and, if desired, havesoothingmusicplayinginthebackground.Thesurfacewheretherecipientwillbe lyingshouldbecomfortablebut firm;afutoncoveredwithacleansheetorseveralblanketslayeredonthefloorwillwork.

Ifyouplantousemassageoilsorlotiontoeasethefrictionontheskin,havethesecloseathand.Youmayalsowanttolightscentedcandlesorburnincense,dependingontherecipient’sneedsanddesires.Finally,besureyourhandsarecleanbeforebeginningamassage,andtiebackyourhair if it’s likelytoget inyourway.

BasicStrokesandPrinciplesAlwaysmake themassage recipient’s needsyourpriority.Pay attention to therecipient’s reactions to your strokes and ask occasionally whether she wouldpreferalighterorfirmertouch,orifwhatyou’redoingfeelsgood.Itisnormalto experience slight pain or discomfort when pressure is applied to tense

muscles,butiftherecipientexperiencessharpjoltsofpain,nausea,orrippingortearing sensations, ease off the pressure or move your touch to a differentlocation. The recipient should always have the final say as to what is mostbeneficialinhisorhermassage.

For a basic full-body massage, the recipient should begin lying on herstomachwith elbows at a right angle and hands on either side of the head.Asmallpillowcanbeplacedunderthechestorheadifdesired.

Donotmassage areaswhere there is bruisedorbroken skin, infected areas,unusualswellingorinflammation,orwheretherearevaricoseveinspresent.Donotmassageanyonewhohasafeverorhightemperature.

Domassagetowardthehearttoimprovebloodcirculationandlymphreturn,stayfocused throughout themassage, respect the recipient’sneedsanddesires,andstartwithalighttouch,graduallyusingtheleverageofyourbodyweighttoincreasepressureastherecipientdesires.

Long, gentle, flowing strokes using consistent light pressure on the fullsurfaceofthehandsshouldbeusedtobeginandendamassage.Usebothhands,movingupanddownthelengthofthebackandtheninsweepingmotionsacrossthewidthof theback.This stimulates theskin,gives the recipientachance toadjust to your touch, and allows you a fewmoments to sense the recipient’sneeds.Attheendofthemassage,itwillleavetherecipientwithasenseofbeingcalmedandnurtured.

Usegentlepressureinsmallcirclesonthetemplesandalongtheeyebrowsandjawlineforarelaxingfacemassage.

Muscle kneading involves picking up the muscles with one hand andsqueezingwiththeother,fromthespinalcolumnoutward,followingthecourseofthetrapeziusandlatissimusmuscles,firstononesideoftheback,thenontheother.This isalsoeffectivemovingfromtheshouldersdownto theelbowandfromthetopsofthethighstojustabovetheknees.Thisincreasescirculationandtheactionofthenervesandhelpstorelaxtiredmuscles.

Circular kneading involves using themiddle three fingers or thumbof eachhand,beginningattheneckoneachsideofthespineandapplyingthecircularkneadingoutward,thenbeginningalittlelowerandworkingoutward,onehandoneachside,andsoontotheendofthespine.Thistechniquecanalsobeusedalong thearmsand legs. It increasesbloodflow,whichwill loosenandsoothemuscles.

Whenusingthecircularkneadingtechnique,pauseanddoafewextracirclesinanyareawhereyoucanfeelknotsorextratension.

Whenmassagingfeet,startatthecenterjustbelowtheballofthefootandworkdown toward the heel. Then gently squeeze each toe from the base to the tip.Finally,useyour thumbstopressalongthearch,slidingthemfromjustabovetheheeluptowardthebaseofthebigtoe.

Muscle rolling involves putting both hands side by side on one of therecipient’sshouldersandmakinganalternating,veryrapidpushingandpullingmotionwiththehands,graduallymovingdownwardtothebuttocks.Thehandsmust be firmly on the patient so as to move his muscles from side to side,therebycausingaquickstretchingandavibrationofthem.Firstrollthemusclesof one side of the back three to five times, then the other side. This helps toincreasecirculation,whichwillhelpmusclestoloosenandimprovetheskin.

Vibration involves putting both hands, with the fingers spread out, one oneach side of the patient’s back at the shoulders. Pull downward with a firmpressureandarapidvibrationofhandsandfingers.Repeatthreetofivetimestostimulatethenerves.

Spinalnervecompressioninvolvespressingwiththemiddleandindexfingerson each side of the spinal column from the neck to the end of the spine.Thepressureshouldbemadealittleinwardandupwardandfirmly,withoutjerking,in a slow and quietway.Repeat two to four times to relieve backache and tostimulatenervecenters.

Percussionisappliedwiththeedgesofbothhandsandfingersalternatelyandveryquicklyfromtheneckdownwardonbothsidesofthespinalcolumn.Ontheupper part of the back, from the shoulders to the lower end of the lungs, thepercussionmayalsobeappliedoutwardtothesides.Thistechniquecanalsobe

applied to the fleshy parts of the arms and legs, but avoid elbows, knees, theundersideofthearms,andanyothersensitiveareas.Thishasaverystimulatingandstrengtheningeffectonthenervecenters.

Percussionmassageisgreatforstimulatingnervecentersandincreasingbloodflow.

Gentlymassagingpressurepointscanhelptorelievepainandpromotehealing.

HomemadeMassageOil

1cup jojoba, grape seed, or almondoil (oliveoil can alsobeused, but cancausebreakoutsonsensitiveskin)

12to15dropsessentialoilofyourchoice(lavender,jasmine,myrrh,orange,ormintareallgoodchoices)

InteriorDesign

MakingtheMostofYourSpaceThespacethatyouliveinwillhaveaneffectonhowyoufeel.Takingthetimetomakeyourspacepleasantwillhelpyoutofeelmoreproductive,peaceful,andcreative.Eveninsmallapartmentsorhouses,youcanarrangeyourfurnitureandbelongingsanddecorateinawaythatwillmakeyourspacefeelopenandairy.

Themajorityof roomsaresquareand thewallsarebrokenupbydoorsandwindows.Findingenoughshelvingorevenroomforbookcasescanbedifficultwhenyouaredealingwith smaller rooms.Since shelving isnecessary inmosthomes (and in confined spaces), here are some simple ideas of how to addshelvingtomakethemostofyoursmallspace:1. Shelvescanbeplacedabovesofasortables.Thesecanhousebooks,picture

frames, games, candles, and, if in the kitchen, spices and other smallfoodstuffs.

2. Windowsills can be extended and made into shelves as well. These aregreatplacestokeepplantsandbooks,aslongastheraindoesnotcomeinandruinthem.

3. Ifyouhaveafireplacewithamantelpiece,usethemantelforstoringbooksandotheritemsandyoucanalsobuildbookcasesaroundthemanteltostoretrinkets,magazines,DVDs,etc.

4. Shelvescanalsobebuiltaroundthetrimofdoorsorevenabovethedoorframe. These can house books and other items, and pieces of pottery orwickerbasketscanbeplaced

abovethedoorframetoaddacozyandinterestingeffecttotheroom.

Ifyouare trying toarrangearoomthathasvery littlewallspace,placeanyfurnitureatright-anglestothewall.Forexample,yourcouchcanbesituatedatarightangletothefireplaceortelevision.Thisway,you’llhaveextrawallspaceinwhich tosituatebookshelvesandothermeansofstoring things.And, ifyouneedtoincorporateatableforeatinginyourlivingroom,reserveonecorneroftheroomforthetabletobepushedupagainst.Then,atmealtime,ifyouneedtoyoucanpullitawayfromthewallbeforeusing.

If you need to incorporate a desk into your small space, choose onewith adropfrontso it takesuplessroomwhenclosed.If thedeskdoesnothaveanyshelvesordrawersunderneath,getastoolinsteadofachairtositonatthedesk.Thisway,youcanpushthestoolcompletelyunderwhenthedeskisnotinuse.Another great way to utilize space is to make your own desk using filingcabinets or low, narrow bookshelves and a larger piece of finished or stainedwood as a top. This way, you can store papers or books underneath yourhomemadedesk.

In smaller houses or apartments, oftentimes hallways are long and narrow.Placingasmall,narrowbenchinthehallwaycanbeuseful—especiallyifitcanbedrawnintothemainroomforaddedseating.Or,ifyouneedaplacetostoreallyourshoes,placeasmallshelfofmediumheight in thehallwaywhereyoucanplace themas soonasyoucome in.Thatway, theywon’t takeupneededspaceinyourclosetsandyouwon’t trackinall thedirtfromoutsideintoyourhome.

If your rooms are long and narrow, they can be made to appear wider by

placinglargerpiecesoffurniture,suchasbedsandcouches,crosswisetomaketheroomlookwider.Mirrorsplacedonthelongerwallswillalsogivetheroomtheillusionofbeinglargerthanitis.

Shelvescanbebuiltdirectlyontoawalltoconservefloorspace.

Built-infurnitureisalsowell-suitedforsmallhouses,thoughthismightnotbefeasible for rented apartments. Building in bookcases, shelving units, kitchenpantries,andwardrobescansaveyoulotsofpreciousfloorspaceandalsoaddanicetouchtoanyroom.

If there isadoor inoneofyourroomsthatdoesn’tallowforfurniture tobeplacedbehindit,thinkaboutsplittingitintwosothatitopensinthemiddle.Or,consider installing a folding (accordion like) door or, if the door is not evenreallyneeded, remove italtogetherandhangacurtainorbeads topartitionoff

theroom.

Ifyouareable,paintthewallsofyoursmallerroomslight,brightcolors.Thiswillmaketheroomsappearlargerthantheyareandgiveasenseofbrightnessandairinesstoyourlivingspace.Lightgray,buff,andwhitewallsarebestforapartments, as they give an expansive appearance to the room and reflect thegreatestamountoflight.Furnitureshouldbeopposite—thedarkerthefurniture,the smaller it looks and the larger the space appears. If you have a narrowhallway leading intoyour apartment, be sure that it too ispaintedwith a lightcolortomakeitfeellessconstricting.Youcanalsoplaceamirror(ifpossible)facingthedoorwaytomakethehallwayappearlargerthanitis.

Forroomsthatarefullofdark,heavy-lookingfurniture,youcanmakethemseemmore“grounded”andlessgiganticbyplacingadarkercarpetorruginthecenter of the room.Thiswill “hold down” the heavier pieces of furniture andalso add a nice focal point to the room.And, as in any small space, keep theamountoffurnitureataminimumsotheroomdoesnotstarttofeelovercrowdedandstuffy.Largerpiecesoffurnitureshouldneverbeplacedinthemiddleoftheroomandiftheroomisexceedinglysmall,nofurnitureshouldbeplacedinthemiddleoftheroomatall.

Vibrantcolorscanmakeasmallspacefeelbiggerandbrighter.

Ifyouhaveafewwindowsinyourroom,coverthemwithcurtainsthatarethesame color as yourwalls andwoodwork.Thisway, youwillmake the roomslook larger.Lightercurtains,madeof finefabric,allowmore light toenter theroomandcreateasenseofspacewhenopened.Hangingcurtainsallthewaytothefloorwillmaketheroomappeartaller.

MakingtheMostofYourStudioApartment

Thebestwaytoarrangeastudio(oneroom)apartmentinthecityistoplace thebed inone corner, away from the “living” areaof theroom.Makesurethebeddingcomplementsthecolorofthefurniture(whitebeddinggoeswitheverythingandgivesan fresh feel to thespace).Avoidusingdarkcolorsintheroomasitwillmakeitseemmuch smaller than it is. A small couch can be used, and a smalldresser can be kept in the corner of the roomnear the bed.A flatwriting desk can serve also as a table. A few chairs that can befoldedupwilladdadditionalseatingwithouttakingupspace.

In the kitchen area, hang the cooking utensils over the stove.Shelvescanbeputonthewallstoholdbowlsandothercookware,andplates canalsobe storedwithhangerson thewalls.Hooksonwhichtohangmugscanbescrewedinbelowthecabinets.

Stenciling

Stencilingonwalls,trim,andevenwoodenfurnitureaddsinteresttoanyroominyourhome.Thewonderfulthingaboutstencilingisthatit’srelativelyeasytodoand you can choose whichever pattern and colors best fit your home and thedecorationsineachroom.

Stenciling is by no means an exact science. It is supposed to be unique,imaginative,andcreative.Youcaneasilystencilanythingbybuyingpre-madestencilsatalocalartsandcraftsstoreor,ifyouareartisticallyinclined,youcancreateyourownstencilsbydrawingapatternonapieceofthickplasticorpaper,cuttingitout,andusingitinyourdesign.

Althoughstencilingissubjectiveandindividual,hereareafewguidelinestofollowtohelpyougetstarted:

Choosepatternsandcolorsthatfityourhomedécor.

1. Thefirststeptoconsideristheroomyouwanttoembellishwithstenciling.Considerthesizeandshapeoftheroom,thewindowsandtheirplacement,the trim,anywallart, rugs,and furniture.Thiswillhelpyoudecidewhat

you’dliketheroomtolooklikeandwhichpartsshouldbedecoratedwithstenciling (will you stencil a border around the top of the room or justembellishcornersorwindowsillswithstencilart?).

2. Next,selectastencildesignandcolorschemethatwillharmonizewiththeroomanditsfurnishings.Somesuggestionsare:a. Rooms that have high ceilings or fancywood paneling need simple,

dignifiedstenciling thatcanbeusedaroundbaseboardsorcornersofdoorframesorwherethereisdark,heavywoodwork.

b. Smallhallways,entryways,orroomswithlowerceilingsshouldhavesmall,conventionalstencilingthatrunsunderneaththecrownmoldingatthetoporjustbelowwheretheceilingmeetsthewall.

c. Roomscontainingdark, rich-colored furniture shouldhave stencilingwithdelicatedesignstoreducethebulkinessofthefurniture.Inroomssuch as these, the stenciling will help accent and complement therichnessofthefurniture.

d. Diningroomstendtoworkwellwithrich,deepcolorsandstencilingshouldbedonealonganytriporrailstoaddapopofcolor.

3. Stencilingshouldalwaysbeappliedinastraightlinealongthewallortheeffectwillberuined.Haphazardlystenciledareasmakearoomlooksloppyinsteadofaccentuatingitsdesignandfurnishings.

Useadifferentpatternalongthebaseofthewallformorevariety.

4. Stencilingshouldbedonewithagoodstencilbrushofanysizeneeded.Abrushwithsmooth,pliablebristlesisrecommended.

5. Always study the stencil before beginning to paint. Stencil patterns can

sometimesbedelicateandsogreatcareneedstobetakentokeepthestencilintactuntilyou’vefinishedusingit.Youmaywanttobuyafewsheetsofthe samestencil soyoucankeep thepatternconsistent ifonestencilgetsruined.

6. Whenyouareusingthebrush,tiethebristleshalfwaydownsotheywillnotcreepandspreadunderneaththestencil,ruiningyourdesign.Becarefulnottooverloadthebrushwithpaint.Applythepaintbystippling(topaintwithsmalldotsorbrushstrokes),tappingthebrushlightlyintheconfinesofthestencil.Neverrushthepaintingandalwaysworkcarefullyaroundthemoreintricate parts of the stencil pattern.Always brush from the edges of thestenciltothecenter.

7. Alwayswipeoffyourstencilaftereachuseandbeforeyoubeginyournextdesign. Wipe off both the front and the back of the stencil so no paintcollectsthereandruinsyourartwork.

SuppliesNeededForStenciling:2tubesofoilpaint2brushes(10incheseach)2sheetsblottingpaper(10incheseach)Yardstencilpaper(15inches)Thumbtacks(5incheseach)Turpentine

MakingYourOwnStencilDesignsWhilestencilpatternscanbeboughtatartsandcraftsstores,youcanalsomakeyourownstencildesign.Adesigncanbegeometrical,conventional,orrealistic(this will require shading and is not for the beginner stenciler). If you aren’tgood at drawing, you can follow any sort of pattern (e.g., wallpaper designs,designsonteatowels,etc.).Geometricdesignscanbeeasilymadebyfoldingaslip of paper and cutting itwith a pair of sharp scissors. In thisway you canmaketrianglesandsquaresthataresymmetrical.

Afteryou’vefoundagooddesign, trace itwithasharppencilontoastencilboard(foundatartsandcraftsstores). Ifyoucannot findspecialstencilpaper,tough paperboard, foil, thin copper sheets, vellum, parchment, or a manilaenvelope shellacked on both sides make good substitutes. The stencil papershould be roughly two inches larger on all sides than your design. This extrapaperaidsinhandlingandavoidsgettingpaintonthewalloutsideofthedesign.

Ifyouhaveasmallerdesign,youmaywanttomakeafewidenticalpatternsononepieceofstencilpaperinordertomakethepaintinggomorequickly.

Youcanstencillightswitchcoversorothersmallobjectstohangonyourwalls,ratherthanstencilingthewholewall.

Once the design has been drawn, you will need to cut it out. This can bedifficult,especiallyifyourdesignisveryintricate.Tocutoutthestencil,laytheboardonapieceofglassorasmoothcuttingsurfaceanduseasharppenknifeorX-Actoknifetocutthedesignout.Punchoutthedesignandyouhaveastencilreadyforuse!

SimpleStencilIdeasStenciling is often used for mural decoration. In many cases, small, tilelikebordersarestenciledarounddoorandwindowtrims.Thisisasimpledesignandallows for all types of motifs: various flowers, fruits, trees, ships, birds,mountains, animals, and people. The appropriateness of the design should beconsideredbeforestenciling,however. Ifyouhavenodecorationswithfruit intheminyourlivingroom,itisprobablysillytostencilabunchofgrapesaroundyourdoorframeinthatroom.

Fruitmotifsworkwellfordiningroomsandkitchens.Grapes,pineapples,andoranges lend themselves very well to stenciling and give good decoration.Flowermotifsareveryappropriatefor thebedroom.Poppies, roses, lilies,etc.,add a bright and dainty feel to the room. Nautical designs—sailboats, waterlilies,crabs,fish,shells—aregreatforcottagesandsea-themeddens.Ifyouhaveamusic room, stenciling staffs, clefs, notes, and instruments are a funway tobringoutthethemeandatmosphereoftheroom.

TypesofStencilsTherearethreegeneralclassesofstencils:1. Singlestencil—theentiredesigniscutononesheet.2. Doublestencil—halfofthedesigniscutononesheetandtheotherhalfon

anothersheet.3. Parti-coloredstencil—cutinsetssothatdifferentcolorsmaybeusedforthe

stencilwithoutbleedingintooneanother.

SpacingOffaDesignSome stencil designs are continuous and some are detached. The continuousstencil isachievedbymeasuring thespace that is tobestenciledandseeing ifyourpatternwillalignjustright.Ifnot,youwillneedtofigureinwhattypeofspacingisnecessaryinorderforyourfirststencilandyourlaststenciltomeetupinjusttherightmanner.

Whenyouareusingadetacheddesign,decidehowmanydesignsyourspacewillrequireandthenmeasuresoyouwillhaveequalspacebetweeneachdesign.Don’tplaceanyofthese“running”designsinthecornerofyourroom.Itwillbetoodifficulttopaint.

Toensurethatyourdesignrunsonastraightline,providetwonotchesinyourstencilpatternandthendrawafaintchalklineonyourwallwithalevel,makingsureitiseven.Layyourstencilpatternontopofthechalkline,matchingupthelinewiththenotchesonthestencil.Ifyoudothiseverytime,yourstencildesignwillfollowastraightline.

Onethingtorememberwhenstencilingdesigns:Stencilingisusedprimarilyforornamentation,soavoidovercrowdingoroverdoingthedesign.

ApplyingColor1. Fixthestencilpatterninpositionwithafewpinsordouble-sidedtape.2. Usea littlecoloronthebrushanddabitsquarelyagainst theplate.Don’t

drawthebrushalongthedesignasitmaysliporseepunderneath.3. Liftthepatternawayfromthewallcarefullyandavoidslidingit.

Youcanalsostencilfabricforcurtainsorupholstery.

4. Wipethebackoftheplateaftereachapplicationtopreventsmearing.5. Ifusing twoormorecolors, allowone todry thoroughlybeforeapplying

another.

Wallpapering

Wallpaper has the power to create a mood in any room and harmonize theobjects in the room by serving as a common background. Its color should bechosen in relation to thegeneral toneandcolorof the room.Like thecurtainsandfurniture,itmusteithercomplementorcontrastwiththecarpet.Asafewayto choose a complementary color is toworkwith varying shades of onemaincolor,suchasthecolorofthecarpetoracentralpieceoffurniture.

Thepatternofyourwallpaper isalso important toconsider.Thischoice isabitmoredifficultbecausethedesigninthepaperwillhaveaneffectontheentirelookof the room.Smalldesignsaregoodforsmaller roomsaswallpaperwithlargerdesignstendtomakesmallroomslookevensmaller.Largerdesignsaretrickytoworkwithaseachstripofpaperneedstobecarefullycutandfittedsothe seams are not apparent due to mismatched images. As a general rule,wallpaperwith largerdesigns servesas itsown formofdecorationand shouldonlybeusedinroomswherenootheritemswillbehungonthewalls.

Thefurnitureintheroom(andthestyleofthefurniture)shouldalsobetakeninto considerationwhen choosingwallpaper. If your furniture if dark, such asmahogany,thenthewallpapershouldhaveasofter,lighterfeelsoasnottomaketheroomdarkandenclosed.Ifyouhaveperiodfurnitureorantiques,choosingawallpaper pattern that complements those pieces will give a wonderful, richfeelingtotheentireroom.

Wallpapercangiveyourroomsanold-fashionedfeel.

BuyingWallpaperWallpaper comes invarious sizes and thicknesses.Lighter-weightedwallpaperwilldry faster,but it is sometimesharder toworkwith thanaslightly thicker-weightedpaper.Beforebuyingwallpaper,youshouldexamineitinbrightlightandalso,ifpossible,inthelightoftheroominwhichitwillhang.Thecolorsinpapertakeondifferenthuesdependingonthelight,andyouwanttomakesurethat you’ll like how the paper looks in the room before you spend time andenergyhangingit.

Remembertomeasurethesizeoftheroomthatwillbewallpaperedandthenfigureoutthedimensionsoftherollofpaperyouchoose.Makesureyouhaveenough paper to overlap any larger patterns at the seams to keep the imageconsistentaroundtheroom.

PreppingtheWallsBefore hanging the wallpaper on fresh walls, make sure that any plaster orcaulking(ifyou’vefilledinnailholes,forexample)iscompletelydry,otherwisethepaperwillwrinkleatthesepoints.Ifyouarerepaperingaroom,itisbesttoremove theoldpaper firstand thenhang thenewpaper (insteadof layingonesheetoveranother).Oldseamsmayshowthroughandthenewpapermayalsosagoffofthewallswhentheroomgetswarmer,asinthesummer.Ifyourroomsarepainted,thewallsmustbewashedandcompletelydriedbeforeyoucanbegintohanganywallpaper.

Wallpaperingonlyonewallcanaddinteresttoyourroom.

Ifyouarehangingwallpaperonnewwalls(thathaveneverhadpaperonthembefore), it is a good idea to size thewalls before papering. Sizing consists of“painting”thewallswithamixtureofahalfpoundofgluedissolvedintowater.

MakingYourOwnWallpaperPaste

Rather thanbuyingwallpaperglue,youcanmakeyourownpasteathome.Todoso,justfollowthesesimpleinstructions:1. Boilagallonofwaterinatwo-gallonpot,addingaroundedtablespoonof

salt.2. Mixintworoundedteaspoonsofflourgraduallywithenoughcoldwaterto

makeitalittlethickerthancream.3. When the water boils, pour in the flour mixture, stirring constantly to

ensureasmoothtexture.

ToolsNeededforHangingWallpaper

sheetsofwallpaper(enoughtocovertheentireroom)aprontocoveryourclothesastiffbrush (wallpaperbrushescanbesoldatyourhomestore)acleanragwallpaperroller(soldathomecenters)scissorstrimmingknifestraightedge(arulerisperfect)tapemeasurewallpaperpaste(store-boughtorhomemade)

4. Drop in a lumpof tallow (walnut-sized), cook for fiveminutes, and thenaddanounceofalumthathasbeenpreviouslydissolvedinacupofboilingwater.

5. Ifthereareanylumps,strainthemoutbeforeusingthepaste.Addingafewdropsofcloveoilwillkeepthepastefresherlonger.

HangingthePaperWithpatternedpaper,beginhangingat the topof thewall andmeasure to thebaseboard,butbeforecuttingit,lookatthepattern.Ifthebottomofyourpatternatthebaseboarddoesnotmatchthepatternatthetop,raisethetopofthepaperuntil itmatches,withonehalf on the topof thewall and theother half at thebottom. By doing this you will ensure your pattern remains consistentthroughout the room.Cutadozenorso lengths,matchingup thepatterns,andmake sure that the pattern will run straight across the wall. Arrange the cutsheetsofwallpaperonaladderortable.Applythepastetothepaperwithaflat,broadbrush,evenlydistributingpasteoverallpartsofthepaper.Brushdownthemiddleofthepieceofwallpaperfirstandthensweepthebrushdiagonallyfromtheedges.Whenthestripispasted,foldbothendstowardthecenterandassesswhethernot thepaperiseven.Nowyoucangoandpasteafewmorestripsofpaperbeforehanging.

Tobeginpaperingaroom,itisbesttobeginataprotrudingedgeornexttoa

doororwindowframe.Usingastepladder,unfoldtheupperhalfofthestripandapplyitfirmlytothewall.Then,carefullyspreaditsmoothandpresstheupperhalffirmlyinplace.Stepofftheladderandaffixthelowerhalfofthestrip.Withasoftclothorroller,gentlywipethewholelengthofthepaper,startingfromthemiddle and moving to the edges. Continue hanging strips of paper in thismanner, making sure the edges match up perfectly so the seams are hardlynoticeable.When you come to a door or window frame, try to cut the paperexactly to fit against the straight edge.Then,with aboxcutterorother small,fine knife, carefully cut around the sills or door frame, allowing a little bit ofpapertorestontheframeifnecessary.Thiscanalwaysbetrimmedlater.

RemovingPaperTo remove paper from walls, you can first attempt to pull strips off dry;however,youmayneedtowetdownthepaperbeforeitstartscomingoff.Applyhotwaterwith a cloth, brush, or sponge. If it is varnishedor enameledpaper,youcandissolve ahandfulofwashing soda in aquart ofhotwater.Youmayalsoneedtomakescratchesandholesinthepapersothatthewatercangetin.Whenthepaperisthoroughlywet,youwillmostlikelybeabletopeelitoffinlargestripsandscrapeofftheremainderwithanordinarysteelscraper.

To remove wallpaper, you may need to dampen the walls before scraping orpeelingthem.

Lighting

Thefeelingofaroomisinfluencedgreatlybytheamount,type,anddistributionoflight—bothnaturalandartificial.

Roomscanbelitinanumberofways,including:

Creativelightingcanmakeaplainroomcomealive.

A central chandelier—this onlyworks in large roomswith high ceilings.Though ornate and beautiful, one of a chandelier’s biggest faults is thatunlesseverythingisconcentratedinthecenteroftheroom,itisimpossibletoproducepleasingeffectsandadequatelightingthroughoutthespace.Side bracket lighting (sconces)—this is a niceway to light a small roomandalsoworkswellasaccentlightsinahallway,underkitchencabinets,orinadiningroom.

Chandeliersaregreatinroomswithhighceilings.

Lamps and fixtures—these are the typicalmeans bywhich rooms are lit.Table and overhead lamps can produce very pleasing, warm lightthroughouttheroom.

The size of the room and its functionwill largely determine the number oflampsyouneedandwheretheyshouldbesituated.Placinglampsinareaswhereyouwillbereading,workingatadesk,orwhereyouwanttohighlightapieceoffurniture or a decorative object (such as a painting over a fireplace)will helpgivetheroomasenseofpurposeandfunctionality.

Rooms are best lighted by table lamps and floor lamps that are placedthroughoutthespace.Thetablelampsshouldbeplacednearchairsandcoucheswherelightisneededintheeveningstoread.Standing,orfloor,lampsshouldbearranged so they fit in with the surrounding décor or, if they are especiallyelaborate,tocallattentiontothemselvesasanartisticpieceintheroom.

Knowingwhere toplaceyourfloorand table lamps is important tonotonlymake the room look attractive but to also benefit from the best use of theincandescentlight.Ifyouhaveanarearug,youcanrunthecordsofyourtableandfloorlampsunderneaththerugsonoonewilltripoverthemandyouwon’thaveunsightlycordshangingabout.

Floorlampsworkwellforreadinglightssincetheycanbeeasilymovedaboutandeventheirheightcanbeadjusteddependingonthetypeoflampyouhave.Floorlampsfitperfectlyintocornerswhereplacingfurnitureisawkward.

LampshadesandBases

A darker-colored lampshadewill allow less light to show through, creating amoreromantic,subduedambience.

Afterdecidingwhereyourlampsshouldgo,you’llneedtoconsiderwhatstylesoflampsandwhatshadesshouldbeusedtobothmaximizetheamountoflightemittedandtocomplementthedécor.Lampshadesthataremadeofsoft,neutraltones(yellows,lightoranges,greens,andblue-greens)arepreferableinthewaytheyemitlight.Thetextureofthelampshadesshouldmatchthetexturesintheroom.Theshadesshouldalsobelinedwithwhitetohelpconcentratethelighton

objectsorareasyouwishtohighlight.

Differentroomsanddifferentusesrequiredifferentcolorsoflighttobegivenoff by the lamp.For reading and sewing, having a lampshade that disperses asoftgreencolorisrestfulandeasyontheeyes.Faint,yellowlightisalsogoodforthispurpose.

Lampbasesandthestylesofthefixturesarealsoimportantinmaintainingtheconsistencyoftheroom’satmosphereanddecoration.Ifyouhavearoomthatisfull of antiques and older furniture, try to find lampbases or hanging fixturesfrom that same timeperiod,with shades that complement the furniture. If youwantasmallaccentlightinaroom,tryfindingacandlestickandattachasimple,candle-shapedbulbtoit.Placingthiskindoflightinthecornerofadiningroomorinabathroomwilladdasubtleyetinvitingglowtotheroom.Asarule,ifyouhavelarge,bulkyfurniture,lampsandfixturesthataredaintier,madeofmetalorevenstreamlinedwoodwillhelpaccentthefurniturepieceswithoutmakingtheroomfeeloverbearing.

MakingLampshades

Ifyoucan’tfindtheperfectlampshadeforyourtableorfloorlamp,trymakingyourown.Youcansalvageanoldlampshadeframefromagaragesale,second-handstore,orevenfromanold lampshade inyourbasementoryoucanmakeyourown(thoughthisismoredifficultandtakessometimeandskill).However,asimplewireframe,twistedintoshapewithpliers,andtoppedwithaholeandballed screw to attach the shade to the base will make a perfectly usablelampshadeskeleton.

Lampshadescanbemadeoutofavarietyoffabrics.It’simportant,however,tochoose fabrics thatare thickenough tobe stretchedover the frame.For the

beginner,youcanbuyaninexpensive,whitelampshadeframeandthencoveritwithyourownfabric.However,ifyouaremakingthiscompletelyfromscratch,inserting plastic forms into the interior of the shade will also help keep theshadessecureandtheformintact.

Silk shades canbemade six-sidedwith the light-colored silk fabric of yourchoosingdrawnoverthetoptohidethebulbandthewireframe.Withacoveredtop, thesilk throwsasoftenedshadowupwardbutreduces theamountof lightemitted from the lamp.Thebottomof theshademaybeedgedwithanarrow,silkfringeorfinishedwitharuffleorchiffonband.Atthetopedge,thefringemaybecutaway,leavingonlytheheading.Atthecenterofthetopoftheshade,a small rosette may be made on the fringe. Silk shades that are striped withdarkercolors lend themselveswell toofficesanddenswhilestriped taffetas inpastelshadesarebestforbedrooms.Severalcombinationsofsilkproduceanice,attractive coloring and light for homes. Champagne lined with pink, yellow,rose, or orange gives a warm, cheery glow. Gray lined with pink, yellow, ororangealsogiveanicehuetotheroom.

Especiallyforchildren’srooms,figuredcretonneorsilkmaybeoverlaidwithplain, silkgauze tohighlight the figures and togiveoff an interestingpattern.Thefigurescouldbeblacksilhouettesoffairies,trucks,oranimals.Tomakethisshade, insert these figures (orbright-colored tissuepaper cut in floraldesigns)between two layers of gold silk gauze.Thiswill give the shade an interestingdepthandappearance.

A cretonne lampshade can be transformed by applying several coats ofshellac.Theshellacfillsinthepores,makingthesurfaceverysmooth,hard,andtranslucent.Thisisparticularlygoodforlampsthatwillbesituatedonanindoorporch,astheyarealsowaterproof.

Hand-paintedvellumshadesarealsoverycharming.Ashadecombinedwithvellum and chintz can be made by fastening the cutout chintz figures to awatercolorpaperandlacqueringitontotheshade.Thisisinexpensiveandcanbemadebyanyone.Plasticorstifffabricshadesmayalsobestenciledtotiethemintoaparticularthemeorroomdécor.

Foran interestingaccent lamp,makeashadeofyourpainting tinor tin thathas a design punched into itwith tiny awl holes.Thiswill not give offmuchlightbutwillbeaninterestingadditiontosmallerroomsorbathrooms.Paintingtheinsidewhitewillalsohelpmorelightreflectoutfromtheshadeandintotheroom.

SconcesLightingfixturestendtobeamainpointoffocusinalmosteveryroom.Whenyouenteraroom,wallfixturesusuallycatchyourattention,andthisisespeciallytrueatnightwhentheyareilluminatingthehome.Sincethesefixtures(hanginglamps and sconces) are partially permanent, it is important to pay carefulattention to the style and placement of these fixtures in a room so theycomplementthecolorschemeandtheoveralldesign.

Sconces are a pleasant, convenient, and useful way to illuminate a room.Theselighteachsideoftheroomand,ifyouputthemonadimmerswitch,theycan help set themood for parties, dinner, or for everyday living. Rooms thatrequire a great deal of light (such as larger living rooms or entryways) willbenefit more from a center fixture hanging from the ceiling than from wallsconces.

Theplacementofoutletsneedstobetakenintoconsiderationbeforehangingyour sconces. The average height for the outlet is six feet above the floor.However, if thesconcehasarms inverteddownward, theoutletmaybea littlehigherthansixfeet.Also,theheightoftheceilingwillplayaroleinhowhighyoursconceswillbeplaced.Ifyouhavea9-footceiling,theoutletshouldnotbehigherthan5½feetfromthefloor.

Fengshui

Feng shui is aChinese observanceof beliefs andpractices tied into nature—atypeofgeomancy.Ithasbeennotedthatfengshui—a“windandwater”system—is just like these two elements: wind, in the sense that it cannot becomprehendedandwater,because itcannotbegrasped.Despite thissomewhatcrypticexplanationoffengshui,Puttingitsprinciplesintopracticesneednotbedifficult.

Fengshuiisguidedandcontrolledbyfourdivisions:1. It,thegeneralorderofnature2. Shu,It’snumericalproportion(thisincludesthe5elementsofnature:earth,

fire,metal,water,andwood)3. Ch’i,thevitalbreathandsubtleenergies,and4. Hsing,theformandoutwardaspect.Thesefourdivisionsshouldbeblended

harmoniouslytocreateaperfectfengshui.

There are also three principles that underlie this blending. These principlesare:1. HeavenrulesEarth.2. Both Heaven and Earth influence all living beings and humans have the

powertousethisinfluencefortheirhighestgood..

3. Thefortunesofthelivingdependalsoonthegoodwillandinfluenceofthedead.

Intheprincipleoffengshui,thesoulofahumanistwofold—thehunandthep’o and theanimus (breath ofHeaven) andanima (quasi-material returning toEarth).Withinthisidea,thedeadarethoughtofasbeingchainedtothetombbythe quasi-material soulwhile the spiritual nature hovers around the old home.Thus,ifthecorpseisinagoodplace(hasgoodfengshui),thentheearthlysouliscomplacentandwillbringprosperitytothehouseofthelivingthroughunseeninfluence.

Accordingtofengshui,ahomeshouldhaveaspecificbalanceandorderthatisintouchwiththefiveelementsofnature.

FengShuiinYourHomeYourhomehasanenergyofitsown,andthisenergychannelsinpositiveforcesfromtheoutsideworldandhelpstocreateahappierlifeforyouandyourfamily.Therefore,havingahomewithgoodfengshuiwillhelpcreateabetterenergyandmorerestfulenvironmentinwhichyoucanlive.

Fengshuidesignhelpstogiveapurposetoeveryiteminaparticularroomorin the house as a whole. These items have their own energies that play asignificant role in your life.When designing a plan for your home tomake itmoreharmonious,hereareafewthingstoconsider:

Chientersthroughyourfrontdoorandflowsthroughoutyourhome.Checkthepathsinyourhomeforthechitoflow,andredecorateorrepositionyourfurnituretoallowittomovebetterandcreatebetterenergy.Pickupclutterthroughoutyourhome.Thiswillhelpimprovetheenergy.Openwindowsforafewminuteseachdaytoallownewchitoenterandthestalechitoescape.Beds should be placed against solidwalls to ground you; noTVs shouldreside in the bedroom, and nomirrors should be placed in the bedroomseither (especially not across from the bed) as they will create negativeenergyasyousleep.Ifatallpossible,installasmall,indoorwaterfountainforrelaxationandtoimprovetheflowofthechi.As fire and water clash, stoves should not be placed opposite ofrefrigeratorsorsinks.

Certainobjects and colors inyourhomehelp represent the five elementsoffengshuiandcanharnesstheirpositiveenergies:

Earth—thissymbolizesstabilityandpermanenceandsoplacingflowerpotswith soil in your room will help harness this energy. Earth is alsorepresentedinthecolorsbeigeandlightyellow.Fire—thisisasymbolofpassionandisfoundinred,orange,brightyellow,and purple. It is powerful and so should only be placed sparinglythroughoutyourhome.Metal—this is a conductor of energy and promotes health. Copper is anespeciallypowerfulenergysourceandsometalshouldbeusedsparinglyto

notover-energizeyourhome.Metalcomesthroughingraysandwhites.Water—water helps increase communication and can symbolize wealth.Smallfountainsinyourhomewithrunningwaterorfishtankswillpromotebetter communication between familymembers andmonetary prosperity.Blueandblackhelpchanneltheenergyofwater.Wood—symbolizing development and creativity, wooden objects (alsoitemsthatarebrownorgreen)placedinroomsinyourhomewilldrawthispositiveenergy.

CreatingaFengshuiRoom

Designing your room to have feng shui elements is relatively simple. Whenlooking at the roomyouwant to apply feng shui to sketch a floor planof theroomasitisnowandthenthinkabouthowyoucanplaceitemsandharnessthefive elements tohelpbalance the energy inyour roomand to allow the chi tomovefreelyandpositivelythroughout.

Looking at your sketch, the left-hand corner of the room should harnessknowledge.Placingobjectsthatpromotewisdomandlearning,suchasbooks,inthispartofyour roomwillhelpdirect thisenergy. In thebottomcenterof theroom, you want to place objects, such as trophies or prior workplaceaccomplishments,thatwillhelpboostyourcareer.Thebottomright-handcornerof the room represents travel and people we connect with every day.Highlightingtravelsouvenirsorhangingpicturesofpeoplewhoinspireyouwillincreaseyourpositiveenergytowardthoseinyourdailylife.

Fillyourspacewithcolorsandobjectsthatmakeyoufeelpeaceful,happy,andenergized.

Thetopright-handcorneroftheroomshouldcontainitemsthatremindyouofloveandrelationshipstofosterpositiveenergyinthisarea..Thetopmiddlepartof the room is focusedonharboringagood reputation in life andwithothers.Brightlightandobjectsyouareproudofshouldbeinthisarea.Thetopleft-handcornershouldbekepttidyinordertopromotewealthandgoodfinances.

The center parts of the room are focused more on your family’s health,wellness, and prosperity. The middle left section of the room is a place toimproveyourrelationships.Placingpicturesoffamilymembersandfriendsherewillhelpyoutreasurethosearoundyou.Themiddlerightsectionisthe“child”orcreativitypartoftheroomandinstrumentsandartworkshouldbeplacedhereto improve your creative mind. The center of the room—probably the mostimportantpart—isreservedforthe“self.”Thisisyourpersonalwell-beingandpositivestateofmind—alltheotherpartsoftheroomflowtheirenergytowardthecenter.Thispartoftheroomshouldbeabout“you”—yourstyle,yourlikes,andallthethingsthatmeanthemosttoyouinyourlife.

After you’ve sketched a plan of your room, think about where the fiveelementsoffengshuicomeintoplay.Watergenerallystaysinthecareerareaoftheroomandsoputtingwaterfountainsherewillhelpbalancethatenergy.Firecanbefoundoppositewater(perhapsintheformofcandles).Thefamilysectioncontains wood. Perhaps your family photos can be placed on a woodenbookshelf here. Metals resides in the creativity area and can be harnessed inmetalframesorothercircularmetaldesigns.Inthecenteroftheroomisearth;livingplantsshouldbeplacedheretobringgoodenergytothisareaoftheroom.

Themost important thing to remember is that feng shui in your homewilltranslate intomore positive energy, happiness, and harmony in your own life.While it’snotacure foreverydayproblems,havingahome inwhichyoufeelrelaxed and at peace helps make the hardships and annoyances in daily lifeeasiertoacceptanddealwith.

IntentionalCommunities

The challenges of a self-sufficient lifestyle can become overwhelming,especially if you are trying to do it alone, or even with just your family.Gardening, raising animals, preparing and preserving food, maintaining yourenergy-producingsystems,andperhapssellingyourproduceorcraftsalltakeagreatdealoftimeandenergy.Somepeoplefindthatlivingtogetherwithagroupof other like-minded individuals or families can ease these burdens and offermanyadditionalbenefits.

Intentional communities are groups of people who choose to live togetherbecause of common ideals, spirituality, or political views, or simply toaccomplishacommonpurpose.Intentionalcommunitiesdifferinpurpose,legalstructure, location, financial resources, and demographics. Ecovillages inparticular focus on creating self-sufficient, sustainable lifestyles, while othercommunitiesmayexisttosupportfamilieswithmentallydisabledchildren,ortointensify a particular spiritual walk. In some cases, all the members live andwork within the community, possibly even pooling all financial resources. Inother cases, people may hold regular outside jobs and contribute to thecommunity life in theeveningsoronweekends.Remember,whenconsideringlocation, to consider the zoning laws in that area and how they relate to yourvision.Someplacesmayhaverestrictionsonthenumberofpeoplewhocanliveinaparticulararea,whetheryoucansubdivideaproperty,orwhetheryoucanhave a business there. Whether the intentional community shares a cityapartment building or an organic farm, whether they’re a group of artists oryogis, the goal is to create an environmentwhere the commongoal canmorelikelybeachieved.

Many intentional communities fail, mainly due to financial constraints orinterpersonalconflict.Ifyouareinterestedinstartinganintentionalcommunity,there are several things you should do to set a firm foundation for yourendeavors:1. Create a clear vision. Know specifically why you want to form a

communityandputitinwriting.First,dreamofwhatyour“utopia”wouldbe,andthenoutlineclear,realisticgoalstomovetowardthatenvironment.No community is perfect, but you should at least know what perfectionwouldlooklikeforyou,andhaveideasofhowyoucancomeclosertothatvision.Givingyourcommunityanamecanhelptocreateacleareridentityandmakeiteasiertoexplaintoothers.

2. Determinehowpeoplecanbecomemembersandwhatmembers’roleswillbe.Atfirst,thismaybeassimpleasgettingafewfriendsexcitedaboutthecommunity and asking them to join. However, the most successfulcommunitiesaregenerallythosethattakethetimetoconsiderwhatkindofpeople should becomemembers, and how they’ll be involved. You maywantsomeone tokeeprecords,someone to runmeetings,andsomeone tooversee the chores.Ormaybe everyonewill share all the responsibilities.Be very clear about what sort of time, financial, or even emotionalcommitmentisexpectedofmembers.Anapplicationprocesscanbehelpfulindeterminingwhobecomesamember.

3. Figureoutfinances.Youmayneedasubstantialamountofmoneytobuyland, rent an apartment, or otherwise prepare a location for yourcommunity.Determinehowmuchyourstartupcostswillbeandwherethatmoney will come from. Then decide how members will contributefinanciallytothecommunity(whetherthey’llpaymonthlydues,orshareapercentage of their income, etc.). Some communities are almost entirelyself-sustaining,butyou’llprobablyatleastneedmoneyfortaxesorrent.

4. Lay down the law. It’s important to determine early on how decisionswithin the community will be made—who can vote on group decisions,whetherdecisionsmustbeunanimousorwhetherthemajorityrules,andsoon.Generally,themorethatpeopleareinvolvedindecisionsthatwillaffectthe community, the less conflict and resentment therewill be.Be sure towritethesebylawsdown.

5. Be honest and open.Don’t try to hide anything frommembers, potentialmembers,orthoseoutsideyourintentionalcommunity.Doingsowillonlycreate problems, build tension, and threaten your vision. If there’s afinancial problem, share itwith theothermembers. If yourvision for thecommunitybeginstoshift,talkaboutit.Beinggenuineandcommunicatingfreelywith thosewithin and around your communitymay be the biggestfactorinyoursuccess.

Evenwiththebestplanningandpreparation,onceyourcommunityisupandrunning, you are bound to run into interpersonal conflict. Personalities mayclash, or practical problems such as a noisy dog, an unruly child, or a lazyworker will pop up. Expect problems to arise, and you won’t feel sooverwhelmed when they actually do. Here are a few tips for dealing withinterpersonalconflict:

When a disagreement between community members arises, determinewhethertheconflictisaboutthefactspertainingtoasituation,orhowtheyfeelaboutthefacts.Iftheyaredisagreeingaboutthefacts,someresearchorquestioningofothermembersmaybehelpful. If, however, theyagreeonthe facts but are reacting differently to them, simply helping them tocommunicatetheirfeelingsadequatelymaybeenoughtosettlethedispute.Whenamemberfeelsverystronglyaboutanissue,askthatpersonwhyshefeels theway she does.Understanding eachmember’s underlying values,beliefs,andassumptionswillhelptocreateharmonywithinthegroup.Playdevil’sadvocate.Agreetoarguetheoppositesideofadisputefor15minutes, and see if you discover some validity in the other person’sargument.

Stopdiscussionsbeforetheybecomeexplosions.Ifanargumentisgettingtoo heated, call a time out. Return to the discussion after 15minutes, oronceemotionshavesettled.Practice active listening. Listen to what someone has said, paraphrase itback to them, and ask relevant questions. This will facilitate clearer anddeepercommunication.Understandthateveryonehasadifferentwayofperceivingandnavigatingtheworld.Another’sworldviewmay seem threatening at first, but if youtake the time to understand it, you may find your own worldviewsharpened.Knowwhentoletgo.Someconflictsneedimmediateresolutionandsomedonot. In some cases, it’s best to give the issue a rest and revisit it in aweekoramonth.Bythen,circumstancesorperceptionsmayhaveshifted.

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Resources

THEHOMEGARDENAmericanCommunityGardeningAssociationStartyourgardeninanurbanarea.communitygarden.org1777EastBroadStreetColumbusOH43203info@communitygarden.org1-877-ASK-ACGA1-877-275-2242

GardenVillageWebAcompletedirectoryofgardenorganizations.gardenweb.com

GardenWeb

Good site for discussion of various garden types and gardening techniques,includingdirectoriesofgardenretailersandlocalgardenresources.

gardenweb.com

LocalHarvestFindafarmers’marketnearesttoyou!localharvest.org

OasisNYC

AwebsitecoveringurbangardeningorganizationsintheNewYorkCityarea.

oasisnyc.net/gardens/resources.htm

TheFoodProjectBuildingsustainablelocalfoodsystems.thefoodproject.org555DudleyStreetDorchester,MA02125

PANTRYEatingWell

WholeLivingInformationandtipsoneatingandlivingwell.wholeliving.com42PleasantStreetWatertown,MA02472Phone:617-926-0200Fax:617-926-5021

FoodCo-ops

CoopDirectoryServiceSearchablelistingsoffoodco-opsacrosstheUSandCanada.coopdirectory.org1254EtnaStreet,St.Paul,MN55106PhoneandFax:651-774-9189thegang@coopdirectory.org

CooperativeGrocer

DirectoryforfoodcoopsbyCooperativeGrocer,afoodco-opmagazine.

cooperativegrocer.coop/coops2600E.FranklinAvenueMinneapolis,MN55406Phone:612-436-9182

Fax:612-692-8563

FeedingAmerica—FoodBankResultsFindfoodbanksinyourarea.feedingamerica.org/foodbank-results.aspx35EastWackerDrive,Suite2000Chicago,IL60601Phone:800-771-2303Fax:312-263-5626

Canning,Drying,andFreezingNationalCenterforHomeFoodPreservation

Goodsourceforotherpublicationsonfoodpreservationmethods.

uga.edu/nchfpTheUniversityofGeorgia208HokeSmithAnnexAthens,GA30602-4356Fax:706-542-1979PickYourOwn.orgSearchtofindpickyour-ownfarmsnearyou.Learnwhentopickfruitsandvegetables,andhowtocanordrythem.

pickyourown.orgblacke2007@pickyourown.org

EdibleWildPlantsandMushroomsWhat’sCookingAmericaCompleteguidetoedibleplantsandmushrooms.whatscookingamerica.net

MakeYourOwnFood

BrowniePointsAblogfulloffun,easy-to-followrecipes.browniepointsblog.com

SharingYourBounty

AmpleHarvest

AmpleHarvestisanonprofitorganizationthathelpsfoodpantriesandgardenerstoshareextraproduce.

ampleharvest.orginfo@AmpleHarvest.org

THEBACKYARDFARMChickens,Ducks,andTurkeys

AmericanPoultryAssociationamerpoultryassn.comP.O.Box306Burgettstown,PA15021Phone:724-729-3459danderson@keygroupinc.com

PoultryPagesInformationontypesofpoultryandhowtobuildachickencoop.poultrypages.com

BeekeepingandLivestock

American Beekeeping Federation List of Internet resources for beekeepersabfnet.org/node/163525PiedmontRd.NE,Bldg.5,Suite300Atlanta,GA30305-1509Phone:404-760-2875Fax404-240-0998info@abfnet.orgFarmIssues.com—MediaResourceCenterResource site for farmingquestions.Goodinformationonlivestock.

farmissues.com/mPortal/index.asp

TheBetterBarnyardListofresourcesforraisingsmallfarmanimals.betterbarnyard.com/resources

STRUCTURES50birdsBirdhouses&Feeders

Lotsofinformationonbirdhousesincludingfreeprintablebirdhousedesigns.

50birds.com/Default.htm

AllAboutDogHousesHowtobuildadoghousewithlinkstofreeplans.all-about-dog-houses.com

AmericanSocietyofInteriorDesignersAdirectoryforgreenbuilding.asid.org/designknowledge/sustain/news608MassachusettsAve.,NEWashington,D.C.20002-6006Phone:202-546-3480Fax:202-546-3240

Buildeazy

Instructionsforbuildingnearlyanything,withlotsoffreeplansavailable.

buildeazy.comBuildeazy.ComLtdP.O.Box39-303HowickAuckland,NewZealand1730buildeazy@gmail.com

DesignGreen

Blogdevotedtodiscussingthenewestdevelopmentingreeninteriordesign.

interiordesign.net/blog/1860000586.html

GatewayFarmAlpacas—FarmFencingHowtobuildadurablefarmfenceforlivestock.gatewayalpacas.com/alpaca-farming/fence-building.htm

SustainableABCAdirectoryofsustainablearchitectureproducts.sustainableabc.com/products.htmlSustainable Style Foundation An international, member-supported nonprofitorganizationcreatedtoprovideinformation,resources,andinnovativeprogramsthatpromotesustainablelivingandsustainabledesign.

sustainablestyle.org5113RussellAveNW,Studio5Seattle,WA98107Phone:206-324-4850Fax:206-324-4852info@sustainablestyle.org

ENERGYCompostingToiletWorld

Asitededicatedtoeducatingaboutcompostingtoiletsandpromotingtheiruse,includingwheretobuyoneandhowtomakeyourown.

compostingtoilet.orginfo@compostingtoilet.org

OasisDeginsLinksforinformationonusinggreywater.oasisdesign.net/greywater/references.htm

SustainableABC.com

Provideslinksonsustainablebuildingforeco-friendlycommunitiesaswellasadirectoryforenvironmentalandgreenbuildingproducts.

sustainableabc.com/index.htmlP.O.Box30085SantaBarbara,CA93130

SolarEnergy

USA nonprofit organization whose mission is to help others use renewableenergyandenvironmentalbuildingtechnologiesthrougheducation.

solarenergy.org

TheAmericanSolarEnergySocietyThenation’s leadingnonprofitassociationofsolarprofessionals&grassrootsadvocates.Includeswaystoget involvedinpromotingsolarenergy.

ases.org2400CentralAve,SuiteABoulder,Colorado80301Phone:303-443-3130Fax303-443-3212ases@ases.orgTheEnergyBible

Articles on the use of renewable energy aswell as links to organizations thatsupportvarioustypesofrenewableenergy,fromsolartogeothermal.

energybible.com11525PionaLaneAtascadero,CA93422editor@energybible.com

CRAFTSCandlesandSoap

BrambleBerryAnonlineretailerofsoapmakingandcandlemakingsupplies.brambleberry.com.

CandleandSoapMakingTechniques

Acompleteguideonhowtomakesoapandcandlesathome.candletech.com

HowtoMakeCandlesatHomeOfferstips,andteachesyouwhatyouneedandhowtomakecandles.makecandlesathome.com/index.html

SnowDriftFarmOnlinesupplierofsoapmaking,aromatherapy,andperfumeryproducts.snowdriftfarm.com

SoapMakingFunLearnhowtomakeallkindsofsoaps!soapmakingfun.com

OtherCrafts

BasketMakerEverythingyouneedtoknowaboutmakingbaskets.basketmakers.com/topics/tips/tipsmenu.htm

CraftSiteDirectory

Adirectory,bytopic,ofusefulonlinesitesdedicatedtoartsandcrafts.

craftsitedirectory.com/index.html

PotteryBasics

Adiscussiongroupandaguidetowheretofindsuppliersandworkshops.

potterybasics.com

MarketingYourSkills

CraftAnswers

Explainshowtosellhomemadewaresbasedonthetypeofcraft.

craftanswers.com

CraftMarketerDiscoverwaystogethomemadeproductsoutintothemarket.craftmarketer.comP.O.Box75Torreon,NM870614jamesd@gmail.com

Etsy:TheStorque

Esty’sbloghasgreatinformationonhowtosellhomemadecrafts,specificallyintheir“Indiepreneur”sections.

etsy.com/storqueEtsy,Inc.325GoldSt.,6thFloorBrooklyn,NY11201support@etsy.com

HandmadeCatalogAnotheronlineforumtobuyandsellhandmadegoods.handmadecatalog.comPhone:800-851-0183pam@handmadecatalog.com

WELL-BEINGHerbalMedicine

HerbologyOnlineresourceforherbalremedieswithablogfordiscussion.

herbology.com.au

MotherNature.comSuggestionsforherbalfirst-aidremedies.mothernature.com3227thAvenue,3rdFloorNewYork,NY10001

NaturalDisastersandFirst-Aid

ASPCA–DisasterPreparednessDisasterpreparednessfocusedonkeepingpetssafe.aspca.org/pet-care/disasterpreparedness

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) 424 E.92ndStNewYork,NY10128-6804Phone:212-876-7700

FederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)fema.gov500CStreetS.W.Washington,D.C.20472Phone:202-646-2500

Prepare.orgDisasterpreparationsfromtheAmericanRedCross.prepare.orgprepare@usa.redcross.org

ManagingandReducingStress

Mind,Body,SpiritDirectory

Listings on conscious living, holistic health, natural healing, spirituality andgreenresources.

bodymindspiritdirectory.org

The National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy Nonprofit organizationdedicatedtoeducatingthepubliconthebenefitsofaromatherapy.

naha.org3327W.IndianTrailRoadPMB144Spokane,WA99208Phone:509-325-3419Fax:509-325-3479info@naha.org

InteriorDesign

FengShuiWorldMagazine(Online)Malaysia’smagazineonthetopicoffengshui.A-17-1,17thFloor,NorthpointOffice,NorthpointMidValleyCity,No.1,MedanSyedPutraUtara,59200,KualaLumpur,Malaysia.+603-20803488letters@wofs.comfswmag.comLighting.com

Awebsitefulloflightingproductsforbothoutdoorsandindoors.

lighting.com231NorthAvenueW#135Westfield,NJ07090Phone:908-233-1116

PrimitiveDesignsStencilCo.Purchaseantiquedesignedstencils.primitivestenciling.com/index.htm

SimsStencilsEverythingyouneedtodoyourownstencilingathome.stencilsource.com

WorldofFengShuiOnlinefengshuimagazine.wofs.com/index.php

LivinginCommunity

FIC (Fellowship for Intentional Communities) FIC nurtures connections andcooperationamongcommunitariansandtheirfriends.Theyprovidepublications,support services forco-housinggroups,ecovillages, supportorganizations,andpeopleseekingahomeinacommunity.

ic.org

TwinOaksIntentionalCommunity

Located in Virginia, Twin Oaks shares their daily life through pictures,informationabouttheirwayofliving,andmore.

twinoaks.org/index.html

Recycling

Earth911

One-stop shop for all you need to know about reducing your impact, reusing

whatyou’vegot,andrecyclingyourtrash.

earth911.com14646N.KierlandBlvd.,Suite100Scottsdale,AZ85254Phone:480-337-3024GrassRootsRecyclingNetworkIncludesadirectoryofallUSstaterecyclingorganizations.grrn.org/resources/sros.htmlP.O.Box282Cotati,CA94931

PlanetGreen

Everythingyouwantedtoknowaboutlivinggreen.Subjectsincludefashion&beauty,food&health,home&garden,tech&transport,travel&outdoors,andwork&connect.

planetgreen.discovery.com/go-green/recycling

NationalRecyclingCoalitionNRCisanationalnonprofitadvocacygroup.nrc-recycle.org

NationalCenter forElectronicsRecyclingNonprofitorganization for recyclingelectronics.Gooddirectoryforwheretorecycleelectronicsinyourarea.

electronicsrecycling.org/Public/default.aspx

jlinnell@electronicsrecycling.org

Index

Note:recipesandprojectinstructionsareinitalics.

After-SunComfreyLotionagaveaggregateculturegardeningaloeveraAlpinegoatsAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelAnglo-NubiangoatsAngoragoatsannualsAnotherBrickSmokehouseapartments,studioappetizers

HotArtichokeDipwithHomemadeCrackersapplejuiceapples

AppleButterAppleJellyApplePieFillingcanningCrabAppleJellydryingfreezingPear-AppleJamRefrigeratedAppleSpreadrootcellars

applesauceapricots

ApricotJamcanningdryingfreezing

arboretumsaromatherapymassageArrowWeathervaneartichokesfreezing

HotArtichokeDipwithHomemadeCrackers

ascorbicacidasparaguscompanionplanting

freezingharvestingSteamedAsparaguswithTarragonButterwild

astragalusaxils

BackyardCompostingHeapBakedPearsbananasBandage,HandBarkBasket,BirchBarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolderbarrels

BarrelCoopBarrelPlantHolderBarrelSmokehouseSimpleRainBarrel

BasicCold-PressedSoapBasicVase/Urnbasketweaving

BirchBarkBasketCoiledBasketSmallReedBasket

bathproducts,homemadeBathSalt,LavenderBeadworkbeans

BakedBeanscanningfreezinggreenharvestinglimaPickledThree-BeanSaladplantingSuccotash

beechtreesbeef.Seemeatbeefstock(broth)beekeeping.SeealsobeesBeehive

describedhiveshoneycollection

Beer

bees.Seealsobeekeepingbeeswax

BeeswaxCandle,RolledMakingBeeswax

beetsberries.Seealsospecificberriesberryjams

canningdryingwildedible

bilberriesBirchBarkBasketbirdhousesBirdArkBirdhouse

describedLean-toBirdhouseLogCabinBirdhouseTempleBirdhouse

birdsBirdShelters,Simpleblackberries

BlackberryJellycanningPorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSaucewild

BlackCayugaducksblanchersblanchingblueberries

BlueberryPieFillingBlueberry-SpiceJamcanning

boiling-watercannersbookbinding

BookbindingYourOwnBooksSimpleHomemadeBookCovers

BoomerangsbotulismBourbonRedturkeysBowlineKnotBowls(pottery)BoxCoopbractsBread,OatmealBreadandButterPicklesBrickSmokehouse,AnotherBridge,VerySimplebridges

FootbridgeSmallStreamBridge

VerySimpleBridgebroccoliBrokenBonesBronzeturkeysbrushhouses

BrushLean-toSimpleBrushHouseBrusselssproutsfreezingharvestingplantingRoastedNewPotatoesandBrusselsSprouts

built-infurnitureburdocksBurningClothing,PuttingOutBurns/ScaldsButterbutterfliesButterflyKiteButternutSquashSoup

cabbagefreezingharvestingPiccalilliplantingseedlings

cactiCalmingTeacandles,handmade

describedJarredSoyCandlesRolledBeeswaxCandleTaperCandles

Candlestick(pottery)cannerscanning.Seealsospecificfoodlistings

colorretentiondescribedequipmentfoodacidityfoodfreshnessfruithigh-altitudehotpackingjarspiefillingsprocessingtimesrawpacking

specialdietsspoiledfoodsyrupstestingjarsealsvegetables

cantaloupecarrots

canningfreezingharvestingplantingRoastChickenandRootVegetablesCarryingtheInjured

cattailscauliflowercelerychamomilechanterellescheese

CheddarCheeseCheesePressCottageCheesedescribedDomiatiCheeseFetaCheesefreezinggoatcheesesMozzarellaQuesoBlancoRicottaYogurtCheese

CheesePresscherries

canningCherryPieFillingdrying

CherryPieFillingchicken

bacteriafromCitrusChickenRoastChickenandRootVegetablesstock(broth)

ChickenFeedChickenRoost,Foldingchickens.Seealsoeggs

BarrelCoopBoxCoopbreedsChickenFeed

chicksDrinkingFountainfeedingFoldingChickenRoosthousingPortableCoopPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseTwo-RoomHenhousewintercareYoungPoultryCoops

chicoryChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)ChipwicheswithHomemadePeppermintStickIceCreamcitricacidCitrusChickencitruspeelCitrusScrubclaysoilCleansingTeaClearJelCloveHitchCoiledBasketcoldhardyplantsCold-PressedSoap,BasicRecipecollardsColoredRouensduckscomfreyrootCommonColdTeacommunitygardenscompanionplantingcompostcomposting

BackyardCompostingHeapbinscoldcompostingcompostheapsdescribedmaterialsslowcompostingVermicompostingPile

compostingtoiletsCompostingToiletdescribedConditioner,HairconifersconsignmentsellingCookingOven,SolarCooperativeExtensionServicesco-ops,food

coops,poultryBarrelCoopBoxCoopPortableCoopYoungPoultryCoops

coralfungicorn

canningcompanionplantingfreezingharvestingSuccotash

CornhuskDollsCornstarchJewelrycosmetics,natural

After-SunComfreyLotionCitrusScrubfruitsforyourskinHairConditionerHealingBathSoakHoneyLipGlossLavenderBathSaltMintyCucumberFacialMaskRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubShampooTintedLipBalmTropicalFaceCleanservegetablesforyourskin

CotswoldsheepCottageCheeseCoughRemedyCrabAppleJellycrafts.SeealsospecificcraftlistingscranberriesCucumberFacialMask,Mintycucumbers.Seealsopicklescultivarscurrants,blackcurtainsCuts/Wounds

dandelionsDandelionWineuses

daylightdeciduousplantsdecoctionsdeeptissuemassagedehydrators,food

types

WoodstoveFoodDehydratordesksdesserts

BakedPearsChipwicheswithHomemadePeppermintStickIceCreamGingerbreadwithPumpkinCreamSauceIceCreamRhubarbCustardPie

dillpickles.Seepicklesdinnerpartiesdisasters,naturalDislocationInjuriesdiureticsDogKennel,StandardDolls,CornhuskDomiatiCheeseDrinkingFountain(chicken)Drowningrescuedryingfoodducksdyes,natural

earthquakesearthwormsechinaceaecovillageseggplanteggs.Seealsochickenselderberriesendiveenergy.Seealsogeothermalenergy;hydropower;solarenergy;windenergyEnglishHurdlePortableFenceentertainingenzymeserosionpreventioneveningprimroseoilexerciseexhausting(canning)extractseyewash

FaceCleanser,TropicalFacialMask,MintyCucumberFaintingfarmanimals.Seealsospecificanimalsfarmers’marketsfences.Seealsogates

EnglishHurdlePortableFencegardenportable

ScotchHurdleFenceWireFencesWoodenFences

fengshuiFertilityTeafertilizers

applicationcommercialcompostandlawnclippingsorganicsoilconditionandtree

FestiveMincemeatPieFillingFetaCheesefigsFingerlessMittens,Knittedfirstaid

BrokenBonesBurningClothingBurns/ScaldsCarryingtheInjuredCuts/WoundsDislocationDrowningrescueFaintingHandBandageHemorrhageIceRescueInsectStingsInternalBleedingkitchecklistnaturalfirstaidPoisoningShock/NervousCollapseSnakeBiteSunstrokeTourniquet

FishKitefish/seafoodflaxseed/flaxseedoilfloodsFlourPasteflowers.Seealsogardening

annualsbedpreparationcontainergardensflowergardeningNaturalWaxFlowersperennials

plantingplantselectionPressedFlowersshadesiteselectionwatering

FoldingChickenRoostfood.Seealsocanning;dryingfood

acidicfoodsfreezinglocallygrownlow-acidfoodsspoilage

foodco-opsFootbridgeFootScrub,RosemaryPeppermintFountain,Drinking(chicken)freezingfoodFreshTomato,BasilandMozzarellaSaladfriendshipsFrogKitefruit.Seealsocanning;specificfruitlistings

freezingwildedible

FruitLeatherfruitpureesfruitspreads

describedLemonCurdLimeCurdPeach-PineappleSpreadRefrigeratedAppleSpreadRefrigeratedGrapeSpread

garagesalesgardening.Seealsofertilizers;flowers;insects;

plants;soil;vegetablesbedpreparationcommunitycontainercovercropsdescribedharvestmulchorganicpestsplantingplantselectionraisedbedrooftop

schoolgardensseedlingssiteselectionsoillesstenderbulbs/tubersterracestoolstransplantingvinedryingwateringweedswildlifeinzonemapfor

GardenPotpourriGardenTrellisgarlicgates.Seealsofences

describedGardenTrellisRusticGardenGateSimpleGate

gelatingeothermalenergygeranium,sweetgingerGingerbreadwithPumpkinCreamSauceginkgoginsenggoats

breedsdiseasesoffeedingmilkmilking

grapefruitgrapes

canningdrying

GrapeJellygrapejuiceGrape-PlumJellyRefrigeratedGrapeSpreadgrapeseedextractgrapevine,wildgrassclippings

compostingasfertilizer

grassesgreenhousesgreentea

greywatergroundcovers

HairConditionerHalterKnotHandBandageharvestingHat,Knittedhazelnutsheadspace(canning)HealingBathSoakhealth.Seewell-beingHeatCollectorheatprocessingHemorrhageHenhouse,PracticalHenhouse,Two-Roomherbaceousplantsherbalmedicine.Seealsocosmetics,natural;

specificherbnamesCalmingTeaCleansingTea

CommonColdTeadescribedFertilityTeaforhairHealingBathSoakHerbalTincturenaturalfirstaidHerbalTinctureherbs.Seealsoherbalmedicine;specificherb

namescontainergardeningdescribeddryinghydroponicgardeningaspestrepellentsplantingpotpourri

HighTreehouseinOneTreeHomemadeMassageOilhoney.SeebeekeepingHoneyLipGlossHorseradishSauce,PickledHotArtichokeDipwithHomemadeCrackershotpackprocedureHotTomato-PepperSauce(ChileSalsa)hurricaneshybridplantshydroponicgardening

HydroponicsSystemhydropower

icecreamsChipwicheswithHomemadePeppermintStickIceCream

IceCreamIceRescueinflorescenceinfusionInjured,Carryinginsects

attractinginorganicgardenspestmanagementStings

integratedpestmanagement(IPM)intentionalcommunitiesinteriordesign

describedfengshuilightingStencilingWallpapering

InternalBleedingirrigationsystems

greywaterIrrigationSystems,installingOutdoorPlanterswaterconservationand

jams.SeealsofruitspreadsApricotJamberryjamsBlueberry-SpiceJamPeachJamPear-AppleJamwithoutpectinJars(pottery)jelliesAppleJellyBlackberryJellyCrabAppleJellyfreezingGrapeJellyGrape-PlumJellywithpectinPlumJellyStrawberry-RhubarbJellywithoutpectin

jerkies

jewelry,beadedBeadworkCornstarchJewelry

juniper

kaleKetchup,Tomatokilnskitesknitting

describedFingerlessMittensHatSimpleScarfSquareBlanket

knottying

LaManchagoatsLampshadeslaughterlavender

describedLavenderBathSalt

lawns.SeealsograssclippingsLean-toBirdhouseleathers

MixedVegetableLeatherPumpkinLeatherTomatoLeather

leaves,compostingwithleeksLeicestersheepLemonCurdlettuce

freezingharvestinghydroponicgardeningplanting

licoricerootlight

daylightplantrequirements

lightingdescribedLampshadessconces

LimeCurdlime(garden)LipBalm,TintedLipGloss,Honey

llamasloamsoilLogCabinBirdhouseLotion,After-SunComfreylotusLowTwo-treeTreehouse

maindishesBakedBeansCitrusChickenPorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSauceRoastChickenandRootVegetablesSausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowlSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatStewinaPumpkinBowl,SausageandApple

manuremarigoldsMarinatedJerkyMarinatedPeppersmarshmarigoldsMassageOil,Homemademassagetherapies

describedHomemadeMassageOiltechniques

meatcanningfreezingjerkiesPorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSauceSausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowlsmokingstock(broth)

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopmelonsMerinosheepmicroclimatesmicroorganismsmilkmilking,goatsmilkthistleMincemeatPieFilling,FestiveMintyCucumberFacialMaskmistletoeMittens,KnittedFingerlessMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesmohairmold,infoodmorels

MozzarellaCheesemulberriesmulchMuscovyducksmushroomsmustardmycotoxins

Narragansettturkeysnativeplantsnaturalcosmetics.Seecosmetics,naturalnaturaldisastersNaturalWaxFlowersnectarines

canningdryingfreezing

nettlesnewspaper,asmulchnitrogennuts

hazelnutswalnutswildedible

oakOatmealBreadoats,asgreenmanureokraonions

harvestingpestsandplantingwildonlineselling

open-kettlecanningorangesorganicfood,benefitsorganicgardeningorganicmatterinsoilorrisrootOutdoorPlanters(irrigation)Oven,SolarCookingOxforddownsheep

palmettopalmpaniclesPaper,HandcraftedPaste,Flourpasteurization

peachescanningdryingfreezing

PeachJamPeach-PineappleSpreadpears

BakedPearscanningdryingfreezing

Pear-AppleJampeas

canningfreezingharvestingplanting

pectinpensPeppermintFootScrub,RosemarypeppermintoilPeppermintStickIceCream,Homemade,withChipwichespeppers

ChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)freezingharvestingMarinatedPeppers

PiccalilliplantingperennialsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnpersimmonspH

canninganddefinedsoil

phosphorusphotovoltaicenergyPiccalilliPickledHorseradishSaucePickledThree-BeanSaladpickles

BreadandButterPicklesDillPicklesDillPickles,QuickFresh-PackPickleRelishSweetPickles,QuickSweetPickles,Reduced-SodiumSliced

Pie,RhubarbCustardpiefillings

PineappleSpread,PeachpinesPinwheelWeathervaneplantainsPlantaRowfortheHungryProgram(PAR)planting,companionplants.Seealsoflowers;gardening;herbs;

vegetablesdiseasesfordryconditionsenvironmentalconditionsforintegratedpestmanagement(IPM)nutrientsofseedlingsshadeterminologywaterrequirements

PlantStand,Rusticplantstandsplums

canningdryingGrape-PlumJelly

PlumJellyPlymouthRockchickensPoisoningPoisonIvyReliefpokeweedspork.SeemeatPorkMedallionswithBlackberryCreamSaucePortableCooppotassiumpotatoescanningfreezingharvestingplantingPotatoesandBrusselsSprouts,RoastedNewRoastChickenandRootVegetablespotpourri

BasicRecipedescribedGardenPotpourriRosePotpourriSachetPotpourri

potteryBasicVase/UrnBowlsCandlestickdescribed

embellishmentfiringJarsPermanentHomemadePotteryKilnPotteryWheelSawdustKilnwheel-work

poultry.Seealsochicken;chickens;ducks;turkeyscanningfreezingjerkiesPracticalHenhouseSimplestPoultryHouseSlaughteringPoultrystock(broth)YoungPoultryCoops

PressedFlowerspressurecannerspricklypearcactiprunespruningpuffballs(mushrooms)PumpingWindmillpumpkins

canningGingerbreadwithPumpkinCreamSauceharvestingplantingPumpkinLeatherSausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowl

pygmygoats

QuesoBlancoQuickFresh-PackDillPicklesQuickSweetPickles

radishesraffiaRainBarrel,SimpleRaisedBedsraisedgardenbedsraspberriesrattanrawpack(coldpack)procedureredcloverReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesReedBasket,Smallreeds,cattailRefrigeratedAppleSpread

RefrigeratedGrapeSpreadreindeermossrhubarb

canningRhubarbCustardPieStrawberry-RhubarbJelly

RicottaCheeseRoastChickenandRootVegetablesRoastedNewPotatoesandBrusselsSproutsrooftopgardensRootCellarRootHouseRosemaryPeppermintFootScrubroses

potpourriRosePotpourriwild

RusticGardenGateRusticPlantStandrutabagasrye,asgreenmanure

SaanengoatsSachetPotpourrisalads

FreshTomato,BasilandMozzarellaSaladPickledThree-BeanSalad

salt,canning(pickling)sandysoilsassafrassauces,freezingSauerkrautSausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowlSawdustKilnschoolgardenssconcesScotchHurdleFenceseeds,gardeningshadeplantsshaggymanemushroomsShampoosheds.SeetoolshedssheepSheepshankKnotshelvingShiatsumassageShieldKiteShropshiresheepshrubssidedishes

BakedBeansMarinatedPeppersMixedVegetablesPiccalilliRoastedNewPotatoesandBrusselsSproutsSauerkraut

SteamedAsparaguswithTarragonButterSuccotashSimpleBirdSheltersSimpleBrushHouseSimpleGateSimpleHomemadeBookCoversSimpleScarf,KnittedSimplestPoultryHousesleeprequirementsSlipKnotSmall,RusticToolShedSmallReedBasketsmokehouses

AnotherBrickSmokehousefrombarrelsStandardSmokehouse

SnakeBiteSoap,BasicCold-Pressedsoaps

CitrusScrubSoap,BasicCold-PressedTropicalFaceCleanser

soilenrichmentofforgardenspHdeterminationtestingtillingtypeswaterretention

solarenergyAlternativeSolarHeatingPanelcollectorsdaylightingdescribedHeatCollectorheatingsystemregulationshybridsystemsPassiveSolarSpaceHeaterSolarCookingOvensolargreenhousesSolarPanelssolarthermalenergySolarWaterHeater

soupsButternutSquashSoupcanningSausageandAppleStewinaPumpkinBowl

SouthdownsheepSoyCandles,JarredSpaceHeater,PassiveSolarSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeatspatterdockspecialdiets

canningforReduced-SodiumSlicedSweetPicklesreducedsugarfruitspreads

spices,potpourrispinachspreads,fruit.SeefruitspreadssproutsSquareBlanket,KnittedSquareKiteSquare/ReefKnotsquash

ButternutSquashSoupcanningfreezingharvestingplanting

St.John’swortstablesStandardDogKennelStandardSmokehouseSteamedAsparaguswithTarragonButterstenciling

describedStencilDesigns

StewinaPumpkinBowl,SausageandApplestrawberries

Strawberry-RhubarbJellywildedible

stressSuccotashsucculentsSunstrokeSwedishmassagesweetpickles.SeepicklessweetpotatoesSwisschardsyrups

TaperCandlestaxonomy,defined

teasdefinedgreenteaHomemadeHerbalTeas

temperature,plantrequirementsTempleBirdhouseterracegardeningthistleThree-BeanSalad,PickledTimberHitchtincturesTintedLipBalmTobaggansToggenburggoatstoilets

compostingCompostingToilettomatoescanningChileSalsa(HotTomato-PepperSauce)crushedtomatoesFreshTomato,BasilandMozzarellaSaladharvestinghydroponicgardeningPiccalilliplantingSpaghettiSaucewithoutMeat

tomatojuiceTomatoKetchupTomatoLeathertomatosaucetoolsheds

Medium-sizedToolShedandWorkshopSmall,RusticToolShed

Tourniquettreehouses

HighTreehouseinOneTreeLowTwo-treeTreehouse

treesTrellis,GardentriggerpointmassageTropicalFaceCleansertumericturkey,stock(broth)turkeysturnipsTwoHalfHitchKnotsTwo-RoomHenhouse

vacuum(canning)

valerianVase/Urn,Basicvegetables.Seealsocanning;specificvegetable

listingscompanionplantingcontainergardensfreezinggardeningharvestMixedVegetableLeatherMixedVegetablesraisedbedsrootrootcellarsshade/partialshadewildedible

VermicompostingPileVerySimpleBridgevinesviolets

Wallpaperingwalnutswater.Seealsohydroponicgardening;irrigationconservationforgardensforplantssoiltypesandwatercresswaterculturegardeningwaterheaters

describedSolarWaterHeater

waterlilieswatermelonsWaxFlowers,Naturalweathervanes

ArrowWeathervanePinwheelWeathervane

windsocksWind-SpeederWeathervaneWoodenWeathervanewell-beingSeealsocosmetics,natural;herbalmedicine;stressWheel,PotteryWhiteAylesburyducksWhiteHollandturkeysWhitePekinduckswildfireswildflowerswindenergy

describedhybridsystemsPumpingWindmillstand-alonesystems

WindmillWindMotorwindturbines

zoningrestrictionsWindmillWindmill,PumpingWindMotorwindowboxesWind-SpeederWeathervaneWine,DandelionWireFencesWoodenFencesWoodenWindowBoxWoodstoveFoodDehydratorwoodyplantswoolSeealsollamas;mohairWorkshop,Medium-sizedToolShedandwoundsWoundWashesWyandottechickens

YogurtYogurtCheeseYoungPoultryCoops

zonemapforgardening

1 Ifsuperfinesugarisnotavailable,rungranulatedsugarthroughagrinderorfoodprocessorfor1minute, letsettle,anduseinplaceofsuperfinesugar.Donotusepowderedsugar.

2 Bottledlemonjuiceisusedtostandardizeacidity.Freshlemonjuicecanvaryinacidityandisnotrecommended.

3 Ifadoubleboilerisnotavailable,asubstitutecanbemadewithalargebowlorsaucepanthatcanfitpartwaydownintoasaucepanofasmallerdiameter.Ifthebottompanhasalargerdiameter,thetopbowlorpanshouldhaveahandleorhandlesthatcanrestontherimofthelowerpan.