HONG KONG SCIENCE TEACHERS' JOURNAL

HONG KONG SCIENCE TEACHERS JOURNAL

Journal of the

Science and Mathematics EducationHong Kong Association for

The Association is a founder member of:

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF ASSOCIATIONS FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION (ICASE)

FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DES ASSOCIATIONS DE PROFESSEUJRS DE SCIENCES (FIAPS)

FEDERACION INTERNACIONAL DE ASOCIACIONES DE PROFESORES DE CIENCIAS (FIAPC)

IC

AS

E

HKASME Council 2014-2015

President Professor Paul CHUHon. Auditor Mr. Alex WUHon. Legal Advisor Mr. Lester HUANGChairmanMr. LAU Kwok Leung, Gyver TWGHS Wong Fung Ling CollegeVice-chairmanMr. WONG Wing Kei, Stephen China Holiness Church Living Spirit CollegeHon. SecretaryMr. LI Chi Man, Jimmy YLPMSAA Tang Siu Tong Secondary SchoolHon. TreasurerMr. MOK Ming Wai, Michael Wah Yan College, KowloonHon. Internal Affairs SecretaryMs. HO Mei Fun, Mavis HKASMEHon. EditorMr. LEE Wai Hon, Chris PLK Celine Ho Yam Tong CollegeBiology ConvenorMr. LI Chi Man, Jimmy YLPMSAA Tang Siu Tong Secondary SchoolChemistry ConvenorDr. LUI Bob Kings CollegeGeneral Science ConvenorMr. LO Yuk Shan, Alice Pentecostal SchoolMathematics ConvenorMs. TSUI Kwan Yuk HKSYCIA Wong Tai Shan Memorial CollegePhysics ConvenorMr. LAU Chi Ho, Humphrey SKH Tang Shiu Kin Secondary SchoolCouncil Members Mr. FUNG Tak Wah HKASMEMr. NG Bing, Ben HKASMEImmediate Past ChairmanMr. WONG Chi Kong, Alex HKASMEOffice StaffProject Manager: Mr. WONG Kam Hon, GoldenSecretary: Ms. CHU Bik HaAccounting Officer: Ms. LO Yin Fong, Yvonne

2014-2015

312015820158

2015630,

Articles for the Hong Kong Science Teachers Journal are welcomed from anyone interested in Science and Mathematics Education. Practising teachers are particularly encouraged to contribute. Articles may be submitted to the Editor at the address/email address given below in either English or Chinese. The next issue (Volume 31, August 2015) will be published in August 2015.

In particular references should be made using the name-date convention. Abstracts of articles are not required, but it will be usual for articles to begin with an introductory paragraph.

Authors should make clear the name-style and institution which they wish to head the article. Long articles, or articles with many illustrations, must be submitted on or before 30 June, 2015, though short notes, book reviews may be considered later than this.

The views expressed in articles within this journal are authors own and do not necessarily represent any official view either of the Association or any other public body.

Copyright of each article is co-owned by the author and the HKASME. The HKASME is willing, unless otherwise stated, to permit other similar educational, scientific associations to reproduce articles from this journal (for non-profit making purposes) without prior notification, by giving the usual acknowledgements. This does not apply to articles reproduced from other magazines.

Contributions to the Journal

All correspondence should be addressed to

The Hon. Journal Editor, HKASMERoom 114, 1/F, Po On Court,

1-15 Po On Road, Sham Shui Po, Kowloon.

114Website: http://www.hkasme.org

Tel: 2333 0096 / 2333 7602

Fax: 2333 3355

Email: [email protected]

Editorial

As a 50th Anniversary Special Edition, this issue of Hong Kong Science Teachers Journal consists of three main parts: Articles, Newsletter and the specially added part HKASME 50th Anniversary. We hope that our Journal can be academic, as well as informative about the HKASME and members can also get involved in the good memories of these 50 years of the association.

There are 13 academic articles, with 4 in English and 9 in Chinese, in the Articles part.

The author of the 1st article made use of some mathematical problems to promote the attitude of critical thinking so that teachers can gradually build up a learning community. This article serves as a good reference material for all educators.

The author of the 2nd article reviewed the importance of mathematics in his life. He hoped that his personal experience can inspire mathematics and science educators.

The authors of the 3rd article made use of a popular mobile phone App to discuss the mathematics involved. Mathematics teachers are highly recommended to read this article.

The authors of the 4th article Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planning with Backward Design Approach A Hong Kong School Case Study shared the experiences on school-based science curriculum planning and design in a recent QEF project by the HKASME with the collaboration of five schools. Science teachers who like curriculum planning and design are highly recommended to read this article.

The author of the 5th article DSE shared his experience on students common mistakes in carrying out chemistry experiments since the implementation of the New Senior Secondary curriculum. He also proposed some solutions to these problems.

Have you ever heard of Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS)? The author of the 6th article Next Generation Science Standards The Way Forward? discussed the NGSS, which was an idea released in the U.S. in 2013. This article serves as a good reference material for science teachers.

The authors of the 7th article Strategies for Enhancing Students Situational Interest in Chemistry Lessons discussed the instructional strategies for chemistry teachers in order to enhance students interest in school chemistry in terms of data analysis in a survey. Chemistry teachers are highly recommended to read this article.

The authors of the 8th article shared the findings in the action research they conducted in order to cater for learning differences in mathematics by using group learning approach during lessons. This article might provide mathematics teachers with some insights on teaching methodologies.

Chris, Wai-hon LeeJournal Editor, HKASME

34 2

The author of the 9th article (GeoGeBra) shared the findings in the action research he conducted by making use of questioning techniques in metacognition and an interactive geometrical software to help mathematics students find solutions of linear and quadratic equation systems. The views of mathematics teachers could be broadened after reading this article.

The author of the 10th article Physics, Chemistry and Life discussed that physics, chemistry and biology seem very different, but share something in common. The views of physics, chemistry and biology teachers could be broadened after reading this article.

Four of the five authors of the 11th article were undergoing training to be physics teachers in the future. They conducted an investigative study which is not related to physics in order to experience the situation just like their students get involved in a project work of unfamiliar topic. Science teachers who like to learn by investigation are highly recommended to read this article.

The author of the 12th article reviewed a large number of literature concerning science specific genres, examination reports and curriculum materials in Hong Kong. He shared some proposed teaching strategies in relation to the abilities to express languages in science of Hong Kong secondary school students. The views of science teachers could be broadened after reading this article.

The authors of the 13th article shared a set of science-learning activities he designed about the topic Aquaponics in order to promote the importance of science for students. Biology and science teachers who like to design teaching activities are highly recommended to read this article.

The HKASME 50th Anniversary part is expected to be the most exciting part of this issue. This part includes Chronicle of HKASME, Precious Moments of HKASME, Memorable Objects of HKASME, Recent Volumes of HKASME Journal, List of Chairpersons, Themes of Recent AGM Forums and so on. Besides, articles about the history of HKASME written by some past chairpersons or senior members can also be found in this part. As the contents cover the historical events of the association over these 50 years, it is hoped that good memories can come to our mind vividly again.

In the Newsletter part, a lot of information of the HKASME can be found. Members can revisit the activities held in the last academic year from the Chairmans Report, Subject Reports and Hon. Internal Affairs Secretarys Annual Report for the Year 2013-2014. The article Projects Summary of HKASME can provide members with updated information about the various projects undertaken by the HKASME in recent tears. Among the activities held, the AGM Forum is probably the most important event to the education sector. The article 2014 reminds us the highlights of various parts of the event.

The cover of this issue is a photo captured during the 2014 AGM. In the photo, you can find the guest speakers of the AGM, members of the HKASME, as well as some old friends. It is hoped that the HKASME will go on serving the mathematics and science education and another even better 50 years is to come.

1349

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2

3

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4Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planning with Backward Design Approach A Hong Kong School Case Study

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7Strategies for Enhancing Students Situational Interest in Chemistry Lessons

8

34 2

9 (GeoGeBra)

10Physics, Chemistry and Life

11

12

13

(Chairmans Report)(Subject Reports)(Hon. Internal Affairs Secretarys Annual Report for the Year 2013-2014)Projects Summary of HKASME

2014

2014

Contents

Articles

1. ..............................P.1

2. ...............................................................................................................................P.8

3. .............................................................................................................................P.13

4. Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planning with Backward Design Approach A Hong Kong School Case Study ............................P.20 Kam-wah CheungHKASME Ricky, Wai-kit TsuiTak Sun Secondary School Chi-kin WongHKASME

5. DSE .................................................................................P.33

6. Next Generation Science Standards The Way Forward? ...............................................P.35 Carole, Kwan-ping LeeUniversity of Maine at Farmington, U.S.A.

7. Strategies for Enhancing Students Situational Interest in Chemistry Lessons .............P.47 Derek Cheung, Kwok-cheung Lo Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

8. .................................................................P.52

34 2

9. (GeoGeBra) .................................................................P.62

10. Physics, Chemistry and Life.................................................................................................P.98 Him-shek KwanWong Shiu Chi Secondary School

11. ............................................................................... P.111

12. ...........................................................P.123

13. ...........................................................................................................P.129

HKASME 50th Anniversary

1. Chronicle of HKASME ......................................................P.134

2. Precious Moments of HKASME .......................................................P.140

3. Memorable Objects of HKASME .....................................................P.148

4. Recent Volumes of HKASME Journal .............................................................P.152

5. List of Chairpersons ..........................................................................................P.153

6. Themes of Recent AGM Forums ..............................................P.154

7. Fun Science Competition ...........................................................................P.155

8. Mathematics Trail and Science & Mathematics Trail ................P.157

9. Hong Kong Chemistry Olympaid for Secondary School ...............................................P.158

10. ...............................................................................................P.160

11. Important Science Educators in My Life ..........................................................................P.165 Vincent, Wai-shing Lo MHPrincipal of Evangel College

12. A Tribute to the HKASME 50th Anniversary ..................................................................P.167 Carole, Kwan-ping LeeUniversity of Maine at Farmington, U.S.A.

13. A Conceptual Reflection on the Roles of the HKASME: A Model for Future Developments ....................................................................................P.168 King-chee Pang, MH

14. Memorable Moments associated with HKASME ............................................................P.173 Jack Holbrook

15. The Teacher Assessment Scheme (TAS) for A level Chemistry .......................................P.176 Jack Holbrook

16. ...............................................................................P.178

17. The Web Presence of HKASME a Historical Path of the Virtual HKASME and its Development ...................................P.180 Chi-kong WongChairman, HKASME

18. ...................................................................................................................P.187

19. Memorizing Three Special Persons at the 50th Year of HKASME ................................P.189 Chi-kong WongChairman, HKASME

Newsletter

1. Chairmans Report 2013-2014 ...........................................................................................P.191 Chi-kong WongChairman, HKASME

2. 2014...............................................................................P.193

3. Hon. Internal Affairs Secretarys Annual Report for the Year 2013-2014 ....................P.196 Mavis, Mei-fun HoHon. Internal Affairs Secretary, HKASME

4. (Subject Reports) ...............................................................................................P.197

5. Projects Summary of HKASME ........................................................................................P.218 Golden, Kam-hon WongProject Manager, HKASME

6. (New Products Section) ..................................................................................P.226 Ben NgCouncil Member, HKASME

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4 Schn, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. London, U.K.: Temple Smith. 5 6 Whats in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. Romeo & Juliet, Shakespeare.

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14 Elements 15 Durell, C. V. & Wright, R. M. (1927). Elementary trigonometry. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.Durell, C. V. & Wright, R. M.1963 Durell, C. V. (1920). Modern geometry: The straight line and circle. London: Macmillan. Durell, C. V. (1927). School certificate algebra: an alternative version of: A new algebra for schools. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.Durell, C. V.1963a Durell, C. V. (1936). General arithmetic for schools. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.Durell, C. V.1963c Durell, C. V. (1939). A new geometry for schools. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.Durell, C. V.1963b

16 Ernest, P. (Ed.) (1991). The philosophy of mathematics education. Hamsphire: The Falmer Press. 17 Wilder, R. L. (1952). An introduction to the foundations of mathematics (Chapter XII: The cultural setting of mathematics, pp. 281-299).

New York: John Wiley & Sons. 18 esoteric math: Cooper, B., & Dunne, M. (1998). Anyone for tennis? Social class differences in childrens responses to

National Curriculum Mathematics Testing. The Sociological Review, 46(1), 115-148.

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Behavior Books. 23 24 25 Siu, F. K., Siu, M. K., & Wong, N. Y. (1993). Changing times in mathematics education: The need of a scholar-teacher. In C. C. Lam, H.

W. Wong, & Y. W. Fung (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on Curriculum Changes for Chinese Communities in Southeast Asia: Challenges of the 21st Century (pp. 223-226). Hong Kong: Department of Curriculum and Instruction, the Chinese University of Hong Kong.

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1

Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planning with Backward Design Approach

A Hong Kong School Case Study

Kam-wah Cheung HKASME

Ricky, Wai-kit Tsui Tak Sun Secondary School

Chi-kin Wong HKASME

Introduction In 2013, the Quality Education Fund (QEF) granted the Hong Kong Association for Science and Mathematics Education (HKASME)s Project, Developing Students Science Process Skills: Bridging the Gap between Junior Science Curriculum and the New Senior Secondary (NSS) Curriculum with Assessment for Learning (AfL) Strategies. One of the aims of the Project is to design a school-based curriculum to develop students science process skills with the collaboration of five schools. Tak Sun Secondary School, one of the five schools, is a Direct Subsidy Scheme (DSS) boys school using English as the medium of instruction. As a collaborative school, two Secondary 2 classes were arranged to participate in this Project; 36 students of one class were of higher ability, while 35 students of another of average ability. The two classes were taught by different teachers of comparable teaching experiences and academic background. This paper reports this school-based curriculum experiences with emphasis on: How could Backward Design Approach be applied in school-based curriculum planning to

develop students science process skills? How could assessment for learning be integrated into learning and teaching with the aid of

double-digit coding system? How could Backward Design Approach affect students achievements in their learning? Curriculum Planning using Backward Design Approach In Hong Kong, junior science subject teaching is guided by the Syllabus for Secondary School Science (Secondary 1-3) (Curriculum Development Council, 1998). This Syllabus provides a framework and topics to facilitate teachers to identify the learning and teaching priorities. In order to achieve the learning objectives, the Syllabus advises teachers to sequence the topics, i.e. drawing up schemes of work and assessment in a manner commensurate with the needs, interests and abilities of their students (CDC, 1998, p.2). However, many schemes of work in schools are

20 Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planningwith Backward Design Approach A Hong Kong School Case Study


2

designed by first choosing textbooks and then sequencing topics and selecting favourite activities. At the end of each teaching unit, teachers will design assessment tasks according to what they have taught. In contrast to this traditional curriculum planning, Wiggins & McTighe (2005) argued that effective curriculum planning should start with the identification of desired learning outcomes. Like planning a trip, the destination should be determined first. The road map and itinerary are the tools only to help the travellers to arrive at the desired destination. Such idea starting from the end point is similar to what have Ralph W. Tyler (1949) set down in the statement of educational objectives as follows:

Educational objectives become the criteria by which materials are selected, content is outlined, instructional procedures are developed, and tests and examinations are prepared. (p.1) The purpose of a statement of objectives is to indicate the kinds of changes in the student to be brought about so that instructional activities can be planned and developed in a way likely to attain these objectives. (p.45)

The main idea in Backward Design Approach curriculum planning is to teach towards the end point or learning goals. This approach is a method of designing curriculum by setting learning goals before determining the teaching strategies and forms of assessment. Thus it can ensure the contents taught to be more focused and well organized. In developing the assessment tools, teachers are able to focus on addressing what the students need to learn and what evidences be collected. Backward Design Approach calls for us to operationalize the learning objectives in terms of assessment evidence as we begin to plan a teaching unit. The choice of assessment evidences not only helps teachers clarify the learning/teaching objectives but also leads students to better understand their learning purposes. In order to generate greater coherence among desired learning outcomes, key performances, learning and teaching experiences, the curriculum planning sequence involves the following three stages. 1. Identify the results desired 2. Determine acceptable levels of evidences to support that the desired results have occurred 3. Plan learning activities and instructions to help students arrive at the desired results

Figure 1: Backward Design Approach

21Developing Students Science Process Skills through Curriculum Planningwith Backward Design Approach A Hong Kong School Case Study

3

Curriculum Planning for Science Process Skills Development Investigation is the central theme of the Science Syllabus (Secondary1-3) framework (see CDC, 1998, p.6-7). A list of science process skills with explanatory notes, such as observation, classification, data interpretation and using control variables are recommended for teachers in planning their science lessons (see CDC, 1998, 14). Participating in the Project, the science teachers of Tak Sun Secondary School came together in July and August 2013 to plan the Secondary 2 school-based science curriculum. As advised by HKASME consultants, the science teaches agreed to plan and develop a teaching unit in four months using Backward Design Approach. Stage 1 : Identify desired results The teachers of Tak Sun Secondary School agreed that science process skills are the powerful tools for students to investigate the world around them and to construct relevant science concepts. Students should be equipped with these skills to continue their studies in both science and science-related disciplines. In order to bridge the gap between junior science curriculum and senior science curriculum, the teachers agreed unanimously that in designing the 4-month teaching unit (hereafter the Unit), Backward Design Approach should be employed to develop students science process skills. In the meetings to design the Unit, the formulation of desirable learning outcomes related to science process skills for Secondary 2 students within four months became the top agenda item. Considering students strengths and weaknesses, we determined to enhance students abilities in basic quantitative treatment of scientific investigation. After thorough discussions, the desirable learning outcomes in the Unit were identified as follows:

Data Tabulation: to record data in table form Graphical Representation: to communicate data in graphs Inferring: to infer and explain data in written form

Stage 2 : Determine acceptable evidence In order to collect informative evidences to show whether students could understand the desired learning outcomes, we exchanged ideas to design proper assessment tools for students to demonstrate their abilities of the quantitative treatment of the data collected in their investigation activities. Obviously, in this case objective tests (with multiple-choice and true/false) are not suitable because they rarely require the application of skills and concepts to demonstrate students understanding. Instead, structured questions with free responses items could serve both achievement and diagnostic aspects. On the basis of the desirable learning outcomes identified, structured questions with varying scenarios were designed to illustrate how science process skills could be assessed:

Construct a table to record the results of the investigation.


4

Use a graph to represent the results. Draw up the relevant conclusion(s)

It is worth noticing that the early planned assessments may have negative impact on learning if teachers tend to ignore others which do not contribute directly to passing the test (Vernon, 1956). However, the planned assessments will be positive if they direct teachers attention to the learning goals and the content of test items, acting as powerful curricular magnets (Popham, 1987). Stage 3 : Plan learning experiences and instruction We believed that an effective way to develop students science process skills should be integrated into the content knowledge. In this way, the students learning experiences would be richer and more meaningful. In the curriculum planning meetings, we decided to implement the Unit between September and December, 2013. The science topics taught in the first semester of Secondary 2 included Living Things and Air and Making Use of Electricity. Thus, we developed several learning tasks relating to these two topics to provide students with experiences that could develop their abilities of basic quantitative treatment of scientific data. These tasks engaged students in the investigation activities encouragingly so that they could gain deeper levels of understanding of the concepts such as energy stored in foods, photosynthesis and electric current. The Unit consisting of four learning tasks to develop students science process skills in the two science topics taught is shown in the table below: Science Topics Learning tasks Related Science Process Skills

Analysing nutrition information Data tabulation Observing the reaction of magnesium with hydrogen

Observation Data tabulation

Living Things and Air

Finding the relationship of light intensity and the rate of photo-synthesis.

Observation Data tabulation Graphical Representation Inferring

Making Use of Electricity

Measuring electric current by changing the number of cells

Measuring Data tabulation Inferring

Table 1: Backward Design Approach Teaching Unit of Four Learning Tasks

Linking Assessment with Student Learning Using Backward Design Approach, we could firmly link assessment with student learning and teaching experiences. Prof. Hattie reviewed over 50,000 studies relating to the factors influencing achievement in school-aged students. In his book Visible Learning, he reported that timely feedback was the most powerful strategies to improve student learning (Hattie, 2009). In order to provide meaningful feedback, assessment tools and check-marking methods not only provided


5

information of students right or wrong responses (achievement aspect) but also indicated why the right or wrong responses students gave (diagnostic aspect) (Angell, Kjaernsli & Lie, 2000). In our Project or case study, we designed structured questions with free responses for students to demonstrate what they could understand. However, how could we mark students responses for meaningful feedback? We decided to use double-digit coding system to mark and report students responses for both achievement and diagnostic aspects simultaneously. The following table shows the basic idea of the double-digit coding system.

Code Description Score 20-29 Correct Responses 2 10-19 Partially Correct Responses (different types of error) 1

00 Irrelevant / Impossible to Interpret 0 99 Nil Response 0

Table 2: Double-digit Coding System The first digit gives information of the score showing How much do they achieve? The second digit indicates what they know and what do not know? Angell, Kjaernsli & Lie (2000) argued that the coding scheme had to be developed from the double-digit coding system on the basis of authentic student responses. Therefore, the coding scheme should be flexible enough to meet the specific assessment purpose. In early September 2013, two groups of students were asked to attempt a pre-test question (Fig.2) regarding the basic quantitative treatment of the data collected from scientific investigation activities. In the question, students were required to demonstrate their skills in Data Tabulation(TB), Graphical Representation(GR) and Inferring from data(IF).

Figure 2: Pre-test Question


6

From the analysis of student responses, we developed a coding scheme with the double-digit coding system to serve both the marking and diagnosis purposes. According to the coding scheme, the students responses were analysed in details and the distribution were shown in Table 3 (Responses Characteristics) below. It shows that the percentage of correct performance for GR items is only 23% which is the lowest amongst the three (48% for TB items, 31% for IF items). In recent years, science teachers always expressed their concern that students were weak in graphical construction skills. The pre-test results substantiated their concerns. However, what interested us was to explore the nature of weakness and the possible reasons behind. This information could help us map out ways to either remedy the weakness or build on the strengths. In addition, we could conduct a test-review discussion with students after our analysis to clarify their misconceptions. We could also take this opportunity to help students understand the learning goals and the criteria used to evaluate their performance. Moreover, students weaknesses in the three science process skills, namely TB, GR and IF were reported and explained in the ensuing paragraphs after Table 3.

Pre-test Science Process Skills Code number percentage Data Tabulation (TB) Correct Responses TB20 35 48% Partially Correct Responses due to the following errors: Incorrect order of

variables TB10 28 38%

Incorrect calculation TB11 18 25% Missing label or unit TB12 32 44% Improper position of

label or unit TB13 24 33%

Nil Response/Irrelevant TB99 18 25% Graphical Representation (GR) Correct Responses GR20 17 23% Partially Correct Responses due to the following errors: Incorrect order of

variables GR10 23 32%

Improper scale GR11 42 58% Missing axis label or

unit GR12 38 53%

Nil response/Irrelevant GR99 10 14% Inferring (IF) Correct Responses IF20 22 31% Partially Correct Responses due to incorrect causality.

IF10 27 37%

Nil response/Irrelevant IF99 23 32% Table 3: Distribution of student responses (%) to the pre-test question


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Student Performance in Quantitative Treatment of Data When it comes to construct a table to represent the data collected, only 48% of the students (see Table 3 above) could give the correct answers, despite examples were given to guide them. As reflected in students responses to TB skill, the following common errors were found and coded as below:

TB10: Incorrect order of variables (38%) TB11: Inaccurate calculation (25%) TB12: Missing labels or unit (44%) TB13: Improper position of label or unit (33%)

TB 10 (Incorrect order of variables) TB12(Missing label names) TB 13 (Improper position of label or unit)

Figure 3: Examples of Coding Scheme of Data Tabulation (TB)

As reflected from the distribution of error types, only 25% students failed to calculate the extension of spring correctly. The error percentages of Missing label or unit (TB 12) and Improper position of label or unit (TB13) were 44% and 33% respectively. Labelling with unit was used to illustrate what data were being represented, which was an essential communication skill. However, improper order of variables would lead to wrong conclusion later and its error percentage was 38%. As mentioned before, the performance of GR skill was the poorest and only 23% gave the correct response completely. The common errors with codes were summarized as follows:

GR10: Incorrect order of variables (32%) GR11: Improper scale (58%) GR12: Missing axis label or unit (53%)

Figure 4a: Examples of GR 11(Improper Scale)


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GR10 (Incorrect order of variables) GR12 (missing axis label and unit) Figure 4b: Examples of Coding Scheme of Graphical Representation (GR)

Similar to the performance of TB skill, 32% of the students failed to give correct order of variables. These students might not be able to distinguish between dependent variable and independent variable. Likewise, Improper scale is another error that would lead to incorrect conclusion. These findings can help teachers understand more deeply their students weaknesses and strengths in the three science process skills. IF skill requires students to infer the relationship between the mass of weights and the extension of spring from the data. The results show that 31% of the students could give correct responses while 32% gave up this part without any responses. One of the reasons may be due to language barrier. Some students found it difficult to describe in words to communicate their understanding and ideas. They finally gave up any trials. Thus, we inserted language clues to help students draw conclusions from the data collected in the learning tasks. The remaining 37% failed to give correct responses because they were confused with the causal logic. This figure matches the above analysis of science process skills of TB and GR. It reflects that about one-third of the students failed to distinguish between the independent and dependent variables. Examples of students responses to IF skill are given below.

Figure 5: Examples of partially correct for Inferring (IF)

If the length of spring is growing, that means the mass of weight is growing to [too].

When the length of spring extend, the mass of weight increase. The maximum length extends

to 13cm, but the mass is keeping increase.

If the extension of spring is long [longer], the mass of weight (gram) will be higher [heavier].


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With the double-digit coding scheme, the student responses were analysed and their strengths and weakness were identified. In this way, teachers could concentrate their effort more in conducting the teaching of the four learning tasks to develop students science process skills of TB, GR and IF. Student Achievement from the Backward Design Approach Teaching Unit The 4-month Unit was implemented to help students develop their science process skills, especially with the four learning tasks (see Table 1) between September and December, 2013. In addition, feedback of pre-test performance was given to students in due course. In order to evaluate the learning effectiveness by implementing the Unit, teachers agreed that we needed an evaluation to realize if the desired learning outcomes had been achieved. Thus, students were invited to attempt a post-test question similar to that of the pre-test.

Figure 6: Post-test question


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Again, students responses to the post-test question were collected and marked. The comparison of the distribution of marks of the post-test with pre-test questions was shown blow.

Science Process Skills Score

Pre-test (n=72)

Post-test (n=71)

Data Tabulation (TB) Correct Responses 2 35 (29.2%) 63 (88.7%) Partially Correct Responses 1 19 (26.4%) 7 ( 9.9%) Nil Response/Irrelevant 0 18 (25.0%) 1 (1.4%) Mean score 1.236 1.887 Graphical Representation (GR) Correct Responses 2 17 (23.6%) 37 (52.1%) Partially Correct Responses 1 45 (62.5%) 29 (40.8%) Nil response/Irrelevant 0 10 (13.9%) 5 (7.1%) Mean score 1.097 1.451 Inferring (IF) Correct Responses 2 22 (30.5%) 28 (39.4%) Partially Correct Responses 1 27 (37.5%) 40 (56.3%) Nil response/Irrelevant 0 23 (31.9%) 3 (4.2%) Mean score 0.986 1.352

Table 4: Comparison of Pre-test and Post-test results

In order to identify the changes of student performance, the percentages of gain score were used. The gain score is the mean score of post-test subtracted by that of pre-test and the percentage of gain score is calculated by:

Mean score of post-test Mean score of pre-test Percentage of

Gain Score = Mean score of pre-test x 100%

The following table shows the Percentages of Gain Score of student achievements on the three science process skills: Data Tabulation (TB), Graphical Presentation (GR) and Inferring (IF).

Science Process Skills

Pre-test (n=72)

Post-test (n=71)

Percentage of Gain Score

Mean score of TB 1.236 1.887 +52%

Mean score of GR 1.097 1.451 +32%

Mean score of IF 0.986 1.352 +37%

Table 5: Percentages of Gain Score of the Three Science Process Skills

Table 5 shows that three Percentages of Gain Score of the three science process skills are all positive ranging from 32% to 52% and the results are encouraging. Another notable observation in Table 4 is that only 4.2% of students gave up the IF skill in the post-test while over 30% in pre-test questions. It is evident that the students had achieved significantly the development of the science process skills (TB, GR and IR) from the Unit planned by Backward Design Approach.


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The Unit was implemented in two Secondary 2 classes involving 71 students. Of them, 36 students came from a higher ability class while the other 35 from an average ability class. We further investigated if there were any differences in their Gain Scores between these two classes of students.

Higher Ability Class Average Ability Class Science

Process Skills Pre-test (n=37)

Post-test(n=36)

% of Gain Score

Pre-test(n=35)

Post-test (n=35)

% of Gain Score

Mean score of TB 1.595 1.944 +21.9% 0.857 1.800 +110.0%

Mean score of GR 1.351 1.777 +31.5% 0.828 1.114 +34.5%

Mean score of IF 1.432 1.472 +2.7% 0.514 1.228 +138.9%

Table 6: Comparison of Percentages of Gain Score

It is evidence from Table 6 that the students from average ability class were much more benefited than those from higher ability Class in developing the science process skills through the learning of the Unit. It also indicates that Percentages of Gain Score of TB and IF are 110% and 138.9% respectively. This is obviously a great improvement. Generally, students with average ability need more explicit instructions and guidance in developing their schema. Backward Design Approach curriculum planning could help making the learning goals more specific and explicit, which thus helps students to better develop their schema. Regarding the science process skill of GR, the data in Table 6 shows that Percentage of Gain Score in the average ability Class shows no significant difference from that of the higher ability Class. However, both classes record over 30% in score gain and this is also the largest gain percentage in the higher ability Class, i.e. 31.5%. As mentioned above, GR skill is comparatively difficult for Secondary 2 students to master including the higher ability ones. We can conclude that Backward Design Approach curriculum planning could help students effectively construct their schema to connect their prior knowledge with new information or evidences on the road of skill mastery. DISCUSSION This Project aims to explore how Backward Design Approach could be adopted to design school-based science curriculum to develop and enhance students science process skills. The evidences related to student achievement were collected and analysed. The experiences were reported and discussed as follows. To the curriculum developers, Backward Design Approach could help narrowing the achievement gap amongst student with different abilities. We observe that many teachers design their


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curriculum or lessons with undue emphasis on their teaching instead of student learning. Some teachers even rely heavily on textbooks and activities instead of the prior formulation of learning goals or desired learning outcomes. Backward Design Approach demands a paradigm shift of curriculum planning in which textbooks are just one of a variety of learning/teaching tools rather than the sole learning/teaching resources. To the teachers, common understanding of the aims and objectives of the science curriculum was found amongst teachers applying Backward Design Approach in planning their curriculum. Teachers agreed that they could grasp the key elements and assessment methods of the topics confidently before teaching. Apart from this, teachers could understand their students more by analyzing their responses using the double-digit coding scheme. Double-digit coding scheme was proved to be effective in providing both teachers and students with useful information on achievement and diagnostic aspects. Teachers could design the learning and teaching activities deliberately and thoroughly. Hence, developing the double-digit coding scheme should be encouraged to promote science learning and teaching effectively. To the students, both Backward Design Approach and feedback with double-digit coding scheme could help making the learning goals more explicit and specific. Thus, they can construct their schema through the learning processes and interactions with one another. The designed learning tasks provided them with opportunities to use their schema as a basis on which their understanding can be enhanced to construct the relevant knowledge. In conclusion, both teachers and students could have clear understanding of learning goals and assessment criteria using Backward Design Approach curriculum planning. However, teachers should bear in mind not to ignore those activities or tasks that do not relate directly to examinations Proper application of Backward Design Approach in curriculum planning, would definitely benefit both the teachers and students. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Mr. TANG Chee-poon and Mr. CHENG Chi-leung for their valuable advices in the writing of this report.


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References Angell, C., Kjaernsli, M., & Lie, S. (2000). Exploring students responses on free-response science

items in TIMSS (pp.159-187). In D. Shorrocks-Taylor & E.W. Jenkins (Eds.) Learning from Others. Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (1998). Syllabuses for Secondary School Science (Secondary 1-3). Hong Kong: The Author.

Curriculum Development Council (CDC) (2002). Science Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 - Secondary 3). Hong Kong: The Author.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. UK/USA/Canada: Routledge.

Popham, W.J. (1987). The merit of measurement-driven instruction. Phi Delta Kappa, 68, 679-682. Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press. Vernon, P.E. (1956). The Measurement of Abilities. London: University of London Press. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA : Association for

Supervision and Curriculum Development.

The project was sponsored by the Quality Education Fund of Hong Kong [Project no. 2011/0269]


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Next Generation Science Standards The Way Forward?

Carole, Kwan-ping Lee University of Maine at Farmington, U.S.A.

Introduction When the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS, Achieve) in the U.S. was released in 2013, science educators were excited about the changes and implications that it will bring to the arena of science learning and teaching. One of the major shifts in the new science standards is the focus on Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education. We fully understand what science and mathematics are, but what are technology and engineering? Technology is defined as any modification of the natural world made to fulfill human needs or desires while Engineering is stated as a systematic and often iterative approach to designing objects, processes, and systems to meet human needs and wants. (NRC, 2012, p. 202). Therefore, Engineering and Technology are inherently linked and are emphasized in two different areas in the NGSS. One is the Scientific and Engineering Process which includes the science process skills together with the process of engineering design. The other area is the Disciplinary Core Ideas which include Technology and Engineering as one the strands together with Physical Science, Life Science, Earth and Space Science. Another salient feature about the NGSS is the science standards that are linked with the Common Core State Standards (CCSS, 2010) of English Language Arts and Mathematics. As a science educator in Hong Kong for over 20 years who have been involved in curriculum development and currently teaching in the U.S., I would like to share with the readers my understanding of the NGSS. The NGSS is a detailed and long document; it consists of Volume 1- The Standards, and Volume 2- Appendixes. In addition, there is another document called A Framework for K-12 Science Education (Framework) published by the National Research Council (NRC) in 2011. At the end of the paper, I would like to share my opinions of the science curricula in Hong Kong with respect to the NGSS. I hope it will shed some light on the curriculum developers of Hong Kong in the forthcoming science education reform.

Background Information It is interesting to know in the U.S. each state has its own state science standards which may differ in terms of quality, vigor and variety of the science topics. Though national science standards, National Science Education Standards (NSES), was published by the National Research Council (NRC) in 1996, it was not a mandatory document. The report A Nation at Risk alerted the U.S. that an education reform was necessary as there was a rising tide of mediocrity in student performance (NCEE, 1983). Moreover, the international assessments such as The International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Programme for International Student Assessment

35Next Generation Science Standards The Way Forward?


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(PISA) repeatedly reviewed that the U.S. students were performing well below the level of students in other countries. Hence, there is an urge to raise the education standards in the U.S. Following the implementation of CCSS in English Language Arts and Mathematics in 2010, the NGSS was published in 2013. The NGSS is internationally benchmarked and is expected to be adopted by many states.

Development of A Framework for K-12 Science Education and the Next Generation Science Standards The development of the science standards is a two-step process (Quinn, 2011). First, it is the development of A Framework for K-12 Science Education (Framework) by the National Research Council (NRC) in 2011, followed by the publication of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) based on the Framework by Achieve, Inc. in 2013 (Figure 1). The Framework and the NGSS can be downloaded freely from www.nap.edu and www.nextgenscience.org respectively. Figure 1: Two-step process of developing Framework and NGSS

The Framework provides a broad vision of the science education for K-12 (kindergarten to twelfth grade) students. The overarching goal is to ensure that students after the completion of 12th grade will have some appreciation of the beauty and wonder of science; possess sufficient knowledge of science and engineering to engage in public discussions on related issues; are careful consumers of scientific and technological information related to their everyday lives; are able to continue to learn about science outside school; and have the skills to enter careers of their choice, including careers in science, engineering, and technology (NRC, 2012, p. 1). The Framework is organized in three distinct but closely related dimensions: Science and Engineering Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Disciplinary Core Ideas (Table 1). The three dimensions are well integrated which are metaphorically described as the intertwining threads of a rope.

36 Next Generation Science Standards The Way Forward?

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Table 1 The Three Dimensions of the Framework

1. Scientific and Engineering Practices 1) Asking questions (for science) and defining problems (for engineering) 2) Developing and using models 3) Planning and carrying out investigations 4) Analyzing and interpreting data 5) Using mathematics and computational thinking 6) Constructing explanations (for science) and designing solutions (for engineering) 7) Engaging in argument from evidence 8) Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information

2. Crosscutting Concepts 1) Patterns 2) Cause and effect: Mechanism and explanation 3) Scale, proportion, and quantity 4) Systems and system models 5) Energy and matter: Flows, cycles, and conservation 6) Structure and function 7) Stability and change

3. Disciplinary Core Ideas Physical Sciences PS1: Matter and its interactions PS2: Motion and stability: Forces and interactions PS3: Energy PS4: Waves and their applications in technologies for information transfer

Life Sciences LS1: From molecules to organisms: Structure and processes LS2: Ecosystems: Interactions, energy, and dynamics LS3: Heredity: Inheritance and variation of traits LS4: Biological evolution: Unity and diversity

Earth and Space Sciences ESS1: Earths place in the universe ESS2: Earths systemsESS3: Earth and human activity

Engineering, Technology, and Application of Science ETS1: Engineering design ETS2: Links among engineering, technology, science and society

The Framework provides a road map of how science core ideas can be achieved by students through their science education from elementary to secondary. It states clearly what students should know and be able to do at the end of various grade levels. Table 2 illustrates the expectations of students on the science knowledge of Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer after they have completed grades 2, 5, 8 and 12. For elementary level, the focus of learning is based on the observations made by students and their experiences. Though the science concepts become more sophisticated and theoretical as the grade levels progress, students are still encouraged to acquire the knowledge through self-explorations and investigations.


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Table 2 Physical Sciences: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer

By the end of grade 2 Sunlight warms Earths surface

By the end of grade 5 Energy is present in moving objects, sound,

light, or heat. When objects collide, energy can be

transferred from one object to another and change the motion. Some energy is transferred to the surrounding air. The air gets heated and sound is produced.

Sun radiates energy and is transferred to Earth by light. The light warms the land, air, and water and helps plant growth.

Energy is transferred from place to place by electric currents, and is used to produce motion, sound, heat, or light. The electric current may be produced by moving water driving a spinning turbine.

By the end of grade 8 Transfer of energy, e.g., The friction causes a

moving object to stop results in an increase in the thermal energy in both surfaces.

To make an object moving, energy must be provided such as chemical energy (burning fuel) or electrical energy (electric motor or a battery).

The amount of energy transfer needed to change the temperature of a matter sample depends on the nature, size of the sample and the environment.

Energy is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation.

By the end of grade 12 Energy is conserved. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Mathematical expression of stored energy

and kinetic energy to illustrate the concept of conservation of energy.

Uncontrolled systems always evolve toward more stable states, e.g. water flows downhill.

Any object or system that can degrade with no added energy is unstable, e.g. radioactive isotopes.

The Framework and the NGSS complement each other. The Framework depicts a holistic vision of K-12 science education, whereas, the NGSS lists the standards which students need to achieve. The followings are the seven conceptual shifts in the NGSS: 1. K-12 science education should reflect the interconnected nature of science as it is practiced

and experienced in the real world. The statement is explicit enough reminding us that the NGSS not only focuses on the integration and application of scientific knowledge in the real world, but it also emphasizes on the science and engineering skills that are needed in the 21st century.


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2. The NGSS are student performance expectations NOT curriculum. The NGSS lists out the goals which students should know and be able to do. It is not a curriculum as it does not suggest how the standards can be achieved or should to be taught. Hence, teachers can use different instruction strategies to achieve the standards. The performance expectations (or learning outcomes) of each Disciplinary Core Idea are clearly written with Clarification Statement and Assessment Boundary (Table 3). The statements in the Clarification Statement and Assessment Boundary describe specifically what science ideas are expected from students or need not have to be taught respectively. Within each topic, science concepts related to Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core ideas and Crosscutting Concepts are listed in three adjacent columns. Teaching ideas that connect the science content knowledge to Engineering, technology, and applications of science, and Nature of science are also stated. It is expected that Science and Engineering Practices, Crosscutting Concepts and the Nature of Science are not taught separately but integrated with the Disciplinary Core Ideas. Thorough understanding of the performance expectations is essential for curricula developers and teachers to plan their instructional strategies and to formulate assessments that measure the specific learning outcomes. Most importantly, it also serves as a guideline for professional organizations or colleges to plan for teacher development that deemed necessary (Figure 1). Table 3 Clarification Statement and Assessment Boundary on one of the Performance Expectations on Energy

Performance Expectations - Students who demonstrate understanding can: Ask questions and predict outcomes about the changes in energy that occur when objects collide. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the changes in energy due to changes in speed, not on the forces, as objects interact.][Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include quantitative measurements of energy.]

3. The science concepts in the NGSS build coherently from K-12. The NGSS are built on a progression of knowledge from kindergarten to 12th grade. Complex ideas are built spirally on the fundamental science concepts which students have learned in prior grade levels. Thus, the three dimensions of Science and Engineering Practices, Disciplinary Core Ideas and Crosscutting Concepts are stated in all science topics and on every level. 4. The NGSS focus on deeper understanding of content as well as application of content. Both the Framework and the NGSS have listed clearly the science content knowledge that is expected from students. The science topics that need to be covered are listed clearly in the Disciplinary Core Ideas. The Scientific and Engineering Practices together with the Crosscutting


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Concepts are used as vehicles to help students learn about the scientific knowledge and be able to apply the knowledge in real world situations. 5. Science and engineering are integrated in the NGSS from kindergarten through twelfth grade. Science is the explanation of the natural phenomenon and engineering is the designing and making of a product. Students should make use of their scientific knowledge together with their innovative thinking to design and create the specified product under given constraints and limitations. The process of learning and doing should be woven together in the learning experiences of students from kindergarten to 12th grade. 6. The NGSS are designed to prepare students for college, careers, and citizenship. Science, engineering and technology lead to the advancement of a society. After twelve years of science education, it is hoped that students would have a solid foundation to continue their study of science in colleges and to enter the careers of science or engineering. Most of all, students are expected to be scientifically literate and are able to apply their scientific knowledge to make decisions on science related issues such as clean energy, prevention and treatment of diseases or other social issues that occur in their daily lives. 7. The NGSS and Common Core State Standards (English Language Arts and Mathematics) are aligned. The CCSS is internationally benchmarked and is intended to be common across states. The English Language Arts and Mathematics standards are written at the end in every science topic of the NGSS. The symbiotic pace (NGSS Appendixes, 2013, p. 3) of the three disciplines provide teachers with ideas of how they can be integrated together in their classroom teaching. In science, there are eight Scientific and Engineering Practices, whereas, there are seven practices in English Language Arts and eight practices in Mathematics. Figure 2 shows the practices in each discipline illustrating some of the commonalities. Undeniably, literacy skills such as reading, writing, and communicating are important in learning science; and disciplines of Science and Mathematics are always closely linked together. In order to demonstrate how the teaching of English Language Arts and Science can be complementary, the CCSS stated that students are required to read informational text in addition to fictional and narrative text. Most teachers make use of scientific articles as information text to help students understand the real-world through reading and comprehending the facts and opinions. Moreover, teachers can engage students in argumentation on issues such as environmental problems. Students can present their arguments either verbally or in written form how they support their claims using collected data and evidence which is a common scientific practice. Another way


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of achieving the argumentation is to ask students to write persuasive texts to illustrate their viewpoints and convince others to support the opinions (Palinscar, 2013). Figure 2. Commonalities among the practices in Science, Mathematics and English Language Arts (based on the work of Cheuk, 2012). Key: SP- Science and Engineering Practices, MPMathematics Practices, EP-English Language Arts Practices

Emphasis of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education The common misconception about technology is that most people think technology is related to computers and electronic devices. However, technology is broadly defined in the NGSS as ways that people have modified the natural world to improve the quality of life. There is not a particular session in the NGSS that solely discusses about technology. Technology and engineering are generally linked in the process of designing and producing a device which can help to make life easier. On the other hand, the relationship between mathematics and science is easy to understand as mathematical skills are always used in science to quantify, interpret and present data.


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The goal of science, as stated in the Framework, is the construction of theories that provide explanatory accounts of the world (NRC, 2012, p. 52), whereas, the goal of engineering design is to ask students to make a product or to build a model based on their scientific knowledge. The NGSS emphasizes hands-on and discovery-oriented learning through the Science and Engineering Practices (Banko, 2011). Thus, engineering design is as important as scientific inquiry in providing students with hands-on and minds-on experiences. Engineering Design is also one of the sub-categories in the Disciplinary Core Ideas of Engineering, Technology, and the Application of Science. It consists of three phases: defining and delimiting engineering problems; developing possible solutions; and optimizing the design solution. The process of engineering design is iterative and systematic confined by specific constraints and criteria. In NGSS Appendixes, p. 105-106 (Achieve, 2013), four engineering design models from Grades K-2, 3-5, 6-8 and 9-12 are shown. The levels of complexity range from engaging students in Grades 3-5 to do research and consider multiple possible solutions to considering the impact of the design on social and global issues at Grades 9-12 level (Figure 3). Figure 3: Engineering design process of grades 3-5 and 9-12

Grades 3-5

Define Specify criteria and constraints that a possible solution to a simple problem must meet

Develop Solutions Research and explore multiple possible solutions

Optimize Improve a solution based on results of simple tests, including failure points


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Grades 9-12

Comparison of the science curriculum in Hong Kong with the NGSS 1. The continuity of science education from elementary to secondary level In Hong Kong, science education is not much emphasized at the elementary level. It is embedded in the General Studies, and students seldom have the opportunity to investigate or learn science through inquiry. Also, there is not a coherent progression between the science concepts learned in elementary school with secondary school. The learning of science in elementary education is much of a piecemeal fashion which focuses on factual recall of scientific knowledge. The science curricula in Hong Kong are not organized systematically across the span of 12 years of students education. Science education should be much emphasized in elementary level as children are full of curiosity and innovation. Besides, it is also during that period of time in Hong Kong when the pressure of public examination has not started. Thus, more teaching time can be devoted for experiential learning and inquiry. 2. Teaching instruction Due to the stress of public examinations in Hong Kong, teaching of science in secondary level is mostly focused on the content knowledge as it is the most objective form of assessment. There is not much time left for teachers to link the science concepts across various disciplines or provides opportunities for students to experience how science is done, let alone the teaching of science inquiry. Due to the huge number of students in one class (usually 40) and the limited availability of laboratory periods, most teachers resort to lecturing. There is minimal opportunity for students to ask questions or explore activities on their own.

Define Attend to a broad range of considerations in criteria and constraints for problems of social and global significance

Develop Solutions Break a major problem into smaller problems that can be solved separately

Optimize Prioritize criteria, consider trade-offs, and assess social and environmental impacts as a complex solution is tested and refined


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3. Infusion of Engineering in the teaching of science Engineering design is certainly lacking in the science curricula in Hong Kong. Students may have a vague idea of what an engineer does. However, they have no idea of the engineering design process until they are at college level studying Engineering as their future careers. The iterative process of engineering design - designing, developing solutions and optimizing - is a lifelong skill of problem solving and decision making which is useful in all aspects of lives. 4. Integration of English Language and Mathematics in the teaching of science In 2000s, there was a movement Language across the curriculum in Hong Kong. All teachers are encouraged to enhance students to learn English in their taught subjects. Lacking clear and specific guidelines from the Education Department, teachers did whatever they felt comfortable. On the other hand, the NGSS clearly stated how the CCSS of English Language Arts and Mathematics can be integrated in science teaching. Details can be found in the NGSS Vol. 1 - The Standards, p. 131-162. 5. Skills needed to be successful for the 21st century Basic skills such as rote learning and factual recalling become less recognized nowadays due to the advancement of computer technology. Huge amount of information can be stored or retrieved from computers immediately and fast. Wagner (2008) states that if students want to be successful in the 21st century, they need the following seven skills: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration and leadership; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism; effective oral and written communication; accessing and analyzing information; and curiosity and imagination. The inclusion of the Scientific and Engineering Practices definitely enriches students with skills of problem solving and communication, and collaborative skills in working with peers. The Crosscutting Concepts not only broaden students perspectives in perceiving how scientific knowledge is linked with one another, but to a greater extent how various kinds of knowledge are seamlessly interconnected. The birth of the new science standards in the U.S. is a wake-up call for us as science educators to think about what skills we would like our students to acquire in order to be successful, and the instructional strategies and assessment methods to accomplish such goals.

Concluding Thoughts Not surprisingly, teaching and learning in the U.S. and in Hong Kong are not the same. The cultural values and students expectations of each country account for the significant differences. In this paper, I summarize the new science standards in the U.S., and point out the important features of the two documents Framework and the NGSS. In no way, I am bashing the science curricula developed in Hong Kong when making the comparison between the science education in Hong Kong and the U.S. Nevertheless, I recommend the curriculum developers and science


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educators in Hong Kong to spend some time reading the documents and to understand the rationales in developing a coherent K-12 science curriculum. Undoubtedly, all the seven conceptual shifts which are listed in the NGSS are important. However, I will start with a few changes in my teaching. First is the integration of scientific and engineering practices, and crosscutting concepts into the disciplinary cores ideas. My understanding is the teaching of science is more than instill of scientific knowledge, but teachers should guide students to develop the thinking process and problem-solving skills. What is more, students should be able to appreciate that science is connected to the real world by connecting what students learn with their daily life. Another important feature is the connection of English Language Arts and Mathematics with Science discipline. As listed in the NGSS, there are ample opportunities that language arts and mathematics skills are used in science or vice versa. When asking questions about a scientific investigation, I will give students ample time to think and to communicate with their classmates how they make their claims and find out the evidence. In addition to verbal responses, I will ask students to write down their ideas down and discuss with their classmates. When I was teaching in Hong Kong, I found myself focused too much on the outcomes and the correct answers, which at times neglected students thinking process. If I have to integrate engineering design in my lessons, I will require students to communicate with their classmates about their thinking process and ideas after having a discussion with their classmates. Through the discussion process, students will appreciate how in the real world a design or best solution is developed. Moreover, it is a good idea to ask students to create a user guide for their created product. Thus, students may have more opportunities of practicing writing informational text. The new science standards in the U.S. has been implemented recently and it is difficult to tell how the science education will transform in the years to come. But it takes every small step to get changes done. The most important driving force for curriculum change is from classroom teachers who actually put science teaching and learning ideas into practices. I am sure professional teacher organizations, like HKASME, have a key role to play to help science teachers to execute their visions.


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References Achieve Inc. (2013). Next generation science standards- For States, by States. Volume 1 The Standards. Retrieved from www.nextgenscience.org Achieve Inc. (2013). Next generation science standards- For States, by States. Volume 2 Appendixes. Retrieved from www.nextgenscience.org Banko, W., Grant, M. L., Jabot, M. E., McCormack, A. J, & OBrien, T. (2011). Science for the next generation Preparing for the new standards. Arlington, VA: NSTA press. Cheuk, T. (2012). Diagram of the commonalities among the practices in Science, Mathematics and English Language Arts as part of the Understanding Language initiative at Stanford University. Retrieved from http://ell.stanford.edu. Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2010). Retrieved from www.corestandards.org/the-standards National Commission on Excellence in Education (NCEE). (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative of educational reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Research Council (NRC). (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. National Research Council (NRC). (2012). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Palinscar, A. S. (2013). The Next Generation Science Standards and the Common Core State Standards: Proposing a happy marriage. Science and Children, 51(1), 10-14. Quinn, H., Keller, T., Moulding, B. (2011). NSTA web seminars A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts and core ideas. Retrieved from www.nsta.org Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools dont teach the new survival skills our children need and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Basic Books.


Strategies for Enhancing Students Situational Interest in Chemistry Lessons

Derek Cheung, Kwok-cheung Lo

Department of Curriculum and Instruction, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

Introduction In Hong Kong, the international PISA study (Cheung, 2008) found that student interests in some science topics were not high. For example, 45% of students indicated that they had no or low interest in chemistry topics and only 54% of students reported that they were happy doing science problems. Furthermore, Cheung (2009) found that Hong Kong students were just marginally positive about the chemistry lessons implemented in secondary schools. Thus, educators in Hong Kong need to identify strategies for enhancing students interest in school chemistry. It is important to note that researchers have recognized two types of interest: individual interest, and situational interest (Bolte, Streller & Hofstein, 2013). Individual interest is a relatively stable, enduring personal predisposition to attend to a specific class of tasks, objects, events, or ideas (Hidi, 2006; Silvia, 2006). It develops over time as a result of life experiences, innate preferences or orientations. For example, a student may have a strong individual interest in exploring natural phenomena, while another student may have an individual interest in learning about English literature. Situational interest is environmentally triggered and occurs when a specific situation stimulates the attention of a person (Hidi, 2006; Silvia, 2006). Situational interest experience is a momentary psychological state of positive emotion and heightened concentration, which is automatically induced when certain objects, stimuli, or events are perceived as relevant to ones individual interest. For example, an interesting chemistry laboratory experiment may induce a students interest even though she is not normally interested in school chemistry. Situational interest may or may not last after the laboratory experiment has been completed. For school teachers, situational interest is more important than individual interest because they can hardly influence their students incoming individual interests. An increase in situational interest could develop into long-term individual interest. Students who have an individual interest in chemistry do not necessarily develop an interest in school chemistry. It depends on the kind of learning environment that the chemistry teacher can provide. However, little is known about the types of instructional strategies used by Hong Kong teachers to induce their students situational interest in school chemistry. Thus, the purpose of this study was to survey a sample of Hong Kong chemistry teachers to identify the interest-enhancing instructional strategies used in their chemistry lessons.



Methodology We invited a convenience sample of secondary school chemistry teachers to respond to a questionnaire when they attended a seminar at the Chinese University of Hong Kong in May 2014. They were asked to reflect on their teaching experiences and provide specific examples to illustrate three effective instructional strategies for enhancing students interest in school chemistry. A total of 39 teachers returned their completed questionnaires. Coding of teacher responses was performed by the second author, with the first author recoding the data for 15% of the sample. The few disagreements were resolved through discussion between the two authors. Results and Discussion The instructional strategies mentioned by at least two of the 39 teachers are displayed in Table 1. The top three strategies were carrying out laboratory experiments, content connected to daily life applications of chemistry and using information communication technologies. These findings are consistent with those found in other countries (e.g., Bolte, Streller & Hofstein, 2013; Grber, 2011). Space precludes a detailed discussion of all the 15 types of interest-enhancing instructional strategies listed in Table 1. In the paragraphs that follow, we briefly discuss the top two strategies and illustrate our discussion with some teachers responses.

Table 1: Results of questionnaire survey Interest-Enhancing Instructional Strategy Number of

Teacher 1. Carrying out laboratory experiments 25 2. Content connected to daily life applications of chemistry 15 3. Using information communication technologies 12 4. Using models or analogies 6 5. Discussing recent news, interesting articles, or misconceptions 6 6. Implementing an investigative approach to teaching 5 7. Visiting places related to chemistry 3 8. Carrying out inquiry-based projects 3 9. Simulation activities 3 10. Playing games 3 11. Teacher questioning 3 12. Explaining materials concisely 2 13. Designing quizzes to assess students 2 14. Asking students to give presentations 2 15. Organizing or joining chemistry competitions 2

48 Strategies for Enhancing Students Situational Interest in Chemistry Lessons

(1) Carrying out laboratory experiments A total of 25 teachers reported that the use of laboratory experiments can effectively promote their students interest in chemistry lessons. Ten of the 25 teachers emphasized active student participation in laboratory work and five teachers advocated the use of inquiry-based experiments. Two representative examples are presented below:

Use some experiments to let students gain hands-on experiences, e.g., to analyse commercial bleach, aspirin, etc.

Carry out experiments in groups of two students to promote participation in class. Let them design experiments to distinguish between two ions, such as Ag+ and Na+, Cu2+ and Fe2+, etc.

Few teachers recognized the importance of inquiry-based laboratory work to induce students situational interest in chemistry lessons. This finding should be a major concern to chemistry educators in Hong Kong. Grber (2011) surveyed a sample of German students; 56% girls and 62% boys agreed that planning chemistry experiments was interesting or very interesting. Thus, the Education Bureau should provide more support for Hong Kong chemistry teachers to use guided-inquiry laboratory experiments (Cheung, 2011) in their normal Secondary 4-6 chemistry lessons even though this kind of scientific investigation is not a compulsory part of the current school-based assessment scheme. Additionally, six of the 25 teachers pointed out that the laboratory experiments should be fun. They emphasized sensory effects, such as the colour change in the ammonia fountain experiment, fruity smell of some esters, rapid production of foam in the elephant toothpaste experiment, and small explosions resulting from reactions between some alkali metals and water. (2) Content connected to daily life applications of chemistry A total of 15 teachers mentioned the importance of applications of chemistry in our daily life when promoting students interest in chemistry lessons. They can be used to illustrate chemical concepts such as redox reactions or serve as teaching materials to introduce a new topic. Their examples covered three main aspects: the uses of some common chemicals (e.g., oxygen absorbers, instant hot packs or cold packs, acrylate polymers in baby diapers, fireworks), the safety precautions to avoid danger when using chemicals, and the harmful effects of chemicals on our environment and health (e.g., smog in Beijing, fake eggs). Below are specific examples provided by three teachers:

Ask students questions about chemical applications related to our daily life. For example: Why is it inappropriate to mix bleach and acids together? Why a steel pot should not be used when cooking with vinegar?


To introduce the chemistry of alkalis, we may ask students the consequences of mixing a glass cleaner with an oven cleaner. After that, teach the properties of alkalis and let students answer their own questions.

Use instant hot packs as an example to discuss the conditions and chemicals required for rusting to occur. First, pass some hot packs to students. Then, discuss the function of salts (to speed up rusting) and the reason for removing the packaging (because air is needed for the exothermic rusting reaction to occur).

Surprisingly, although a science-technology-society (STS) approach to chemistry teaching and learning has been advocated by the Education Bureau, no participating teachers mentioned STS in their responses, indicating that Hong Kong chemistry teachers may not hav

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HONG KONG SCIENCE TEACHERS' JOURNAL