Hoskins' england class 7 temp

W.G. Hoskins and the Making of the English Landscape

Class 7. Preparing for Fieldwork

Tutor: Keith Challis

hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Recap: Last Week (A Curse Upon the Land)

• Nostalgia and the immemorial past• A curse upon the Land: Parliamentary

Enclosure• 60 years on: Critique of Hoskins and a

counterpoint• Researching Enclosure and Tithe

Commutation• Laxton Group project: Tracing Enclosure at

Laxton

Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Class Summary

Structure

• A Desirable Spot to Build Upon• 60 years on: Critique of Hoskins and a counterpoint

Coffee Break

• Preparing for Fieldwork• Laxton Castle


Class Summary Learning Outcomes

• You should understand the variety of sources of information that are available to the archaeologist during fieldwork, and the various factors that can affect the amount of information that can be derived.

• You should be aware of the different levels of survey established by English Heritage and understand what is required for a level 1 survey record.

• You should be aware of the different techniques that are available for the recording of sites or features identified during fieldwork, and what form the essential components of a field record.


Preparing for Fieldwork

Field Archaeology


Hoskins

Crawford

• Earthworks

• Artefacts

• Field shapes and boundaries

• Vegetation

• Rivers and waterways

• Tracks, roads and routeways

• Settlement plans

• Standing buildings

• Place names……

Fieldwork Evidence


Earthworks• Earthworks are amongst the most commonly studied

sources of information for non-invasive fieldwork.

• Can provide a great deal of information on the past use and development of the landscape.

• But, need care to differentiate between naturally created landforms (e.g. glacial moraines), modern land use (e.g. road quarry pits) and cultural archaeological earthworks.

• Also, differentiating between archaeological site types based solely on earthwork remains can be risky – some monuments will be evidenced by the same earthwork appearance. For example, a circular mound could plausibly relate to a prehistoric barrow, a medieval defensive earthwork, a windmill mound, a post-medieval viewing platform or a 20th century military gun emplacement.


Earthworks• The identification and interpretation

of earthworks requires an understanding of all types of archaeological monuments, as well as those resulting from other non-archaeological practices.

• There are useful books to help in the interpretation (e.g. Aston 1985, Bowden 1999, Muir 2000, Ordnance Survey 1963…..).

• Another important consideration is that although areas of earthworks may appear homogenous on the ground today, they may in fact date from a range of periods and functions.

• ‘ The present view is like looking at the stars – in one view many ages are seen.’ (Aston 1985, 15).

After: Williamson 2002, p24


Earthworks• As well as interpretation of date and function

based on morphological description, it is also sometimes possible to construct relative chronologies by analysing the stratigraphic relationship between different features.

• Vertical stratigraphy relies on the clear and accurate identification of discrete earthwork features, as well as their chronological interrelationships.

• Horizontal stratigraphy is often less clearly perceptible, in that it relies on there being well defined differences between, for example, the core nucleus of a settlement site and later adjacent elements of a different form, scale or angle.

• Deciphering the detailed relationships between earthworks in this manner often requires the use of site survey or aerial photography.After: Bowden 1999, fig 35


Field shapes and boundaries

• The shape of a field or property boundary can be determined by a range of factors, for example:

– Agricultural regime– Topography– Economy– Soil quality– Social hierarchy + control

• In many cases the shape of a field can lead to a preliminary interpretation of date. For example, complex coaxial networks are often prehistoric, small irregular fields were often created through the piecemeal assarting of woodland or intake of common land…

• Other forms of enclosures should be considered – e.g. park boundaries.

After: Muir 2002, map 3.7Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Hedges and Walls

• As well as the shape of the fields themselves, the form, composition and construction of their boundaries can provide important information.

• The availability of resources and suitability of the soils dictates a considerable amount of the regional variation in the distribution, although lots of other contributing factors.

• Hedges are able to not only act as barriers in the landscape but also to provide a regular supply of wood.

• Drystone walling can be established in areas where hedges would not survive due to poor soils and exposure to wind.

• Should also consider boundary features can be aimed at defining a border rather than an enclosure, for example Offa’s Dyke or Hadrian’s Wall.



• The ecologist Max Hooper suggested in the 1960s that the character and plant diversity of a hedge could be used to provide information on the date of the boundary.

• He came up with a simplified equation that claimed that the age could be calculated by counting the number of species within a 30-yard length of a hedge and multiplying this figure by 100 (e.g. 5 species = 500 years old) (the ‘Hooper hypothesis’).

• Based on assumption that hedges acquire new species over time at a gradual but fairly constant rate.

• But, the technique only provides a margin of error of 200 years either way (therefore the example above could date from 1300-1700 AD).

• And there are a number of significant problems with the theory behind the approach itself. For example, records show that many hedges were planted as multi-species boundaries at the outset. Also, species can be lost from hedges over time – for example Elms can displace existing species and even eventually create a single species hedge.

• But not completely useless – can look at species composition to understand past landscapes (‘indicator species’ can show woodland edge hedges). Need to consider regional/local context.

Dating Hedges?



Dating Walls?

‘Wall-to-Wall History’

Richard Hodges examination of Roystone Grange in Derbyshire included the creation of a typology of drystone walling, checked through construction method, association with other cultural features or excavation.

1 2

3 4 5

Ecology and Vegetation

• ‘Plants and animals do not enter into the story merely as part of the environment, as scenery in the theatre of landscape. They are actors in the play; each has its own character, which needs to be understood.’ (Rackham, 2000).

• As this quote from Rackham suggests, a thorough understanding of ecology allows a deep understanding of the nature and development of a landscape.

• Factors to consider are the distribution, nature and species composition of: woodland/wood-pasture, indicators of tree management, fields and their boundaries, grassland, heathland, moors and water bodies.

• An excellent reference for understanding historical ecology is Oliver Rackham’s ‘History of the Countryside’.

After: Rackham 2000Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

• Calculating the age of ancient trees is problematic, especially since they are often hollow so the oldest wood is not available for dendrochronology or C-14 dating.

• A crude formula for calculating age is that free-standing timber trees (especially oaks) gain approximately 2cm of circumference each year of growth.

• But also have to take account of a wide range of factors, such as competition with other plants, species, climate and effects of management strategies such as pollarding (reduces growth rate).

Ecology and Vegetation

After: Muir 2001Hoskins’s England hoskins-england.blogspot.co.uk

Vegetation changes as archaeological indicators


Structures and Buildings

• Standing buildings / structures

• Partially extant structures (e.g. foundations)

• Footprints and earthworks (e.g. hut platforms)


Surface finds• On ploughed arable land there is often a good chance of

finding artefacts. Pasture is obviously not usually suited.

• The distribution of the finds can then be used to give an impression of the subsurface archaeology. Isolated artefacts likely to result from domestic refuse material scattered as manure, dense concentrations suggest potential occupation?

• The ideal conditions are following rainfall and in winter when the vegetation/crop is low and have not started growing.

• Factors to consider include:– Method of collection (systematic or random)?– Positioning of artefacts?

– What type of artefacts are likely to survive local soil conditions?

– Crop type and growth.

– Depth of ploughing and time since ploughing– Colour of soil– Degree of movement from original location (i.e. not in

situ finds but by how much?)

• It is important to remember that the presence of artefacts within topsoil or on the ground surface almost certainly means that the archaeology is being eroded.


Factors affecting fieldwork

Land Cover• Obscuring or revealing?

• Affects the visibility of many of the features that archaeologists will be interested in – earthworks, artefacts, structures…

• Vegetation type, variation, growth cycle…

• Significant impact on fieldwork – winter is generally the best time to be out, low sunlight and sparse vegetation cover. Although in upland areas bracken can obscure even through winter.


Exposed soil sections / Erosion

• Exposed soil sections can provide useful insights into the subsurface environment.

• This can be by revealing the presence of an archaeological site or by clarifying the nature of a known site.

• Exposed sections reveal a profile through sediments allowing an understanding of the stratigraphic development of the site. Can also reveal structures or artefacts.

• However – by their very nature such erosion is highlighting the destruction of the archaeology.


Animal Burrows


Land Accessibility• Land ownership

– Permissions– Multiple owners– Tenant owners

• Proximity to transport / parking– E.g. Huisnis + Loch M, Harris.

• Obstructions to fieldwork– Livestock, etc– Seasonal activities (lambing, grouse

shooting…)


Time of Day / Season

Light conditions are also crucial factors in the clarity and visibility of archaeology.

Autumn / Winter / Early Spring are often the best times to undertake field survey.

Low light, frost / snow, flooding, etc.

Balance between length of fieldwork day and visibility of archaeology.


Techniques of Recording

• English Heritage have defined 3 levels of recording and analysis for archaeological surveys in order to provide guidance and standardise approaches to fieldwork.

• EH Level 1– Core monument record.– Brief written description.– Annotated 1:10k map showing location and extent.

• EH Level 2– Core monument record.– Brief written account including consideration of topography, potential, secondary

sources and importance.– Annotated 1:10k and 1:2500 location maps, and site plan / accurate survey

drawings at 1:2500.– Ground photography.

• EH Level 3– Core monument record.– Detailed written account (including all points for level 2).– Annotated 1:10k and 1:2500 location maps, site plan at 1:1250. Including

interpretive diagrams and any other drawn records.– Ground photography.– Additional specialist survey or investigations.

• These standards are set out in detail in: Ainsworth et al 2007. Understanding the Archaeology of Landscapes. A Guide to Good Recording Practice. English Heritage, Swindon.


Level 1 EH Survey

• ‘Level 1 is mainly a visual record, supplemented by the minimum of information needed to identify the archaeological site’s location, possible date and type.’ (Ainsworth et al 2007, 23).

• Core Monument Record – e.g. location, period, condition and monument type (should be standardised, e.g. using NMR thesaurus for terminology http://thesaurus.englishheritage.org.uk/).

• Written Account– Type/classification (as above)– Exact location (NGR up to 8 figures) and include parish / county– Relevant ID numbers (field IDs and HER/NMR)– Name of compiler– Date of investigation– Reasons for survey– Details of site ownership and present land use– Key secondary source (aerial photograph, principal publication)– Summary of key features - description


http://thesaurus.englishheritage.org.uk/



Level 1 EH Survey

• Survey Drawings

– Annotated 1:10,000 map indicating location and extent

– Cartographic record in the form of a metrically accurate site plan, typically at 1:1000 or 1:2500, showing the form of the site or landscape. This should indicate major topographical features and be related to modern detail, and should conform to drawing conventions wherever possible (or include a key).

– All plans or maps should include north arrows, scale bars, and relevant headings / annotation.


Base Maps

Top left = OS Mastermap

Top right = 1:10,000

Bottom left = 1:25,000

Bottom right = 1:50,000


Sketch Mapping

• Sketch mapping of archaeological remains identified during fieldwork is an important skill.

• Features should be represented with care, at least to an approximate scale (pacing).

• Maps should be well annotated and include a title, description, orientation, scale bar, and a key if required.

• English Heritage drawing conventions should be used wherever possible.

After Muir 2001


Sketch Mapping

After Muir 2001


Field Notes

• A detailed field description is essential and should include all of the details listed in the relevant English Heritage survey level written description information. Text should be linked into sketch maps and photographs wherever possible.

• These notes can be made on an annotated plan, in a notebook or into a voice recorder – but should be clearly legible / audible and copied up as soon as you return from the field.

• Other important considerations are the landscape context of the site (e.g. intervisibility), preservation condition / erosion, visible chronology, etc.


Importance of recording landscape

context


Position and Orientation• Accurate positioning of identified

archaeology is also essential – although the level of accuracy will differ depending on the purpose and level of the survey.

• A central grid reference obtained from a handheld GPS is adequate for recording the basic location of a site (or multiple points for a large area).

• Alternatively, the position can be recorded onto a paper map through pacing/taping from field boundaries.

• A compass is essential for proper orientation of a site and any features within it.


Ground Photography • Ground photography is primarily used to record the appearance or interrelationships of specific features within a site, or to record the broader landscape context.

• Factors to consider are the time of day/year, the weather, and the quality of the camera.

• The viewpoint should be carefully selected to maximise the information obtained (for record shots especially). Elevated positions are often useful for clarifying the overall pattern in large areas.

• Wherever possible use a measured ranging rod for scale – and always align the rod in the same manner for your photographs (e.g. red to the left). If no rod is available then improvisation is necessary (e.g. a person, a trowel, etc).

• Photographs need to be accompanied by notes – recording what they refer to and where they were taken. At its simplest level this can be recording the position and orientation of a photograph on a sketch map.


Positioning Photographs


Geotagging Photographs

• Geotagging – recording the location where a photograph was taken and adding the geographical information to the digital media.

• The time setting on the digital camera has to be synchronised with that on the GPS – ensuring that the location at which a picture was taken matches that recorded on the GPS.

• Software is available that lets you then geotag the images that you have taken (e.g. GPicSync http://code.google.com/p/gpicsync/).

• Once the software has synchronised the data there is an option in GPicSync that lets you view the data as an overlay in Google Earth, with thumbnails of you photos that can then be viewed in their correct position. The image is saved as a .kml file so that you can return to the same view in Google Earth later.


http://code.google.com/p/gpicsync/



Coffee Break

Laxton Castle: Unlocking the Village?




















http://vimeo.com/12425668


“The interrelationship between any given castle and its surroundings can be essentially understood from two perspectives: the impact of the castle on the landscape and the impact of the landscape on the castle.”

Oliver Creighton (2002)


Location Analysis

“As a type of fortification, the real strength of castle architecture lay in its symbolic, not military value…As a symbol of authority, the visual appearance of the castle was synonymous with the castle holder’s claim of lordship.

Medieval castle were constructed for those who wished to be seen…the constituents of a visual programme…there to express a message about rule, society, military might and money.”

McGrail 1995


Location Analysis

“Positioning a castle so that it visually dominated a particular area was only one way of advertising the seigniorial presence…castle builders were conscious of the visual benefits to be gained from their choice of site…

The advantages of a hilltop site were not, as might be expected, simply military; rather, the placing of a castle on an elevated site was a metaphor for physical strength”

Liddiard, 2005


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis


Location Analysis

Self Assessment

Learning Outcomes

• Appreciate some of the fieldwork techniques that are used by landscape archaeologists

• Understand how the castle and village plan at Laxton are integrated within a planned whole


Further Study

Suggested Reading• Making of the English Landscape Chpt 9

Self Study Themes• Take a detailed look at the layout of

Laxton village on one of the maps on the website. Where would you start looking for evidence in the field to explain what you see?




Documents

Hoskins' england class 7 temp