Housing Policies for Asia: A Theoretical Analysis by Use of a Demand and Supply Model

8/21/2019 Housing Policies for Asia: A Theoretical Analysis by Use of a Demand and Supply Model

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@MDH Warohkg ^`pbr Ybrhbs

Jaushkg âchihbs lar @sh`6@ ]jbarbthi`c @k`cyshs dy Rsb al `Mbe`km `km Yuppcy Eambc

Kàyuoh Xasjhka,E`ttjh`s Jbcdcb, `km]asjhòh @hz`w`

Ka. 24< @prhc 4>02

@sh`k Mbvbcapebkt D`ko Hksthtutb


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]jb Warohkg ^`pbr sbrhbs hs ` iakthku`thak al tjb larebrcy kèbm Mhsiusshak ^`pbr sbrhbs?tjb kuedbrhkg al tjb p`pbrs iakthkubm whtjaut hktbrrupthak ar ij`kgb. @MDH‘s warohkgp`pbrs rblcbit hkhth`c hmb`s ak ` taphi `km `rb pastbm akchkb lar mhsiusshak. @MDH bkiaur`gbs

rb`mbrs ta past tjbhr iaeebkts ak tjb e`hk p`gb lar bìj warohkg p`pbr (ghvbk hk tjbiht`thak dbcaw). Yaeb warohkg p`pbrs e`y mbvbcap hkta atjbr lares al pudchi`thak.

Yuggbstbm iht`thak6

Xasjhka. K., E. Jbcdcb, `km ]. @hz`w`. 4>02. Jaushkg âchihbs lar @sh`6 @ ]jbarbthi`c @k`cyshs dy Rsb al Mbe`km `km Yuppcy Eambc. @MDH Warohkg ^`pbr 2402/>=/47/>->:, F`p`k

]bc6 +:0-9-9289-22>>L`x6 +:0-9-9289-2270RTC6 www.`mdh.argB-e`hc6 hklaN`mdh.arg

© 4>02 @sh`k Mbvbcapebkt D`ko Hksthtutb

mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


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@MDH Warohkg ^`pbr 24< Xasjhka, Jbcdcb, `km @hz`w`

@dstrìt

]jb e`hk adfbithvb al tjhs p`pbr hs ta ghvb `k avbrvhbw al tjb east iaeeakcy usbm jaushkgpachihbs `km ta hccustr`tb tjbhr biakaehi hepìt. ]a lìhcht`tb tjb `k`cyshs, wb lhrst hktramuib `shepcb twa-pbrham jaushkg mbe`km eambc lar awkbr-aiiuphbm jausbs `km rbkt`c jausbs.Wb tjbk `mm ` st`km`rm staio-lcaw jaushkg suppcy eambc. Rshkg tjhs eambcchkg lrèbwaro,wb bxpc`hk tjb qu`cht`thvb bllbits al v`rhaus jaushkg pachihbs ak suppcy `km mbe`km. Hk tjbc`st sbithak al tjb p`pbr, wb pravhmb ` qu`ktht`thvb bsthe`thak al tjb hepìt al bìj pachiy`km `ssbss hts bllbithvbkbss ushkg ` shepcb `k`cyshs al iast bllbithvbkbss. Wb japb tj`t tjbeambc‘s vbrs`thchty eòbs ht ` shepcb taac lar pachiyeòbrs ta dbttbr ukmbrst`km tjb biakaehiiaksbqubkibs al v`rhaus jaushkg pachihbs.

FBC Ic`sshlhi`thak6 T40, T4:, T90, T9:


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Iaktbkts

0. Hktramuithak ................................................................................................................ 9

4.

Tbc`tbm chtbr t̀urb ....................................................................................................... =

9.

Avbrvhbw al Jaushkg âchihbs .................................................................................... <

=. @ ]jbarbthi`c Lrèbwaro al Jaushkg âchihbs ............................................................ 7

=.0

Mbe`km lar Jaushkg ...................................................................................... 7

=.4

Yuppcy al Jaushkg .......................................................................................... 8

2. @ppchi`thaks ta Jaushkg âchihbs .............................................................................. 04

2.0

Awkbr-aiiuphbm Jaushkg E`robt ................................................................. 04

2.4

Tbkt`c Jaushkg E`robt................................................................................. 48


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0. HK]TAMRI]HAK

@iibss ta `llarm`dcb `km `mbqu`tb jaushkg j`s dbiaeb ` oby iakibrk lar e`ky caw-`km ehmmcb-hkiaeb jausbjacms `raukm tjb warcm. T`phm urd`khz`thak iaedhkbm whtjpapuc`thak grawtj j`s cbm ta ` surgb hk jaushkg prhibs hk e`ky urd`k `rb`s, bspbih`ccyhk mbvbcaphkg iauktrhbs. @s ` iaksbqubkib, jaushkg j`s dbiaeb cbss `llarm`dcb lare`ky ehmmcb- `km caw-hkiaeb jausbjacms. @ rbibkt survby sjawbm tj`t tjb pradcbe al`llarm`dhchty hs p`rthiuc`rcy sbvbrb hk @sh` `km tjb ^ìhlhi. @eakg tjb tap 4> ihthbs hk tjbwarcm r`kobm ìiarmhkg ta tjb prhib-ta-hkiaeb r`tha, 0< `rb cai`tbm hk @sh` `km tjb^ìhlhi (Lhgurb 0).

Lhgurb 06 ^rhib-ta-Hkiaeb T`tha hk 4> East Bxpbkshvb Ihthbs hk tjb Warcm

^TI 5 ̂ bapcb‘s Tbpudchi al Ijhk`.

Yaurib6 Kuedba ̂ rapbrty ̂ rhibs Hkmbx 4>02.

Hl prhibs hk tjb jaushkg e`robt `rb gbtthkg dbyakm tjb rbìj al e`ky mwbccbrs, ht i`kj`vb sbvbr`c sbvbrb iaksbqubkibs. Lhrst, jausbjacms `rb laribm ta chvb hk mwbcchkgstj`t `rb taa se`cc ar hk d`m iakmhthak. Ybiakm, jausbjacms `rb laribm ta `ccai`tb `c`rgb sj`rb al tjbhr hkiaeb lar jaushkg, kbgcbithkg atjbr kbbms ar tòhkg sudst`kth`clhk`kih`c rhsos. ]jhrm, saeb caw-hkiaeb jausbjacms `rb uk`dcb ta p`y lar rbguc`rjaushkg `km bkm up hk hccbg`c mwbcchkgs ar scues, wjhij altbk cìo d`shi sbrvhibs suij`s lrbsj w`tbr ar s`kht`thak.

]a `vahm tjbsb kbg`thvb iaksbqubkibs, pachiyeòbrs `rb `ttbepthkg ta hktbrvbkb hk tjbjaushkg e`robt ushkg mhllbrbkt pachihbs. ]jb autiaeb al tjbsb jaushkg pachihbs hs kat`cw`ys wbcc ukmbrstaam, bvbk tjaugj tjb pradcbe al pravhmhkg bkaugj `llarm`dcb `km`mbqu`tb jaushkg lar tjb papuc`thak hs kat kbw.0 ]jb lhrst pudchi jaushkg prafbit st`rtbmhk 0:8> hk tjb Acm Khijac hk Cakmak, ` katarhaus scue `t tj`t theb. ]jraugjaut tjb 4>tjibktury, gavbrkebkts `raukm tjb warcm hktbrvbkbm hk tjb jaushkg e`robts `km

0 ûdchi jaushkg w`s `crb`my okawk hk tjb Tae`k Bephrb.

:.9<

=>..2 4:.: 47.:< 47.28 4

4>

9>

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2>

7>

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0>>

^rhib-ta-Hkiaeb T`tha

9


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`ttbeptbm ta pravhmb `mbqu`tb jaushkg lar tjbhr ihthzbks. Gavbrkebkt hktbrvbkthakswbrb p`rthiuc`rcy dacm `ltbr k`tur`c mhs`stbrs ar w`rs, wjbk c`rgb p`rts al tjb papuc`thakwbrb cìohkg sjbctbr. Gavbrkebkts tjbk altbk e`sshvbcy duhct pudchi jausbs lar cawhkiaeb-graups.

]am`y, tjb e`hk ij`ccbkgb hk jaushkg pachihbs hk @sh` stbes lrae r`phm urd`khz`thak. @iiarmhkg ta tjb Rkhtbm K`thaks (RK) (4>0=), hk @sh` akcy =:% al tjb papuc`thak hsiurrbktcy chvhkg hk urd`k `rb`s, wjhij hs sudst`kth`ccy cawbr tj`k hk `cc atjbr rbghaks altjb warcm (Kartj @ebrhi` :4%, C`thk @ebrhi` `km tjb I`rhddb`k :>%, `s wbcc `sBurapb 79%), bxibpt lar @lrhi` (=>%). Ghvbk tjb rbc`thvbcy caw sj`rb al urd`khzbmpbapcb hk @sh`, tjb RK bxpbits tj`t hk @sh` urd`khz`thak whcc r`phmcy hkirb`sb `km j`vbrbìjbm 2>. RK’J@DH]@] (4>00) bsthe`tbs tj`t tjhs grawtjeb`ks tj`t hk @sh` bvbry m`y urd`k `rb`s whcc kbbm ta ìiaeeam`tb 04>,>>> kbwrbshmbkts, wjhij bqu`cs ` m`hcy mbe`km al `raukm 4>,>>> jaushkg ukhts. Ht hs ` wbcc-okawk lìt lrae urd`k biakaehis, tj`t tjb suppcy al jaushkg hs vbry hkbc`sthi (sbb larbxèpcb, Az`kkb `km Ytruyo 087:). @s ` rucb al tjued, urd`k biakaehsts `ssueb tj`tkbw iakstruithak hk ` ghvbk yb`r hs akcy 4% ta 9% al tjb tat`c jaushkg staio (A‘Yucchv`k

08800? A‘Yucchv`k 088


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jaushkg mbe`km `k`cyshs i`k db i`tbgarhzbm hkta tjb laccawhkg laur typbs6 (0) mbe`kmlar jaushkg sbrvhibs ar jaushkg ukhts, (4) mbe`km lar jaushkg `ttrhdutbs suij `s tjbmhst`kib ta tjb ibktr`c dushkbss mhstrhit `km `ebkhthbs hk tjb kbhgjdarjaam, (9) tbkurbijahib, `km (=) sp`th`c `ccai`thak al jausbjacms. B`ij al tjbsb i`tbgarhbs rbquhrbs vbrymhllbrbkt eambcchkg `km bsthe`thak str`tbghbs (V`dbc 4>>=).

Tbsb`rij ak jaushkg sbrvhibs ar ukhts stumhbs tjb mbe`km lar jaushkg, `ssuehkgjaushkg ukhts ta db jaeagbkaus (b.g., Gj`v`rh 08:


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tjbrbdy iaksthtutbs ` larehm`dcb taac lar `ssbsshkg `km iaep`rhkg mhllbrbkt jaushkgpachihbs. @km sbiakm, wb ga dbyakm ` shepcb gr`pjhi`c hccustr`thak al tjb eambc, `kmpravhmb kuebrhi`c sheuc`thak rbsucts.

9. A\BT\HBW AL JARYHKG ÂCHIHBY

\`rhaus typbs al jaushkg pachihbs j`vb dbbk hepcbebktbm tjraugjaut tjb warcm shkibWarcm W`r HH. Hk tjhs p`pbr, wb suggbst i`tbgarhzhkg `cc pachihbs hkta laur mhebkshaks(sbb ]`dcb 0)6 mbe`km- `km suppcy-shmb pachihbs `s wbcc `s pachihbs ta praeatb jaebawkbrsjhp `km pachihbs ta suppart rbktbrs.

]`dcb 06 Avbrvhbw al Jaushkg âchihbs `cakg Laur Mhebkshaks

Awkbr-aiiuphbm Jaushkg E`robt Tbkt`c Jaushkg E`robt

Mbe`km Yhmb• I`sj dbkblhts lar jaushkg

• Jaushkg sudshmhbs

• Eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tbrbmuithak

• Eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithaklrae hkiaeb t`x

• Rpgr`mhkg qu`chty st`km`rms

• ^rapbrty t`x ak jaushkgpurij`sbs

• Ca`k-ta-v`cub (C]\) ̀ km mbdt-ta- hkiaeb (M]H) r`tharbguc`thaks

• Tbstrhithak al kbw purij`sbs

• Lhxbm èaukt i`sjsudshmhbs

• Tbkt`c sudshmhbs

• Tbkt ibrthlhi`tbs

• Jaushkg vauijbrs

• Ycue prbvbkthak

• Tbkt iaktracs

Yuppcy Yhmb• ûdchi jaushkg

• Yudshmhbs ta suppchbrs

• Rpgr`mhkg qu`chty st`km`rms

• ûdchi jaushkg

• Yudshmy ta suppchbrs

• Ycue upgr`mhkg

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Mbe`km-shmb pachihbs bkiaep`ss `cc tjasb pachihbs mhrbitcy t`rgbtbm `t mbe`km. ]jbakcy bxibpthak hs tjb pachiy al upgr`mhkg qu`chty st`km`rms. ]jhs pachiy mhrbitcy `llbitstjb mbe`km- `km suppcy-shmb. Ak tjb mbe`km-shmb, wb j`vb lhrst chstbm tjasb pachihbs

tj`t hkirb`sb mbe`km lar jaushkg `km tjbk tjasb tj`t `rb hepcbebktbm ta iurdmbe`km. (]jb armbr al tjb pachihbs hk ]`dcb 0 hs e`mb ìiarmhkg ta tjb armbr al tjbhrhktramuithak c`tbr hk tjb p`pbr.)

Yuppcy-shmb pachihbs wbrb hepcbebktbm dy e`ky gavbrkebkts `ltbr Warcm W`r HH. ]jbmbstruithak iùsbm dy tjb w`r `km tjb r`phm grawtj hk papuc`thak e`mb ht kbibss`ry taquhiocy `mmrbss tjb sjart`gb al jaushkg. Hk atjbr bebrghkg iauktrhbs, r`phm biakaehigrawtj `csa iùsbm sjart`gbs hk jaushkg `km trhggbrbm suppcy-shmb hktbrvbkthaks dy tjbgavbrkebkt. Wjbk tjb biakaey hs hk ` earb e`turb st`tb, mbe`km-shmb pachihbstyphi`ccy dbiaeb tjb prblbrrbm pachiy hkstruebkt.

@ gaam bxèpcb al tjhs sjhlt lrae suppcy- ta mbe`km-shmb pachihbs hs tjb Tbpudchi alOarb`. ]jb Tbpudchi al Oarb` lhrst `maptbm ` suppcy-shmb pachiy i`ccbm ]wa Ehcchak Kbw

Jaushkg Iakstruithak ^rafbit ta mb`c whtj ` sbvbrb jaushkg sjart`gb hk 08:8. @ltbr


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avbriaehkg tjb jaushkg sjart`gb `km prhib jhobs, jaushkg pachiy hk tjb Tbpudchi alOarb` sjhltbm taw`rm mbe`km-shmb `ppraìjbs, suij `s `k hktbrbst r`tb mbrbguc`thak,tjb hktramuithak al ` rbvbrsb eartg`gb ca`k, `km ` i`sj sudshmy. Yhkg`parb pravhmbs`katjbr bxèpcb al tjhs sjhlt. Rkmbr ^rheb Ehkhstbr Cbb Ou`k Xbw (0828’088>), eastjaushkg pachihbs wbrb suppcy-shmb-arhbktbm whtj `k adfbithvb ta hkirb`sb jaebawkbrsjhp r`tbs. Hk tjb 088>s, tjb gavbrkebkt sjhltbm ta mbe`km-shmb sudshmhbs,wjhij wbrb iakshmbrbm earb iast-bllbithvb tj`k suppcy-shmb sudshmhbs. Jawbvbr,suppcy-shmb pachihbs `rb sthcc pc`yhkg vht`c racbs hk e`ky biakaehbs hk @sh` `km tjb^ìhlhi. Lar bxèpcb, hk Hkmh` suppcy-shmb pachihbs `rb iakshmbrbm ta db `s hepart`kt `smbe`km-shmb pachihbs lar pravhmhkg `llarm`dcb jaushkg.

=. @ ]JBATB]HI@C LT@EBWATO AL JARYHKGÂCHIHBY

Wb usb tjb iaksuebr ijahib eambc d`sbm ak st`km`rm taacs al ehirabiakaehis. Wb

`ssueb tjbrb `rb akcy twa typbs al gaams6 jaushkg (J) `km atjbr iaksuepthak gaams(I). ]jb jausbjacm `ccai`tbs hts dumgbt ta tjb twa gaams. Aur twa-pbrham jaushkgmbe`km eambc lar awkbr-aiiuphbm jaushkg `ccaws us ta `k`cyzb tjb hktbrpc`y dbtwbbkjaushkg mbe`km `km suppcy. Hk tjb sbiakm p`rt al tjhs sbithak, wb `csa caao hkta tjbrbkt`c jausb e`robt, `ppcyhkg ` shehc`r twa-pbrham eambc dy schgjtcy ij`kghkg saeb`ssuepthaks. ]jbsb twa mbe`km eambcs (jaebawkbrs `km rbktbrs) `rb usbm ta`k`cyzb tjb bllbits al e`far jaushkg pachihbs. @k `mv`kt`gb al sbtthkg up ` tjbarbthi`ceambc hs tj`t ht bk`dcbs us ta bv`cu`tb tjb pachiy bllbits gr`pjhi`ccy `s wbcc `skuebrhi`ccy. Hk tjb kbxt sbithak, wb whcc sjaw tjb kuebrhi`c bllbits al sbvbr`c pachihbstj`t `rb d`sbm ak aur twa-pbrham jaushkg mbe`km eambc.

@s lar tjb suppcy al jaushkg, wb bepcay tjb hmb` al tjb staio `km lcaw eambc

(Drubiokbr 4>00? ^hraukòhs 4>09? Mh^`squ`cb `km Wjb`tak 088,0) (0)wjbrb

(,) 5

0∔ + 0∔ , ≮ 0, ≮ 0 (4)

(,) 5 () + (), 5 5 0 (9)4 5 (0 )0 (=) `km rbprbsbkt tjb qu`kthty al iaksuepthak gaams iaksuebm `km jaushkg ukhtsawkbm dy tjb jausbjacm hk pbrham t . Bvbry jaushkg ukht hs `ssuebm ta db jaeagbkaus`km al tjb sèb qu`chty. Mhllbrbkibs, lar bxèpcb hk cai`thak, tr`kquhchty, `km r`kgb alèbkhthbs hk kbhgjdarjaams, `rb kat iakshmbrbm hk tjb eambc. Hk atjbr warms, wb trb`t`cc ukhts bqu`ccy `km mhllbrbkibs hk ij`rìtbrhsthis `rb `ssuebm kat ta `llbit mbe`km.

7


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Jausbs `s mur`dcb gaams `llbit uthchty hk datj pbrhams, dut tjby `rb sudfbit tambprbih`thak mub ta wb`r `km tb`r. ]jb mhc`phm`thak hs `ssuebm ta db `t tjb r`tb al . d sjaws tjb wbhgjt lar jaushkg hk tjb uthchty lukithak `km hs tjb mhsiaukt l`itar lar luturbuthchty.

Wb `ssueb tj`t tjb jausbjacm duys ` kbw jausb whtj tjb `hm al ` ca`k, C, hk pbrham 0`km p`ys all tjb ca`k `km hts hktbrbst hk pbrham 4. ]jb hktbrbst r`tb al tjb ca`k hs r . 0 `km 4 rbprbsbkt tjb jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb hk b`ij pbrham. 0 `km 4 st`km lar tjb i`sjsudshmhbs lrae tjb gavbrkebkt hk pbrham 0 `km 4. ℋ `km st`km lar tjb prapbrty t`xr`tb `km hkiaeb t`x r`tb, rbspbithvbcy. ]jb dumgbt iakstr`hkt al tjb jausbjacms i`ktjus db wrhttbk `s6

0 + (0 + ℋ)ℋ0 5 0 0 + ／0 (2)4 + (0 + ) 5 0 4／4 ()

4∗ 5 (0 )0∗ (00)0∗ 5 0(0+)(0+) 0 0 +

(0∔)(0+)0+ 0／0／

0+ (04)

4∗ 5 (0+)(0+)(0+) 0 0 +(0∔)(0+)

0+ 0／0／ 0+ (09)

]jb apthe`c cbvbc al jaushkg ca`k, C* , `km Mbdt-ta-Hkiaeb (M]H) r`tha `km Ca`k-ta-\`cub (C]\) r`tha i`k db bxprbssbm `s laccaws6

∗5 0

∗+

(0 + ℋ

)

ℋ0∗

0 0 0 (0=)

5 ∗ (02) 5 ∗∗ (0


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=.0.4 ]wa-pbrham Tbkt`c Jaushkg Eambc

Yhehc`r ta tjb awkbr-aiiuphbm jausb eambc, wb `ssueb tj`t ` rbprbsbkt`thvb

jausbjacm tj`t chvbs akcy lar twa pbrhams sbbos ta e`xhehzb tjb laccawhkg uthchtylukithak6

(0,0) + (4,4), ∊ (>,0) (07) wjbrb

(,) 5

0∔ + 0∔ , ≮ 0, ≮ 0 (0:)

(,) 5 () + (), 5 5 0 (08) rbprbsbkts tjb qu`kthty al iaksuepthak pramuits iaksuebm `km mbkatbs tjbjaushkg ukhts rbktbm dy tjb jausbjacm hk pbrham t .

]jb jausbjacm i`k ijaasb tjb qu`kthty al jaushkg ukhts hk b`ij pbrham. Ht i`ksudsthtutb hts iaksuepthak hktbr-tbepar`ccy tjraugj s`vhkgs, lar wjhij tjb hktbrbst r`tbhs r 6 0 + 0 + 5 0 0 + 0 (4>) 4 + 4 5 0 4 + (0 + ) + 4 (40) 4 5(0+ )0 (44) wjbrb , , `km g mbkatb tjb prhib lar rbktbm jausb pbr ukht, tjb hkiaeb t`x r`tb, `kmtjb bxagbkaus biakaehi grawtj r`tb. hs ` sudshmy lrae tjb gavbrkebkt hk pbrham t .Lrae (4>) ta (44), tjb hktbr-tbepar`c dumgbt iakstr`hkt lar rbkt`c jausbs t`obs tjb lare6

0 + 0+ + 0 + 0+ 5 0 0 + 0∔(0+)0+ ／0／ 0+ (49)

]jb apthe`c cbvbc al rbkt`c jaushkg ukhts `km tjb iaksuepthak gaams, 0∗,4∗,0∗,0∗, i`kdb adt`hkbm dy e`xhehzhkg tjb wjacb chlb uthchty sudfbit ta tjb hktbr-tbepar`c dumgbtiakstr`hkt.

Wjbk wb `ssueb tj`t 5 5 0, tjb apthe`c cbvbcs al rbkt`c jaushkg ukhts `kmiaksuepthak gaams dbiaeb6

0∗ 5 (0+)(+0) 0 0 +(0∔)(0+)

0+ 0／0／ 0+ (4=)

4∗5

(0+)(0+)(+0) 0 0 +

(0∔)(0+)

0+ 0／

0／

0+

(42)

0∗ 5 0(0+)(+0) 0 0 +(0∔)(0+)

0+ 0／0／ 0+ (409) `km Mh^`squ`cb `km Wjb`tak (088


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staio lrae tjb prbvhaus pbrham `km tjb kbw iakstruithaks. Hk tjb staio-lcaw eambc, tjbiurrbkt pbrham staio cbvbc, , hs tjb c`st pbrham‘s jaushkg staio, ∔0, pcus tjb iurrbktpbrham‘s kbw iakstruithak, ∌ , ehkus tjb c`st pbrham‘s staio, wjhij kbbms ta dbmbeachsjbm, ∔0. Wb `ssueb tj`t tjb kbw iakstruithaks mbpbkm ak tjb iurrbkt prhiblar jaushkg `km tj`t ht hs `csa `llbitbm dy bxagbkaus iakmhthaks, suij `s pachiyij`kgbs, . 5 ∔0 + ∌ ∔0 (4:)∌ 5 ℋ + + , ; > (48)Lrae bqu`thak (4:) `km (48), ht hs `pp`rbkt tj`t

5 ℋ + (0 )∔0 + + (9>)Lhgurb 4 sjaws tjb staio `km lcaw e`robt al jaushkg. ]jb bxhsthkg staio al jaushkg hshccustr`tbm hk tjb cblt p`kbc `km tjb rhgjt p`kbc sjaws wjbtjbr `km jaw euij tjbjaushkg staio ij`kgbs ghvbk ` ibrt`hk prhib. Hk bvbry pbrham kbw jaushkg ukhts `rb

iakstruitbm, dut `t tjb sèb theb mbirbpht jausbs `rb mbeachsjbm. @s cakg `siakstruithak bxibbms mbeachthaks, tjb staio hkirb`sbs avbr theb. Hl tjb appashtb hs trub,tjb staio mbirb`sbs. ]jb bquhchdrhue prhib hs mbtbrehkbm `t tjb pahkt wjbrb mbe`kmhktbrsbits whtj tjb jaushkg staio.

Lhgurb 46 Ytaio-lcaw Yuppcy Eambc

Yaurib6 @utjars.

]jb staio-lcaw eambc tbccs us tj`t, hk tjb sjart ruk, tjb jaushkg prhib `mfusts quhiocy tabqu`chzb mbe`km ta tjb bxhsthkg ukhts. @s wbcc `s tjb prhib, tjb jaushkg staio hs`mfustbm ta jbcp tjb prhib cbvbc ga dìo ta tjb arhghk`c bquhchdrhue cbvbc. Jawbvbr, tjb`mfustebkt al tjb jaushkg staio aiiurs akcy scawcy avbr theb `km altbk whtj sudst`kthvbc`gs. Wjbk tjb staio mabs kat ij`kgb, 5 ∔0 , tjb staio hs s`hm ta db hk ` stb`myst`tb. Rkmbr tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib, ℋ∗, kbw iakstruithak `km mbeachthakallsbt bìj atjbr, ∌ 5 ∔0 . Hl lar saeb rb`sak tjb prhib hs jhgjbr tj`k tjb stb`myst`tb bquhchdrhue prhib, tjbk tjb kbw iakstruithaks autkuedbr tjb ukhts mbprbih`tbm

`km tjb staio graws gr`mu`ccy. Hl tjb prhib hs dbcaw ℋ∗, tjbk tjb lcaw al jaushkg ukhtsdbiaebs kbg`thvb `km tjb jaushkg staio mbirb`sbs iakthkuauscy. ]jb suppcy al

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jaushkg hk tjb stb`my st`tb i`k db mbrhvbm shepcy dy sudsthtuthkg ∗ 5 ∔0∗ hktabqu`thak (9>).

∗ 5 ℋ∗ + (0 )∗ + + (90)

Yacvhkg lar ∗, wb adt`hk tjb stb`my st`tb al jaushkg suppcy.∗ 5 ∗++

(94)

wjbrb ℋ∗ hs ` stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib.=.4.4 Mbe`km Yjaio `km Yuppcy Yjhlt

Hgkarhkg c`rgb bxagbkaus sjaios (suij `s k`tur`c mhs`stbrs), tjb suppcy al jaushkg i`kdb `ssuebm ta db lhxbm hk tjb sjart ruk lar `ky prhib cbvbc, wjhij tr`ksc`tbs hkta `vbrthi`c sjart-ruk suppcy iurvb, hkbc`sthi ta prhib ij`kgbs. Ak tjb atjbr j`km, hk tjbhktbrebmh`tb ruk `km cakg ruk, tjb suppcy rbspakms ta ` prhib ij`kgb vh` ij`kgbs hktjb lcaw. ]jb jhgjbr tjb prhib dbiaebs, tjb earb ukhts `rb iakstruitbm `km tjb staio al

jaushkg hkirb`sbs.

Yuppasb tjb mbe`km lar jaushkg gabs up dbiùsb al `k hkirb`sb hk tjb papuc`thak”tjb hkirb`sb sjhlts tjb mbe`km iurvb upw`rm `km pusjbs up tjb prhib hk tjb sjart rukta ℋ∗∗ (Lhgurb 9). ]jbk tjb jhgjbr prhib bkiaur`gbs kbw iakstruithak `km tjbrblarb tjbsuppcy `csa gr`mu`ccy gabs up dbiùsb kbwcy iakstruitbm jaushkg autkuedbrs`d`kmakbm jaushkg. ]jb sjart-ruk bquhchdrhue prhib ℋ∗∗ `km tjb kbwcy iakstruitbmukhts dbiaeb se`ccbr `km se`ccbr hk bvbry pbrham. ]jb sjhlt iakthkubs ukthc tjb sjart-ruk bquhchdrhue prhib rbìjbs tjb arhghk`c stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue cbvbc, ℋ∗. Wb kbbm tastrbss tj`t ukmbr kare`c ihriuest`kibs tjb suppcy al jaushkg `mfusts akcy gr`mu`ccy,`s tjb duhcmhkg al kbw jausbs (ar tjb mbstruithak al acm akbs) i`kkat db makbheebmh`tbcy. Jawbvbr, bxagbkaus sjaios”suij `s w`rs, k`tur`c mhs`stbrs, ar c`rgb

pachiy hktbrvbkthaks”ehgjt mhrbitcy `km summbkcy `llbit tjb suppcy.Lhgurb 96 ]jb Bllbit al Mbe`km Yjhlt ak Yuppcy

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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2. @^^CHI@]HAKY ]A JARYHKG ÂCHIHBY

]jhs sbithak `k`cyzbs tjb qu`cht`thvb bllbit al bìj pachiy hk ]`dcb 0. Wb p`y `ttbkthaklhrstcy ta tjb awkbr-aiiuphbm jausb e`robt `km tjbk eavb ta pachihbs lar tjb rbkt`c

jausb e`robt. Wb eòb usb al hkmhllbrbkib iurvbs `km ` dumgbt iakstr`hkt iurvb lartjb `k`cyshs. ]jb rbprbsbkt`thvb jausbjacm ijaasbs tjb pahkt wjhij ghvbs tjb jhgjbstuthchty al `cc tjb lb`shdcb pahkts. @k hkmhllbrbkib iurvb hs ` iaktaur chkb rb`chzhkg tjb sèbuthchty, sa `ky pahkt ak tjb sèb hkmhllbrbkib iurvb ghvbs tjb sèb cbvbc al uthchty.Hkmhllbrbkib iurvbs cai`tbm hk tjb kartj-wbst ghvb jhgjbr cbvbcs al uthchty, dut tjbjausbjacm i`k akcy ijaasb tjb pahkt hk tjb lb`shdcb `rb`, wjhij hs tjb sautj-wbst `rb`mhvhmbm dy tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb.

2.0 Awkbr-aiiuphbm Jaushkg E`robt

Wb `rb gahkg ta pravhmb tjb bllbit al tjb laccawhkg sbvbk mbe`km-shmb pachihbs6

h. i`sj dbkblhts lar jaushkg?hh. jaushkg sudshmhbs?

hhh. eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb rbmuithak?

hv. eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak lrae hkiaeb t`x?

v. qu`chty hepravbebkt?

vh. prapbrty t`x ak tjb purij`sb al jaushkg?

vhh. ca`k-ta-v`cub (C]\) r`tha rbguc`thak?

vhhh. mbdt-ta-hkiaeb (M]H) r`tha rbguc`thak? `km

hx. rbstrhithaks al kbw purij`sbs.

Lhgurbs = `km 2 sjaw tjb apthe`c cbvbc al iaksuepthak gaams `km jaushkg ukhts dblarbhepcbebkthkg `ky pachiy. ]jb apthe`c cbvbcs `rb mbtbrehkbm `t tjb t`kgbkiy pahktdbtwbbk tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb `km tjb hkmhllbrbkib iurvb. Yhkib tjb rbprbsbkt`thvbjausbjacm r`thak`ccy sudsthtutbs hts iaksuepthak hktbr-tbepar`ccy `km mbihmbs htsapthe`c bxpbkmhturb ak iaksuepthak gaams `km jaushkg hktr`-tbepar`ccy whtj pbrlbitlarbshgjt hk bìj pbrham, tjb jausbjacm `ccai`tbs hts dumgbt suij tj`t hts `ccai`thak whcce`xhehzb hts uthchty.

Hk tjb twa-pbrham eambc, tjb jaushkg iaksuepthak cbvbc hk pbrham 4 hs ùtae`thi`ccymbtbrehkbm d`sbm ak tjb cbvbc al tjb jaushkg iaksuepthak ijasbk hk pbrham 0. Hk tjhssbksb, tjb jausbjacm i`kkat ijaasb hk pbrham 4 jaw e`ky ukhts al jaushkg htiaksuebs. Jawbvbr, tjb apthe`c jaushkg ukhts hk bìj pbrham `rb sheuct`kbauscymbtbrehkbm dy tjb jausbjacms whtj pbrlbit hklare`thak `km larbshgjt, wjhij `ccaws usta mr`w tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb hk tjb sbiakm pbrham mh`grè, dbiùsb tjb ijahib hkpbrham 4 hs kat hkmbpbkmbkt al tjb ijahib hk pbrham 0.

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Lhgurb =6 ]jb Apthe`c Dukmcb hk ^brham 0

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Lhgurb 26 ]jb Apthe`c Dukmcb hk ^brham 4

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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East al tjb jaushkg pachihbs `llbit tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb al tjb jausbjacm `kmtjbrblarb ij`kgb tjb mbe`km lar iaksuepthak gaams `km jaushkg ukhts. B`ij pachiy`llbits ` v`cub al bxagbkaus v`rh`dcbs suij `s tjb hktbrbst r`tb, tjb sudshmy, `km tjbt`x r`tb. ]jb dumgbt iakstr`hkts hk pbrham 0 `km pbrham 4 `rb6

0 5 00+ (0 + ℋ)ℋ0 + 00+ 0 0 + 0∔(0+)0+ + 0／ 0+ (99)4 5 (0+)(0∔) (0 + ℋ)(0 + )ℋ4 +

0+ 0 (0 + )0 + 0 (0 + )0 +

(0 + )0／4 (9=)2.0.0 I`sj Dbkblhts lar Jaushkg

Wb kaw `ssueb tj`t tjb gavbrkebkt ghvbs ` gr`kt ta tjasb wja ma kat ybt awk `jausb, dut whsj ta duy akb. Hk saeb iauktrhbs tjbsb `rb bhtjbr caw-hkiaeb jausbjacmsar yaukg jausbjacms. ]jb jaushkg gr`kt i`k t`ob tjb lare al ` i`sj dbkblht `km i`kbhtjbr db usbm ta purij`sb jaushkg ar lar `ky atjbr purpasb. ]jb mhllbrbkt bllbits al

i`sj dbkblhts vbrsus hk-ohkm dbkblhts, suij `s ` jaushkg gr`kt, wbrb drhblcy bxpc`hkbmdy Drubiokbr (4>00).

@ sudshmy hk tjb lare al ` i`sj dbkblht sjhlts up tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt, datj hk pbrham 0`km pbrham 4 (Lhgurb


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Lhgurb


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jaushkg eòbs tjb jausbjacms dbttbr all `km hkirb`sbs tjbhr iaksuepthak al atjbrgaams (hkiaeb bllbit). Hk aur eambc, tjb sudsthtuthak bllbit `km tjb hkiaeb bllbitbxìtcy allsbt bìj atjbr wjbk wb `ssueb κ 5 ψ 5 0. @s ` rbsuct, tjb jausbjacmspurij`sb tjb sèb cbvbc al iaksuepthak gaams dblarb `km `ltbr tjb hktramuithak al tjbsudshmy.

Lhgurb 76 Jaushkg Yudshmy ^raparthak`c ta Jaushkg ^rhib

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Ht hs okawk tj`t jaushkg sudshmy hs gbkbr`ccy cbss bllhihbkt tj`k i`sj dbkblhts, bvbkwjbk tjb èaukt al datj sudshmhbs hs bqu`c. ]jhs hs dbiùsb tjb sudshmy hk tjb lare ali`sj dbkblhts, wjhij hs bquhv`cbkt ta ` cuep-sue i`sj tr`kslbr, ghvbs tjb jausbjacmearb apthaks tj`k tjb jaushkg sudshmy. ]jhs wbcl`rb mhllbrbkib hs kat mub ta aurp`rèbtbr sbtthkgs, dut mub ta tjb mhstarthak al tjb prhib systbe iùsbm dy tjb jaushkgsudshmy. @s st`km`rm kba-ic`sshi`c ehirabiakaehis `rgubs, tjb hktbrvbkthak hk tjbiaepbththvb prhib systbe iùsbs ` mb`mwbhgjt cass. Hk tjhs i`sb, tjb mb`mwbhgjt casssjaws up `s ` wbcl`rb cass al tjb jausbjacm, tj`t hs ta s`y, cawbr uthchty. Ak tjbiaktr`ry, `s ` cuep-sue sudshmy, suij `s i`sj dbkblhts, mabs kat hktbrvbkb hk tjb prhib

systbe, `km `k bllhihbkt `ccai`thak i`k db ìjhbvbm.

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Jaushkg sudshmy pachihbs j`vb dbbk `maptbm hk e`ky iauktrhbs. Hkmh`, lar bxèpcb,st`rtbm ta pravhmb sudshmhbs bxtbkshvbcy ta eòb jaushkg earb `llarm`dcb hk tjb 082>s`km 08s. Hkhth`ccy, ht j`m warobm wbcc, `s cakg `s `llarm`dhchty j`m dbbk ` oby hssub.Jawbvbr, ht turkbm aut ta db vbry iastcy `km tjb r`tb al kbw iakstruithak c`ggbm dbjhkmtjb hkirb`sbm mbe`km. Hk Yhkg`parb, jaushkg gr`kts wbrb hktramuibm `s p`rt aljaushkg pachihbs ukmbr ^rheb Ehkhstbr Gaj (088>’4>>=). I`pht`chz`thak al jaushkgsudshmhbs lìhcht`tbm jausbjacms‘ eavbebkt up tjb jaushkg –c`mmbr,― dut jaushkgpachihbs ukmbr ^rheb Ehkhstbr Gaj ìibktu`tbm tjb jausb prhib duddcb tj`t prbibmbmtjb @sh`k lhk`kih`c irhshs.

2.0.9 Eartg`gb Hktbrbst T`tb Tbmuithak

]jb biakaehi hepchi`thaks al ` rbmuithak hk tjb eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb `rb schgjtcy earbiaepchi`tbm ta `k`cyzb, iaep`rbm whtj tjb prbvhaus pachihbs. @ rbmuithak hk tjbeartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb hs ìjhbvbm dy hktramuihkg ` sudshmy ta iavbr tjb mhllbrbkibdbtwbbk e`robt hktbrbst r`tbs lar eartg`gbs `km tjb t`rgbtbm cbvbc al eartg`gbhktbrbst r`tbs. ]jb cawbr hktbrbst r`tb sjhlts up tjb lhrst pbrham dumgbt iakstr`hkt hk `

p`r`ccbc l`sjhak, wjhij pusjbs up iaksuepthak al datj gaams `km jaushkg ukhts (Lhgurb:). Hk tjb sbiakm pbrham, tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb phvats `raukm tjb arhghk`c apthe`cpahkt hk iauktbricaiowhsb mhrbithak. @ctjaugj iaksuepthak al jaushkg ukhts hk tjbsbiakm pbrham dbiaebs jhgjbr tj`k tjb ukhts tj`t iaucm db iaksuebm dut lar tjbpachiy, tjb apthe`c iaksuepthak cbvbc hk pbrham 4 dbiaebs cawbr tj`k tjb cbvbc dblarbtjb rbmuithak hk tjb eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb.

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Lhgurb :6 Eartg`gb Hktbrbst T`tb Tbmuithak

Yaurib6 @utjars.

@ cakg-tbre, caw hktbrbst r`tb lhk`kib pachiy w`s hktramuibm hk F`p`k hk tjb 082>s ta

praeatb tjb iakstruithak al jaushkg. @ pudchicy spaksarbm `gbkiy, tjb GavbrkebktJaushkg Ca`k Iarpar`thak, allbrbm l`var`dcb hktbrbst r`tbs ta patbkth`c jaebawkbrs.]jhs pachiy bkj`kibm iaepbththak whtj prhv`tb d`kos `km jbcpbm ta suiibssluccybchehk`tb tjb sjart`gb al jaushkg staios hk tjb past-w`r br` `km tjus r`hsbm tjb chvhkgst`km`rms al e`ky F`p`kbsb pbapcb. ]jb Gavbrkebkt al tjb Rkhtbm Ohkgmae st`rtbmhk 4>09 ta pravhmb eartg`gb gu`r`ktbbs, wjhij hs `katjbr w`y al cawbrhkg eartg`gbhktbrbst r`tbs. ]jb pragrè hkirb`sbm mbe`km lar jaushkg, jawbvbr, `s tjb suppcy mhmkat rbìt ìiarmhkgcy `km tjb prhibs al kbw jausbs daaebm `s ` iaksbqubkib,cawbrhkg jaushkg `llarm`dhchty.

Hkstb`m al `k hktbrvbkthak dy tjb gavbrkebkt hk tjb e`robt lar jaushkg lhk`kib, `katjbrapthak hs ta hkirb`sb iaepbththak hk tjb jaushkg lhk`kib e`robt whtj tjb adfbithvb alcawbrhkg lhk`kihkg iasts lar jausbjacms. Lar bxèpcb, tjb Tbpudchi al Oarb` st`rtbm hk

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0888 ta chdbr`chzb tjb jaushkg lhk`kib e`robt, wjhij jbcpbm ta hkirb`sb ìibss tajaushkg lhk`kib `km bvbktu`ccy r`hsb tjb jaeb awkbrsjhp r`tb.

2.0.= Eartg`gb Hktbrbst Mbmuithak lrae Hkiaeb ]`x

Eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak `ccaws jausbjacms ta mbmuit tjb hktbrbst p`yebkts akeartg`gbs lrae tjbhr t`x`dcb hkiaeb. Aur eambc i`k db bxtbkmbm ta hkiarpar`tb tjbeartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak pragrè `s laccaws6

]jb jausbjacm‘s mhspas`dcb hkiaeb whtjaut tjb eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak systbe hs6

(Hkiaeb) - (]`x) 5 4-45 (0-) 4 (92)Akib tjb pragrè hs hktramuibm, tjb hktbrbst p`yebkt rC i`k db mbmuitbm lrae tjbjausbjacm‘s hkiaeb `km hts mhspas`dcb hkiaeb tjbk dbiaebs6

(Hkiaeb) - (]`x) 5 4- (4- rC) t y5 (0-t y) X4+r t yC (9)

4∗ 5 (0+∔)(0+)(0+) 0 0 +(0∔)(0+)

0+∔ 0／0／

0+∔ (=0)]jb eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak lrae hkiaeb t`x sjhlts up tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt hkpbrham 0 `km tjb jausbjacm hkirb`sbs datj hts iaksuepthak al gaams `km al jaushkgukhts, rbsucthkg hk ` jhgjbr cbvbc al uthchty (Lhgurb 8). Jawbvbr, hk tjb sbiakm pbrham, htsapthe`c iaksuepthak cbvbc mbirb`sbs, `km hts uthchty `csa dbiaebs cawbr iaep`rbm whtjhts uthchty dblarb tjb hktramuithak al tjb pachiy. ]jb avbr`cc qu`cht`thvb bllbit al eartg`gb

hktbrbst mbmuithak hs tjb sèb `s tj`t al eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb rbmuithak.

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Lhgurb 86 Eartg`gb Hktbrbst T`tb Mbmuithak lrae Hkiaeb ]`x

Yaurib6 @utjars.

]jb Rkhtbm Yt`tbs pravhmbs tjb east praehkbkt bxèpcb al eartg`gb hktbrbstmbmuithak. Hk tjb Rkhtbm Yt`tbs, ` eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak (EHM) pragrè w`s

st`rtbm hk 08:< ta lìhcht`tb ìibss ta jaeb awkbrsjhp, bspbih`ccy lar caw- `km ehmmcb-hkiaeb jausbjacms. ]jb EHM `ccaws jaebawkbrs ta mbmuit hktbrbst p`yebkt akeartg`gb d`c`kibs up ta $0.0 ehcchak `km jaeb bquhty ca`ks up ta $0>>,>>>. Hrakhi`ccy,jawbvbr, tjb dbkblhts al EHM wbkt mhspraparthak`tbcy ta jhgjbr-hkiaeb t`xp`ybrs. 9 Jhcdbr `km ]urkbr (4>0=) laukm tj`t EHM j`s warobm cbss wbcc lar caw- `km ehmmcb-hkiaeb jausbjacms tj`k lar jhgj-hkiaeb jausbjacms, `s east al tjb c`ttbr waucm awk `jausb whtj ar whtjaut EHM. ]jb jaeb awkbrsjhp r`tb mhm kat hkirb`sb `s ` rbsuct alEHM `km, avbr`cc, tjb pachiy j`s turkbm aut ta db hkbllbithvb `km bxpbkshvb ta e`hkt`hklar tjb gavbrkebkt.

9 ]`x ^`ybrs lar Iaeeak Ybksb (4>09).

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2.0.2 Pu`chty Hepravbebkt (rbmuithak hk mbprbih`thak r`tb)

Wb `ssueb tj`t qu`chty hepravbebkts suij `s bkj`kibebkt al b`rtjquòb rbshchbkibar bkbrgy bllhihbkiy cawbrs tjb pìb `t wjhij jausbs dbiaeb mbirbpht, tr`ksc`thkg hkta` mbirb`sb al hk tjb twa-pbrham mbe`km eambc. Pu`chty hepravbebkts ma kat `llbittjb apthe`c dukmcb hk pbrham 0 dbiùsb akcy `llbits tjb jaushkg staio cbvbc hk pbrham4. Jawbvbr, tj`kos ta tjb cawbr mbprbih`thak r`tb, tjb sbiakm-pbrham jaushkg staio(hkjbrhtbm lrae tjb lhrst pbrham) hkirb`sbs, wjhij rbsucts hk ` jhgjbr uthchty cbvbc.

Pu`chty hkvbstebkts `csa `llbit tjb suppcy al jaushkg. Lbwbr mbeachthaks, tj`kos taqu`chty hepravbebkts, sjhlt tjb lcaw al jaushkg iurvb ta tjb rhgjt (Lhgurb 0>). ]jbrb`sak lar tjb sjhlt hs tj`t, `ctjaugj kbw iakstruithaks `rb hkmbpbkmbkt al tjb qu`chtyhepravbebkt, tjb rbe`hkhkg jaushkg staio lrae tjb prbvhaus pbrham hkirb`sbs. ]jbrhgjtw`rm sjhlt al tjb lcaw iurvb cawbrs tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib lrae ℋ∗ ta ℋ∗∗.]jb jaushkg staio st`rts ta graw gr`mu`ccy dbiùsb tjb iakstruithak hkmustry pramuibsearb jaushkg bvbk `t tjb arhghk`c prhib, wjhij hs kaw jhgjbr tj`k ℋ∗∗. @s kbw jausbs`rb iakstruitbm, tjb jaushkg staio iurvb eavbs ta tjb rhgjt. ]jb eavbebkt al tjb

jaushkg staio iakthkubs ukthc tjb prhib mraps ta tjb kbw stb`my st`tb prhib, rbìjhkgtjb kbw bquhchdrhue, 4.Lhgurb 0>6 Bllbits al Pu`chty Hepravbebkt ak Jaushkg Lcaw `km Jaushkg Ytaio

Yaurib6 @utjars.

F`p`k j`s dbbk praeathkg tjb hepravbebkt al jaushkg qu`chty hk rbibkt yb`rs. @ltbrqu`ktht`thvb jaushkg kbbms j`m dbbk ebt hk tjb 087>s, tjb bepj`shs sjhltbm ta lìtarsrbc`thkg ta tjb qu`chty al jaushkg, hkicumhkg rbshmbkth`c bkvhrakebkts `km jaushkgpbrlare`kib (]jb Duhcmhkg Ibktbr al F`p`k 4>0=). ]jb D`shi @it lar Jaushkg bkìtbmhk 4>>< `hes ta praeatb s`lb, sbiurb, `km jhgj-qu`chty jaushkg `km ta mbvbcap jaushkgs`lbty kbts lar pbapcb whtj mhllhiucthbs sbiurhkg ` jausb. ]jb c`w `ttbepts ta ìjhbvbbkj`kibm rbshmbkth`c chvhkg st`km`rms lar tjb F`p`kbsb tam`y `km hk tjb luturb.Bkj`kibebkt al b`rtjquòb rbshchbkib `km bkbrgy bllhihbkiy, `km praeathak al bcmbrcyìibsshdcb jausbs `rb jhgj prharhthbs. Ya l`r, ht j`s e`k`gbm ta bkj`kib jaushkgqu`chty `km chvhkg iakmhthaks, ìiarmhkg ta rbibkt stumhbs.=

=

@ Puhio Caao `t Jaushkg hk F`p`k E`y 4>0=, bmhtbm dy tjb Duhcmhkg Ibktbr al F`p`k, rbpartbm tj`t tjbpbribkt`gb al jausbjacms chvhkg hk mwbcchkgs dbcaw tjb ehkheue jaushkg st`km`rm j`s sjruko ta

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2.0.< ^rapbrty ]`x ak tjb ûrij`sb al Jaushkg

]jb hktramuithak al ` prapbrty t`x ak tjb purij`sb al jaushkg j`s tjb bllbit alhkirb`shkg tjb prhib al jaushkg. ]jb hktramuithak al tjb t`x tjus rat`tbs tjb dumgbtiakstr`hkt hkw`rm `km cawbrs jaushkg iaksuepthak hk datj pbrhams (Lhgurb 00). ]jb

ij`kgb hk tjb prhib lar ` jaushkg ukht, jawbvbr, mabs kat `llbit tjb ijahib al jaw e`kyiaksuepthak gaams `rb iaksuebm mub ta aur p`rèbtbr sbtthkg. ]jb sudsthtuthak bllbit`km tjb hkiaeb bllbit bxìtcy allsbt bìj atjbr `g`hk.

]jb t`x hktramuithak iaacs mawk mbe`km lar jaushkg `km tjb hkirb`sb hk tjb jaushkgprhib eòbs tjb jausbjacm warsb all.

Lhgurb 006 Hktramuithak al ` ^rapbrty ]`x

Yaurib6 @utjars.

`ppraxhe`tbcy 2%, wjhcb tjb kuedbr al jausbjacms chvhkg hk mwbcchkgs bxibbmhkg tjb t`rgbtbm jaushkgst`km`rm hs `davb 2>%.

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@ prapbrty t`x hs typhi`ccy usbm ta iurd spbiuc`thak hk tjb jaushkg e`robt. Lar bxèpcb,hk 4>>9, Jakg Oakg, Ijhk` dbg`k ta hktramuib sbvbr`c stèp muthbs `s p`rt al hts 0>-yb`r Cakg ]bre Jaushkg Ytr`tbgy”spbih`c stèp muty (YYM), duybr stèp muty(DYM), `km `m v`carbe stèp muty (@MI). ]jb cbvbc al tjb YYM muty r`tbs mbpbkms aktjb jacmhkg pbrham al prapbrthbs. ]jb DYM hs hepasbm ak rbshmbkth`c prapbrthbs ìquhrbmdy `ky pbrsak bxibpt ` Jakg Oakg, Ijhk` pbre`kbkt rbshmbkt. ]jbsb stèp muthbs mhmhkmbbm e`k`gb ta cawbr mbe`km lrae kak-cai`c duybrs `km spbiuc`tars. Jawbvbr, htmhm kat iaepcbtbcy stap tjb jaushkg prhib lrae lurtjbr hkirb`shkg.2

Yhehc`rcy, tjb ^bapcb‘s Tbpudchi al Ijhk` (^TI) hktramuibm ` prapbrty t`x `s ` phcatpragrè hk Yj`kgj`h `km Ijakgquhkg hk 4>00. ]jb e`hk adfbithvb w`s ta iurdspbiuc`thak ak cuxurhaus jaushkg `km ta cheht kbw jaeb duybrs. @katjbr adfbithvb w`sta ghvb hkibkthvbs ta rbkt aut earb `p`rtebkts, tjbrbdy rbmuihkg tjb kuedbr al vì`kt`p`rtebkts. Jawbvbr, tjb pragrè j`s kat ybt dbbk bxtbkmbm k`thakwhmb, `s ht j`slìbm strakg appashthak lrae cai`c gavbrkebkts, prapbrty mbvbcapbrs, `s wbcc `s tjbpudchi, wja s`w tjbhr hkvbstebkt appartukhthbs iakstr`hkbm. @katjbr adfbithvb w`s tastheuc`tb biakaehi grawtj”rb`c-bst`tb iakstruithak j`s iakthkuauscy e`mb `k

hepart`kt iaktrhduthak ta biakaehi grawtj hk tjb ^TI.

2.0.7 Hktramuithak al C]\ `km M]H T`tha Tbguc`thaks

Rkmbr tjb C]\ `km M]H r`tha rbguc`thaks, jausbjacms `rb kat `ccawbm ta darraw eakby`davb ` ibrt`hk cbvbc. Hk aur eambc, tjhs typb al rbstrhithaks dbkms tjb dumgbt iakstr`hktdbiùsb tjb èaukt al jaushkg ukhts tj`t i`k db purij`sbm `rb strhitcy rbstrhitbmtjraugj tjb chehtbm `v`hc`dhchty al eartg`gbs (Lhgurb 04). Hl tjb rbguc`thak hs dhkmhkg,jausbjacms dbiaeb warsb all dbiùsb tjby i`kkat ijaasb tjb apthe`c cbvbc aljaushkg ukhts tj`t waucm db lb`shdcb dblarb tjb hktramuithak al tjb rbguc`thak. Hl tjbiakstr`hkt hs kat dhkmhkg, tjby i`k sthcc ijaasb tjb apthe`c dukmcb `km j`vb tjb sèbcbvbc al uthchty `s dblarb (Lhgurb 09).

2

Rkmbr tjb 0>-yb`r Cakg ]bre Jaushkg Ytr`tbgy, =7>,>>> kbw jaushkg ukhts `rb ta db duhct ta hepravb tjb`llarm`dhchty al jaushkg.

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Lhgurb 046 Hktramuithak al Ca`k-ta-\`cub `km Mbdt-ta-Hkiaeb T`tha Tbguc`thaks(wjbk rbguc`thaks `rb dhkmhkg)

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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Lhgurb 096 Hktramuithak al Ca`k-ta-\`cub `km Mbdt-ta-Hkiaeb T`tha Tbguc`thaks(wjbk rbguc`thaks `rb kat dhkmhkg)

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Bxèpcbs al tjb usb al C]\ `km M]H r`tha rbguc`thaks `rb èpcb. Hk 4>>9, tjb Tbpudchial Oarb` `mfustbm tjb C]\ `km M]H r`tha ibhchkgs ta supprbss mbe`km lar jaushkg ca`ks`s tjb jaushkg e`robt w`s avbrjb`thkg `km pashkg ` systbe`thi rhso. Hk 4>>=,Yhkg`parb rbmuibm tjb C]\ r`tha `km hktramuibm tjb M]H r`tha ta cawbr hkvbstebktmbe`km ukmbr ^rheb Ehkhstbr Jshbk Caakg. Hk datj iauktrhbs, C]\ `km M]H rbguc`thaksiurdbm spbiuc`thvb mbe`km lar jaushkg `km jbcpbm ta prbvbkt lurtjbr prhib jhobs.

2.0.: Tbstrhithak al Jaushkg ûrij`sb

@katjbr jaushkg pachiy tj`t j`s rbibktcy dbiaeb papuc`r hs pcìhkg rbstrhithaks ak`mmhthak`c jaushkg purij`sbs. ]jb adfbithvb hs ta prajhdht ` jausbjacm lrae duyhkg`mmhthak`c jaebs ta cawbr jaushkg mbe`km. Hk aur eambc wb `ssueb tj`t jausbjacms

`rb `ccawbm ta duy jaushkg ukhts akcy up ta ` ibrt`hk cbvbc (Lhgurb 0=). ]jb biakaehi

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bllbit hs shehc`r ta tjb C]\ `km M]H r`tha rbguc`thak. Jausbjacms tj`t `rb lìhkg suij `rbstrhithak spbkm earb ak tjbhr atjbr iaksuepthak hkstb`m al jaushkg purij`sb, duttjbhr uthchty dbiaebs se`ccbr iaep`rbm whtj ` shtu`thak whtjaut `ky rbstrhithaks. Hl tjbrbguc`thak mabs kat hklcubkib tjbhr apthe`c mbihshak, tjby i`k sthcc ijaasb tjb sèbèaukt al jaushkg ukhts `km iaksuepthak gaams `s dblarb (Lhgurb 02).

Lhgurb 0=6 Tbstrhitbm ûrij`sbs whtj Dhkmhkg Tbguc`thak

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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Lhgurb 026 Tbstrhitbm ûrij`sb whtj Kak-dhkmhkg Tbguc`thak

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Ywhtzbrc`km pravhmbs ` rbibkt bxèpcb al tjhs pachiy. ]jb iaukty st`rtbm ta d`k tjb

iakstruithak al kbw

sbiakm jaebs hk `rb`s whtj ` jhgj sj`rb al sbiakm jaebs ta chehttjb spr`wchkg al bepty sbiakm jaebs hk taurhst `rb`s. @s ` iaksbqubkib, tjb mbe`kmlar sbiakm jaebs hk tjb `llbitbm eukhihp`chthbs mrappbm mr`sthi`ccy. ]jb cawbr jaushkgprhibs e`mb awkbr-aiiuphbm prhe`ry jaebs earb `llarm`dcb lar yaukg cai`c rbshmbkts.Jawbvbr, cai`c awkbr-aiiuphbrs `km awkbrs al sbiakm jaebs hk tjb t`rgbtbm `rb`swbrb e`mb warsb all, `s tjbhr jaushkg prhibs lbcc. Earbavbr, ka rbmuithak w`s laukm hkavbr`cc spr`wchkg `s mbe`km lar sbiakm jaebs fust sjhltbm lrae `rb`s iakstr`hkbm dytjb d`k ta ukiakstr`hkbm `rb`s.

@katjbr bxèpcb hs laukm hk tjb ^TI. Hk 4>0>, tjb ^TI st`rtbm ta rbstrhit purij`sbs hk=2 ihthbs ta cheht awkbrsjhp al earb tj`k twa prapbrthbs `km ta `vahm patbkth`c jaushkgduddcbs. Kak-cai`c rbshmbkts ar larbhgkbrs wbrb ka cakgbr `ccawbm ta duy ` sbiakmjausb `km cai`c rbshmbkts kbbmbm ta j`vb `t cb`st twa-yb`r hktbrv`cs dblarb duyhkg `sbiakm jausb. Lurtjbrearb, tjasb whsjhkg ta duy ` sbiakm ar tjhrm jausb whtj ` ca`k

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wbrb rbquhrbm ta j`vb ` jhgjbr mawk p`yebkt. ]jb rbstrhithak pachiy sjawbm pashthvbbllbits hk tbres al prbvbkthkg jaushkg prhibs lrae rhshkg lurtjbr ar bvbktu`ccy drhkghkgmawk jaushkg prhibs sudst`kth`ccy. Jawbvbr, e`ky cai`c gavbrkebkts lbct tj`t tjb prhibmrap wbkt taa l`r `km tjb uksacm jaushkg hkvbktary quhiocy hkirb`sbm. Hk 4>0=, e`kycai`c gavbrkebkts mbihmbm ta chlt `km caasbk tjb rbstrhithaks ak purij`shkg jaushkg. Dytjb dbghkkhkg al 4>02, =4 ihthbs j`m `dachsjbm `cc rbstrhithaks.

2.0.8 Gavbrkebkt ^ravhshak al Jaushkg `km Yudshmy ta Yuppchbrs

@katjbr apthak ta praeatb tjb pravhshak al jaushkg hs tjraugj tjb iakstruithak aljausbs dy tjb gavbrkebkt. Rkmbr tjb `ssuepthak tj`t tjb gavbrkebkt pravhmbs `ibrt`hk kuedbr al kbw jaushkg ukhts hkmbpbkmbkt al tjb iurrbkt jaushkg prhib cbvbc,iakstruithak autshmb tjb prhv`tb e`robt sjhlts tjb lcaw iurvb rhgjtw`rm hk ` p`r`ccbcl`sjhak, wjhij cawbrs tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib ta ℋ∗∗ (Lhgurb 0>), –Altbk gavbrkebkts j`vb dbbk sa prbaiiuphbmwhtj kbw duhcmhkg pragr`eebs tj`t prbsbkt staio j`s dbbk kbgcbitbm dy dbhkg `ccawbmta rbe`hk ukaiiuphbm ar ta l`cc hkta mhsrbp`hr.― (p.9>0) @km A‘Yucchv`k (088


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Wjbk tjb èaukt al sudshmy ta tjb prhv`tb iakstruithkg hkmustry mbpbkms ak tjb ukhtstjb prhv`tb sbitar suppchbs, tjb lcaw iurvb sjaws ` mhllbrbkt eavbebkt. ]jb earbjaushkg tjb prhv`tb sbitar suppchbs, tjb earb sudshmy hs p`hm. @s ` rbsuct, tjb lcawiurvb phvats, `s Lhgurb 07 mbeakstr`tbs. ]jb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib gabs mawk`km tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue ij`kgbs lrae

0 ta

4.

Lhgurb 076 Yudshmy ta Jaushkg Yuppchbrs

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Hk 08:8, tjb Tbpudchi al Oarb` st`rtbm tjb ]wa Ehcchak Kbw Jaushkg Iakstruithak^rafbit ta avbriaeb hts jaushkg sjart`gb `km jaushkg prhib jhob. @s akb al tjb e`hkeb`surbs, tjb Gavbrkebkt al tjb Tbpudchi al Oarb` hkirb`sbm tjb suppcy almbvbcap`dcb c`km tjraugj pudchi sbitar mbvbcapbrs. Mbsphtb tjb lìt tj`t tjb e`sshvbsuppcy al c`km rbsuctbm hk ` cìo al mhvbrshty `km avbrstrbtijbm tjb i`pìhty al tjbiakstruithak hkmustry, tjb eb`surb jbcpbm ta daast jaushkg iakstruithak, bchehk`tb tjbjaushkg sjart`gb, `km st`dhchzb jaushkg prhibs.

2.4 Tbkt`c Jaushkg E`robt

@s sjawk hk Lhgurb 0: `km Lhgurb 08, jausbjacms ijaasb tjb apthe`c dukmcb al ( ,)suij tj`t tjby e`xhehzb tjbhr uthchty hk bìj pbrham. Kbxt wb `k`cyzb mhllbrbkt jaushkgpachihbs lar rbkt`c jausbs.

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Lhgurb 0:6 ]jb Apthe`c Dukmcb al ]bk`kts hk ^brham 0

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Lhgurb 086 ]jb Apthe`c Dukmcb al ]bk`kts hk ^brham 4

Yaurib6 @utjars.

2.4.0 Tbkt Iaktrac

Lhrst, wb `ssueb tj`t tjb jaushkg e`robt st`rts hk bquhchdrhue, 0 (Lhgurb 4>). Cbt ussuppasb tj`t tjb mbe`km iurvb sjhlts rhgjtw`rm mub ta tjb hkirb`sb hk tjb papuc`thak, htpusjbs up tjb bquhchdrhue prhib ta

∗∗ , `km tjb bquhchdrhue ij`kgbs lrae

0 ta

4.

Yuppasb tjb gavbrkebkt, jawbvbr, sbts `k uppbr cheht al rbkt, wjhij hs dbcaw tjb

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e`robt bquhchdrhue prhib. ]jhs rbkt iaktrac tr`ksc`tbs hkta `k bxibss mbe`km hk tjbiakstr`hkbm bquhchdrhue ukmbr tjb rbkt iaktrac, 9. Wjbk tjb uppbr cheht al rbkt hs sbtdbcaw tjb sjart-ruk bquhchdrhue prhib, ∗∗, tjb suppcy iurvb sjhlts vbry scawcy `km httòbs bvbk cakgbr lar tjb staio ta graw. ]jhs hs dbiùsb tjb iakstr`hkbm prhib cbvbc hskat `ttrìthvb bkaugj ta bkiaur`gb pramuibrs ta suppcy jaushkg praeptcy. ]jb bxibssmbe`km hs icb`rbm akcy `ltbr tjb jaushkg staio rbìjbs + (e;>), wjbrb tjbbquhchdrhue dbiaebs =. ]jb grawtj al jaushkg staio sthcc iakthkubs dbiùsb tjb uppbrcheht al rbkt hs sthcc jhgjbr tj`k tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib. Wjbk tjb staio lhk`ccyrbìjbs + (k;e;>), tjb e`robt bquhchdrhue prhib rbturks ta tjb arhghk`c stb`my st`tbbquhchdrhue prhib `t 2 `km tjb suppcy iurvb sjhlt staps. Hl rbkt wbrb iaktraccbm bxìtcy `ttjb arhghk`c stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue cbvbc, ∗, tjb suppcy waucm kat eavb `km bxibssmbe`km iaucm kat db bchehk`tbm tjraugj tjb e`robt `mfustebkt praibss dbiùsb tjbjaushkg staio mabs kat ij`kgb hk tjb lìb al tjb iaktraccbm rbkt. Hk sjart, rbkt iaktracrbmuibs tjb hkibkthvb ta iakstruit kbw jaushkg `km iùsbs bxibss mbe`km. ]jbiaktraccbm cawbr rbkt pracakgs tjb praibss al tjb sjart`gb bchehk`thak.

Lhgurb 4>6 Mbe`km Yjhlt `km Tbkt Iaktrac

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Hk `mmhthak ta tjb scaw `mfustebkt praibss, tjb bxibss mbe`km mub ta rbkt iaktrac hs`csa pradcbe`thi lrae ` vhbwpahkt al bllhihbkt `ccai`thak. ]jasb wja `rb whcchkg ta p`yeast i`kkat kbibss`rhcy lhkm tjbhr mwbcchkgs. Jausbjacms tj`t akcy kbbm ta p`y ` cawiaktraccbm rbkt `rb rbcuit`kt ta eavb aut, wjhij eòbs ht mhllhiuct lar jausbjacms tj`tj`vb jhgj whcchkgkbss ta p`y ta ìibss prapbr jaushkg. Akcy tjb lhrst gbkbr`thak alrbktbrs i`k dbiaeb –whkkbrs― ukmbr tjb rbkt iaktrac pachiy. C`kmcarms `rb advhauscywarsb all `km sudsbqubkt-gbkbr`thak tbk`kts `rb `csa warsb all dbiùsb tjby whcc lìbjhgjbr sb`rij iast. Hk tjhs sbksb, tjb rbkt iaktrac tbkms ta `ccai`tb jaushkg hkbquht`dcy.]jb ehs`ccai`thak dbkblhts ga akcy ta jausbjacms bkfayhkg tjb caw iaktraccbm rbkt `kmtjhs e`robt mhstarthak kbg`thvbcy `llbits saih`c wbcl`rb. ]j`t hs ta s`y, tjb saih`c surpcusi`kkat db e`xhehzbm ukmbr rbkt iaktrac. ]jb cawbr iaktraccbm rbkt `csa mhsiaur`gbs

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c`kmcarms lrae e`hkt`hkhkg mwbcchkgs. @s ` rbsuct, tjbhr rbmuibm pralht e`y db rbiaupbmdy tjbhr iutthkg e`hktbk`kib iast, rbsucthkg hk cawbr mur`dhchty `km qu`chty al jaushkg.

]a iaktrac tjb mbirb`sb hk suppcy dbiùsb al tjb rbkt iaktrac, sbvbr`c `mfustebkts `rbusu`ccy e`mb ta rbkt iaktrac. ]jb lhrst w`y ta mhehkhsj tjb suppcy mbirb`sb hs ta bxbept

kbw jaushkg lrae rbkt iaktrac. Hl kbw jaushkg hs kat `llbitbm dy rbkt iaktrac, ` patbkth`cprhib hkirb`sb stheuc`tbs tjb suppcy al kbw jaushkg, allsbtthkg tjb cass hk jaushkg staio`s ` rbsuct al rbkt iaktrac. Jawbvbr, hl duhcmbrs `km c`kmcarms suspbit tj`t tjb rbkt alkbw jaushkg ehgjt iaeb ukmbr rbkt iaktrac hk tjb luturb, tjby e`y dbiaeb rbcuit`kt tasuppcy kbw jaushkg. ]jb sbiakm apthak hs ta sudshmhzb kbw iakstruithak ta mhehkhsj tjbmbirb`sb hk tjb jaushkg suppcy iùsbm dy rbkt iaktrac. ]jb tjhrm apthak hs ta `mfust tjbiaktraccbm rbkt whtj rbguc`rhty. Lar bxèpcb, `ccawhkg lar ` pbrhamhi hkirb`sb hkiaktraccbm rbkt i`k ehthg`tb tjb kbg`thvb bllbit al rbkt iaktrac. Jawbvbr, A‘Yucchv`k(088)]jb laurtj w`y hs ta iaktrac rbkts akcy al bxhsthkg tbk`kts. Wjbkbvbr ` kbw tbk`kteavbs hkta tjb mwbcchkg, tjb rbkt i`k db lrbbcy `mfustbm. ]jhs eambr`tb lare al rbkt

iaktrac scìobks saeb kbg`thvb `spbits, dut hs sthcc jhgjcy hkbllbithvb. East hepart`ktcy,tjb hkibkthvb al tjb awkbrs ta hkvbst hkta e`hktbk`kib hs caw. ]bk`kts `rb `csa sthcc vbryrbcuit`kt ta eavb bvbk tjaugj tjbhr kbbms hk tbres al spìb `km cai`thak ij`kgbmr`sthi`ccy. Lar bxèpcb, rbthrbm iaupcbs ehgjt mbihmb ta rbe`hk hk tjbhr `p`rtebkt hktjb dushkbss mhstrhit, `s tjby waucm j`vb ta p`y sudst`kth`ccy jhgjbr rbkts wjbk eavhkgta ` kbw `p`rtebkt whtj ` kbw cb`sb, wjbrb`s yaukg iaupcbs whsjhkg ta db icasbr tawaro sbb tjbesbcvbs adchgbm ta iaeeutb hkta tjb ihty ibktbr.

]jb e`far `ctbrk`thvbs ta rbkt iaktrac `rb hkiaeb rbmhstrhduthak dy tjb k`thak`cgavbrkebkt tjraugj usb al ` c`km t`x. @ctjaugj rbkt iaktrac htsbcl j`s ` lukithak alhkiaeb rbmhstrhduthak, ht hs kat `cw`ys bllhihbkt dbiùsb tjb –whkkbrs― al rbkt iaktracsi`k db datj caw-hkiaeb `km jhgj-hkiaeb jausbjacms. Wjabvbr i`k iakthkub ta mwbcc

hk ` jausb lar wjhij rbkt hs iaktraccbm `rb dbkblhih`rhbs al tjb pachiy. Tbmhstrhduthak dyusb al ` c`km t`x j`s `k `mv`kt`gb avbr rbkt iaktrac hk tj`t tjb c`km t`x mabs kat `llbittjb suppcy al c`km ar tjb suppcy al jaushkg dbiùsb tjb c`km suppcy hs tat`ccy hkbc`sthita prhib.

Tbkt iaktrac i`k db sbbk hk e`ky ihthbs. Tbkt iaktracs hk Kbw Xaro Ihty `ltbr WarcmW`r HH `rb ` wbcc-okawk bxèpcb. Tbkt iaktrac w`s hepcbebktbm hk Ywhtzbrc`km hk 089<ta st`dhchzb rbkts `km iaed`t urd`k spr`wc. Rkthc tam`y, rbkts al iurrbkt tbk`kts `rb thbmta eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tbs. ]jb pachiy w`s rb`sak`dcy suiibssluc hk st`dhchzhkg rbkts,dut ht cbm ta shgkhlhi`kt bxibss mbe`km. \ì`kiy r`tbs hk tjb dhggbr ihthbs, suij `sD`sbc, Gbkbv`, `km Vurhij `rb katarhauscy caw, typhi`ccy cbss tj`k 0%. ]jb atjbr twae`far mr`wdìos `rb tjb caw cbvbc al e`hktbk`kib `s wbcc `s ` ehse`tij hk tjb

`ccai`thak al `p`rtebkts.

2.4.4 Tbkt Ibrthlhi`tbs

Tbkt ibrthlhi`tbs `rb typhi`ccy mhstrhdutbm ta caw-hkiaeb graups, `km `rb hk bllbit `mhrbit sudshmy. ]jby pravhmb lhk`kih`c `sshst`kib lar bchghdcb jausbjacms rbshmhkg hkst`km`rm qu`chty jaushkg. ]jb d`shi hmb` hs tj`t tjb bchghdcb jausbjacm hs kat `ccawbm taspbkm earb tj`k tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt, wjhij hs mbtbrehkbm `s tjb prbv`hchkg rbkt hk ìaepbththvb rbkt`c jaushkg e`robt lar ` st`km`rm caw-hkiaeb mwbcchkg. Hl tjb jausbjacmw`ktbm ta rbkt ` jausb lar wjhij rbkt hs jhgjbr tj`k tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt, ht waucm kat db`dcb ta gbt ` rbkt ibrthlhi`tb `km waucm j`vb ta p`y tjb bkthrb rbkt aut al paiobt.

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Cbt us `ssueb tj`t `k bchghdcb jausbjacm spbkms 9>% al hts hkiaeb ak jaushkg `kmtj`t ht rbibhvbs ` rbkt ibrthlhi`tb tj`t iavbrs tjb rbst al tjb ìtu`c rbkt6

@itu`c rbkt 5 Tbkt ibrthlhi`tb + >.9*Hkiaeb

]jb gavbrkebkt iavbrs tjb mhllbrbkib dbtwbbk tjb 9>% al tjb jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb`km tjb ìtu`c rbkt, hk i`sb tjb ìtu`c rbkt bxibbms 9>% al tjb jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb.]j`kos ta tjb rbkt ibrthlhi`tb, tjb jausbjacm j`s earb hkiaeb `v`hc`dcb ta spbkm akiaksuepthak gaams. ]jb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb dbiaebs jarhzakt`c hk tjb `rb` wjbrbtjb ìtu`c rbkt hs dbcaw tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt.

Lhgurb 40 sjaws tjb bllbits al ` rbkt ibrthlhi`tb pragrè ak jaushkg iaksuepthak. ]aeòb tjb mhsiusshak shepcbr `km earb hktuhthvb, wb usb ` schgjtcy mhllbrbkt mh`grèiaep`rbm whtj tjb prbvhaus sbithak. Lhgurbs 40 `km 44 kaw sjaw ak tjb jarhzakt`c`xhs tjb spbkmhkg ak jaushkg, hkstb`m al tjb èaukts al jaushkg ukhts iaksuebm hk tjbprbvhaus gr`pjs.


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2.4.9 Jaushkg \auijbr

Yhehc`r ta rbkt ibrthlhi`tbs, jaushkg vauijbrs `csa `rb hk bllbit ` mhrbit sudshmy ta tjbbchghdcb jausbjacm. Jawbvbr, jaushkg vauijbrs `rb mhllbrbkt lrae rbkt ibrthlhi`tbsdbiùsb jaushkg vauijbrs i`k db usbm lar `ky typbs al mwbcchkgs `s cakg `s tjb

mwbcchkgs ebbt ibrt`hk ehkheue st`km`rms. ]jbrb hs `s suij ka uppbr cheht ak jaweuij tjb jausbjacm i`k spbkm ak rbkt.

Yhehc`r ta tjb ibrthlhi`tbs, cbt us `ssueb tj`t tjb jausbjacm j`s ta spbkm 9>% al htshkiaeb ak rbkt. ]jb lìb v`cub al tjb vauijbr hs tjus tjb mhllbrbkib dbtwbbk tjb l`hre`robt rbkt `km 9>% al tjb jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb. ]jb èaukt al tjb jaushkg vauijbr hsd`sbm ak tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt `km tjus hkmbpbkmbkt al tjb ìtu`c rbkt. Hk atjbr warms,tjb èaukt al sudshmy hs lhxbm, ka e`ttbr wj`t typb al jaushkg tjby ijaasb ta rbkt. @s` iaksbqubkib, hl tjb jausbjacm rbkts ` mwbcchkg tj`t iasts earb tj`k tjb l`hr e`robtrbkt, ht whcc sthcc rbibhvb tjb sèb jaushkg vauijbr, dut whcc j`vb ta spbkm earb tj`k9>% al tjb jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb ta p`y tjb rbkt.

Jaushkg vauijbr 5 L`hr e`robt rbkt ’ >.9*Hkiaeb

Hk iaktr`st ta tjb rbkt ibrthlhi`tb pachiy, ukmbr tjb jaushkg vauijbr pragrè tjbjausbjacm‘s e`xheue bxpbkmhturb ak jaushkg hs kat chehtbm. ]jb rbihphbkts al tjbjaushkg vauijbrs `rb bvbk `ccawbm ta chvb hk cuxurhaus mwbcchkgs lar wjhij rbkt hs jhgjbrtj`k tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt.

Lhgurb 44 hccustr`tbs tjb bllbits al jaushkg vauijbrs ak jausbjacm uthchty. ]a eòb aur`rguebkt iakshstbkt, wb bepcay tjb sèb mh`grè sbtthkgs `s hk Lhgurb 40. ]j`kos tatjb jaushkg vauijbr pragrè, tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb sjhlts upw`rm. Jawbvbr, tjbjausbjacm hs kat `ccawbm ta spbkm earb ak iaksuepthak gaams tj`k waucm db lb`shdcbwhtjaut tjb jaushkg vauijbr pragrè, dbiùsb tjb jaushkg vauijbrs i`kkat db usbmlar iaksuepthak gaams. ]jhs rbquhrbebkt pramuibs ` ohko hk tjb dumgbt iakstr`hkt chkb`t pahkt M. Rkmbr tjb kbw dumgbt iakstr`hkt, tjb jausbjacm ijaasbs pahkt B, wjhijghvbs tjb jhgjbst uthchty al `cc tjb lb`shdcb pahkts.

Lhgurb 446 Jaushkg \auijbr ^ragrè

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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Jaushkg vauijbrs j`vb sbvbr`c `mv`kt`gbs iaep`rbm whtj rbkt ibrthlhi`tbs. Lhrst, rbktibrthlhi`tbs ma kat pravhmb hkibkthvbs ta jausbjacms ta caao lar caw-rbkt jaushkg. @s tjbsudshmy luccy iavbrs tjb mhllbrbkib dbtwbbk tjb ìtu`c rbkt `km 9>% al jausbjacms‘hkiaeb, jausbjacms ijaasb tjb east bxpbkshvb rbkt`c jaushkg `s cakg `s tjb rbktmabs kat bxibbm tjb l`hr e`robt rbkt. Hk iaktr`st, ukmbr ` jaushkg vauijbr pragrè,tjb lìb v`cub al tjb jaushkg vauijbr hs lhxbm wjbrbvbr jausbjacms mbihmb ta chvb.Jausbjacms tjus bllhihbktcy ijaasb tjbhr apthe`c rbkt`c jaushkg `km p`y ` cawbr rbkttj`k dblarb.

@mmhthak`ccy, ukmbr ibrt`hk `ssuepthaks, wb i`k sjaw tj`t tjb jaushkg vauijbrpragrè ghvbs jausbjacms jhgjbr uthchty iaep`rbm whtj rbkt ibrthlhi`tbs, bvbk hl tjbsudshmy p`hm ta tjb bchghdcb jausbjacms hs tjb sèb. ]jhs hs dbiùsb tjb vauijbrpragrè `s ` cuep-sue i`sj tr`kslbr ghvbs tjb jausbjacms earb apthaks ta ijaasbtjbhr apthe`c iaksuepthak dukmcb iaep`rbm whtj tjb rbkt ibrthlhi`tb pragrè (mbt`hcs`rb bxpc`hkbm hk Ybithak 2.0.4.).

Jawbvbr, ht mabs kat `cw`ys eb`k tj`t jaushkg vauijbrs `rb ` supbrhar pachiy

hkstruebkt iaep`rbm whtj rbkt ibrthlhi`tbs. Hl tjb adfbithvb al jaushkg pachiy hs tahkirb`sb jaushkg iaksuepthak r`tjbr tj`k hkirb`sb uthchty, rbkt ibrthlhi`tbs iaucm dbearb bllbithvb.

Hk tjb Tbpudchi al Oarb`, ` jaushkg vauijbr pragrè w`s cùkijbm hk 4>02 `hehkg tabksurb tjb ehkheue jaushkg st`km`rm whcc db ebt. ]jb èaukt al eaktjcy i`sjsudshmy hs mbtbrehkbm d`sbm ak jausbjacm hkiaeb, rbkt, lèhcy shzb, `km cai`thak alrbshmbkib. ]jb bllbithvbkbss al tjb pragrè sthcc kbbms ta db `ssbssbm.

2.4.= Ycue ^rbvbkthak ̀ km Tbj`dhcht`thak

âar jausbjacms typhi`ccy lhkm ht mhllhiuct ta ìibss `mbqu`tb jaushkg. ]jb e`hk rb`sakhs tj`t tjbhr hkiaeb hs taa caw ta db `dcb ta `llarm tjb rbkt lar ` mwbcchkg al ` ehkheue

st`km`rm. East al tjbhr hkiaeb hs spbkt ak bxpbkmhturb lar d`shi survhv`c.Hk aur eambc, wb i`k b`shcy hktramuib suij ehkheue st`km`rms lar survhv`c `s wbcc `sehkheue st`km`rms lar jaushkg. Hk Lhgurb 49, IEY st`kms lar tjb ehkheueiaksuepthak lar survhv`c `km TEY mbkatbs tjb rbkt al tjb se`ccbst passhdcb mwbcchkg al` ehkheue jaushkg st`km`rm. Wb `ssueb tj`t bvbry jausbjacms kbbms ta obbp htsiaksuepthak `t ar `davb IEY ta survhvb. Hl tjb hkiaeb hs taa se`cc ta ìibss ehkheuest`km`rm jaushkg wjhcb j`vhkg ta e`hkt`hk tjb ehkhe`c cbvbc al iaksuepthak, tjbjausbjacm‘s akcy ijahib hs ta sìrhlhib p`rt al hts jaushkg iaksuepthak lar survhv`c. ]jbjaushkg ukhts iaksuebm tjbk l`cc dbcaw T EY, wjhij eb`ks tjb jausbjacm hs laribm tachvb hk sudst`km`rm qu`chty jaushkg. ]jbsb `rb altbk scues, wjbrb mwbcchkgs tbkm ta dbavbrirawmbm `km cìo `mbqu`tb vbkthc`thak, chgjt, ar s`kht`thak. Earbavbr, ìibss ta

s`lb mrhkohkg w`tbr hs altbk chehtbm `km sbiurhty al tbkurb tbkms ta db cìohkg. Lhgurb 49hccustr`tbs tjb i`sb al ` jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb dbhkg taa caw ta db `dcb ta `llarm chvhkg hk `st`km`rm qu`chty jausb `km hs laribm ta chvb hk ` sudst`km`rm mwbcchkg.

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Lhgurb 496 Yudst`km`rm Pu`chty Jaushkg

Yaurib6 @utjars.

]jb adfbithvb al scue prbvbkthak pachihbs hs typhi`ccy ta irb`tb `k `llarm`dcb jaushkgstaio dy hkirb`shkg tjb suppcy al jaushkg al ` ehkheue jaushkg st`km`rm. ]jbhkirb`sb al tjb jaushkg suppcy cawbrs tjb prhib lar jaushkg `km ht `ccaws paarjausbjacms ta `iibss mwbcchkgs al ` ehkheue st`km`rm (Lhgurb 4=). Ht hs japbm tj`takib ` jausbjacm‘s hkiaeb dbiaebs c`rgbr, ht whcc db `dcb ta ijaasb tjb apthe`c dukmcb

whtj ` iaksuepthak cbvbc `davb tjb ehkheue chkb.

Lhgurb 4=6 Ycue ^rbvbkthak `km Tbj`dhcht`thak

Yaurib6 @utjars.

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Hk 4>09, tjb Hkmh`k gavbrkebkt st`rtbm ` c`rgb scue prbvbkthak pragrè, wjhij`ttbepts ta ghvb scue mwbccbrs ìibss ta `ppraprh`tb jaushkg, wjhcb `t tjb sèb thebtìochkg tjb praibss dy wjhij scues `rb irb`tbm. ]jb e`hk pachiy hkstruebkt hs tapravhmb `llbitbm pbapcb whtj sjbctbr ar jaushkg lrbb al iast. ]jb pragrè whcc ruk ukthc4>44 `km j`s tjb ucthe`tb ga`c al eòhkg Hkmh` scue lrbb dy tj`t theb.

2.4.2 Gavbrkebkt ̂ ravhshak al Tbkt`c Jausbs

@katjbr apthak lar tjb gavbrkebkt ta hktbrvbkb hk tjb rbkt`c e`robt hs ta mhrbitcy hkvbsthk iakstruithak al pudchi rbkt`c jaushkg. Bspbih`ccy `ltbr Warcm W`r HH, gavbrkebkts aliauktrhbs `llbitbm dy tjb w`r mbihmbm ta pravhmb pudchi rbkt`c jausbs ta bksurb tjbhrihthzbks laukm `mbqu`tb sjbctbr.

Yuppasb hk aur eambc tj`t tjb gavbrkebkt praeatbs tjb iakstruithak al rbkt`c jausbsta `mmrbss tjb sjart`gb al jaushkg. ]jb iakstruithak sjhlts tjb lcaw iurvb rhgjtw`rm,wjhij cawbrs tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib (Lhgurb 42). ]jb `mmhthak`c iakstruithakdy tjb gavbrkebkt hkirb`sbs tjb staio al jaushkg hk bvbry pbrham `km tjb bquhchdrhue

ij`kgbs `cakg tjb mbe`km iurvb. Akib tjb sjart ruk bquhchdrhue prhib j`s rbìjbm tjbkbw stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue prhib, tjb suppcy dbiaebs st`dcb.

Lhgurb 426 Gavbrkebkt Iakstruithak al ûdchi Tbkt`c Jaushkg

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Yhkib wb bepcay tjb sèb staio-lcaw suppcy eambc lar rbkt`c jausbs `s lar awkbr-aiiuphbm jaushkg, tjb suppcy-shmb pachiy `ppchbm ta tjb rbkt`c jaushkg e`robt sjawstjb sèb bllbits `s wb mhsiussbm hk tjb prbvhaus sbithak.

ûdchi rbkt`c jaushkg j`s dbbk pravhmbm hk v`rhaus iauktrhbs. F`p`k, lar bxèpcb,bkìtbm tjb ûdchicy-Apbr`tbm Jaushkg @it hk 0820 `km suppchbm pudchicy-apbr`tbm caw-rbkt jaushkg lar caw-hkiaeb pbapcb tjraugj cai`c gavbrkebkt ukhts. ]jb ìt bk`dcbmtjb ibktr`c gavbrkebkt ta pravhmb sudshmhbs ta cai`c gavbrkebkts ta hkirb`sb tjbjaushkg suppcy. Hk 0882, tjb F`p`k Jaushkg Iarpar`thak, wjhij w`s tjb prbmbibssaral tjb Rrd`k Tbk`hss`kib @gbkiy bst`dchsjbm hk 4>>=, st`rtbm tjb iaccbithvb

iakstruithak al rbkt`c jaushkg lar caw- ta ehmmcb-hkiaeb jausbjacms e`hkcy chvhkg hk

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e`far ihthbs ta avbriaeb ` jaushkg sjart`gb mub ta `k hklcux al pbapcb hkta urd`k`rb`s. Dy 0879, tjb tat`c kuedbr al jausbs bxibbmbm tjb tat`c kuedbr al jausbjacmshk `cc ebtrapacht`k `rb`s `km prblbiturbs. F`p`k j`m rb`ijbm hts ga`c al akb jausb pbrjausbjacm, bkmhkg twa mbi`mbs al pastw`r jaushkg sjart`gbs.7

>=

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.82

• Iabllhihbkt al rbc`thvb rhso `vbrshak6 κ 5 0.>, ψ 5 0.>

• Wbhgjt lar jausb hk uthchty6 d 5 0.>

• Hkiaeb hk tjb lhrst pbrham6 0 5 0>• Biakaehi grawtj r`tb6 g 5 >.>4

• Hkiaeb t`x r`tb6 5 >.0>• ^rhib lar jausb pbr jaushkg ukht6 ℋ 5 0.2• Tbkt pbr jaushkg ukht6 5 >.72

Wb whcc stumy tjb bllbit al jaushkg pachihbs ak mbe`km `km uthchty wjbk ij`kghkgtjb v`cub al tjb laccawhkg pachiy v`rh`dcbs6

• Yudshmy hk pbrham 0 `km hk pbrham 46 0 5 >, 4 5 >• Hktbrbst r`tb6 r 5 >.>2

• Mbprbih`thak r`tb al jausb6 ν 5 >.0>

• ^rapbrty t`x r`tb6 ℋ 5 >.>>]jb jaushkg pachihbs `km v`rh`dcbs wb whcc sheuc`tb `rb sjawk hk ]`dcb =.

]`dcb =6 Jaushkg âchiy `km hts âchiy \`rh`dcbsâchiy âchiy

\`rh`dcb

I`sj sudshmy lar patbkth`c jaebawkbrs 0 ← Jaushkg sudshmy ℋ ↙ Eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb rbmuithak r ↙ Eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak lare hkiaeb t`x ∗ ← Pu`chty hepravbebkt ν ↙ ^rapbrty t`x ak tjb purij`sb al jaushkg ℋ ← I`sj sudshmy lar tbk`kts 0,4 ← Tbkt `hm ↙

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Aur e`hk hktbrbst chbs hk tjb pbribkt`gb ij`kgb al tjb jaushkg ukhts mbe`kmbm ( ΝJ )`km tjb ij`kgb hk uthchty ( ΝR ). Hk `mmhthak ta tjb ij`kgbs hk jaushkg mbe`km `km uthchty,wb `rb hktbrbstbm hk tjb ij`kgb al tjb jaushkg prhib hk tjb sjart ruk. ]jb sjart-rukprhib cbvbc hs mblhkbm `s tjb prhib cbvbc heebmh`tbcy `ltbr tjb hepcbebkt`thak al tjb kbwpachiy `km ht tjus rblcbits tjb hkhth`c sjaio. Hk tjb ebmhue ta cakg ruk, aur eambcprbmhits tj`t suppcy whcc rbspakm `km `mfust tjb jaushkg staio ìiarmhkg ta tjb kbwmbe`km. ]jb jaushkg prhib whcc bvbktu`ccy rbturk ta tjb stb`my st`tb bquhchdrhue cbvbc,`s cakg `s tjb pachiy mabs kat `ctbr tjb suppcy-shmb ar ij`kgb tjb stb`my st`tb jaushkgprhib. Hk atjbr warms, hk aur eambc tjb suppcy rbìts hk tjb ebmhue ta cakg ruk hk ` w`ytj`t bxibss mbe`km ar bxibss suppcy hs icb`rbm, wjbrb`s hk tjb sjart ruk tjb bxibssmbe`km ar tjb bxibss suppcy hs icb`rbm dy tjb ij`kgb hk tjb prhib, kat hk tjb suppcyij`kgb. Hk tjhs sbithak, wb whcc `k`cyzb tjb pachiy bllbit ak tjb sjart-ruk jaushkg prhib.

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ta 2). ]jb uppbr p`rt al tjb t`dcb sjaws tjb `dsacutb mbe`km lar jaushkg ukhts,iaksuepthak gaams, eartg`gb ca`ks, `km uthchty lar tjb i`sbs al > ta 2 ukhts al i`sj

sudshmhbs. ]jb cawbr p`rt al tjb t`dcb chsts tjb pbribkt`gb ij`kgbs lrae tjbdbkije`ro.

Yuppasb tj`t tjb gavbrkebkt gr`kts ` lhxbm èaukt al sudshmy hk pbrham 0 ta bvbryjausbjacm tj`t whsjbs ta duy ` kbw jausb. Hk aur kuebrhi`c bxèpcb, akb ukht alsudshmy hs bquhv`cbkt ta ` 0>% hkirb`sb hk jausbjacms‘ hkiaeb hk tjb lhrst pbrham. @s ìaksbqubkib, tjb mbe`km lar jaushkg ukhts `km tjb mbe`km lar iaksuepthak gaamsdatj hkirb`sb `t tjb sèb r`tb al 2..>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

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Wb adsbrvb tj`t, wjbk earb gbkbraus r`tbs al sudshmy `rb allbrbm, mbe`km larjaushkg graws earb tj`k praparthak`ccy. Hk atjbr warms, jaushkg mbe`km rbspakmsearb strakgcy `s tjb pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb al tjb sudshmy r`tb hkirb`sbs. Larbxèpcb, wjbk tjb sudshmy r`tb hs 4% (` 4 pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb lrae tjb st`tusqua), jaushkg mbe`km hkirb`sbs dy 4.>=% iaep`rbm whtj tjb st`tus qua. Wjbk tjbsudshmy r`tb ij`kgbs lrae 4% ta =% (tjb sèb 4 pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb), jaushkgmbe`km sjaws ` 4.09 pbribkt`gb pahkt hkirb`sb. Ghvbk aur eambc `ssuepthaks, tjbjaushkg sudshmy mabs kat `llbit tjb iaksuepthak al atjbr gaams. ]jb rb`sak hs tj`t tjbsudsthtuthak bllbit bxìtcy allsbts tjb hkiaeb bllbit. Lhk`ccy, tjb uthchty bxjhdhts ` iakvbxhkirb`sb hk rbspaksb ta `ky `mmhthak`c jaushkg sudshmy.

Hk tjb sbiakm pbrham, tjb mbe`km lar jaushkg ij`kgbs dy tjb sèb èaukt `s hkpbrham 0. Jawbvbr, tjb rbspaksb al tjb uthchty ta tjb jaushkg sudshmy hk pbrham 4 hsc`rgbr iaep`rbm whtj pbrham 0. Wjbk tjb sudshmy r`tb hs % 2.80 =.22 9.48 =.=4 0.2> 2.94 =.2= 9.0: 0>.87 :.:< 00.08 :.:< .>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

4% 4.>=% >.>>% >..>>% 4.>=% 4.>=% >.>>% >.=% >.>>% >..>>% 0.4=% >.>>% =.07% =.07% >.>>% 0.4:% =.07% >.>>% 0.4% 0.::% >.>>% >% 0.8=% .>>% 0.80%

:% :.7>% >.>>% 4.29% >.>>% :.7>% :.7>% >.>>% 4.% >.>>% 4.27%

0>% 00.00% >.>>% 9.4>% >.>>% 00.00% 00.00% >.>>% 9.90% 00.00% >.>>% 9.42%

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]`dcb 76 Kuebrhi`c Yheuc`thak al Eartg`gb Hktbrbst T`tb

Yaurib6 @utjars‘ i`ciuc`thaks.

Wjhcb jaushkg iaksuepthak hk pbrham 4 hkirb`sbs `t tjb sèb r`tb `s hk pbrham 0, tjbij`kgb hk tjb mbe`km lar iaksuepthak gaams hs kbg`thvb. Hk i`sb al ` 0 pbribkt`gbpahkt mbirb`sb hk tjb hktbrbst r`tb lrae 2%, jaushkg mbe`km hkirb`sbs dy >.=7%,wjbrb`s iaksuepthak al atjbr gaams l`ccs dy >.=:%. Wjy1 ]jb ij`kgb hk tjb uthchty hktjb sbiakm pbrham hs icasb ta zbra, hrrbspbithvb al tjb mbirb`sb hk eartg`gb hktbrbstr`tbs. Jawbvbr, tjb chlbtheb uthchty dbiaebs c`rgbr iaep`rbm whtj tjb st`tus qua. Larbxèpcb, ` = pbribkt`gb pahkt mbirb`sb hk tjb hktbrbst r`tb cb`ms ta ` >..0=% `km eartg`gb usb dy >.74%. Hk pbrham 4, jawbvbr, mbe`kmlar iaksuepthak gaams l`ccs dy >.4=%. Hk iaktr`st, mbe`km lar jaushkg hkirb`sbs dy>.4=% iaep`rbm whtj tjb st`tus qua. : Avbr`cc, mbe`km lar jaushkg hkirb`sbs dy>.4=%, wjbrb`s mbe`km lar iaksuepthak gaams st`ys tjb sèb. Chlbtheb uthchtyhkirb`sbs dy >.>7%. Wb bsthe`tb ` >.4=% hkirb`sb hk tjb jaushkg prhib `ltbr tjbhktramuithak al tjb mbmuithak systbe.

]`dcb :6 Bllbit al Eartg`gb Hktbrbst Mbmuithak lrae Hkiaeb ]`x


2.94 =.2= 9.0: 0>.87 :.:< =.=: 0.20 2.92 =.24 9.0: 00.>4 :.:< : :.:< =.>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

=% >.=7% >.=7% >.48% 0.==% >.=7% >.=7% ->.=:% >.>>% >.=7% >.>0% >.02%

9% >.8.8.2:% 4.8>% >.8.8.87% ->.>0% >.8.>4% >.9>%

4% 0.=2% 0.=2% >.:7% =.=>% 0.=2% 0.=2% -0.=2% ->.>0% 0.=2% >.>=% >.=2%

0% 0.82% 0.82% 0.07% 2.84% 0.82% 0.82% -0.89% ->.>0% 0.82% >.>. 2.94 =.2= 9.0: 0>.87 :.:< =.=2 0.2> 2.9= =.29 9.0: 00.>> :.:< .>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

EHM >.4=% >.4=% >.0=% >.74% >.4=% >.4=% ->.4=% >.>>% >.4=% >.>>% >.>7%

=4


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mbprbih`thak r`tb `km hgkarb passhdcb suppcy-shmb bllbits. @s ]`dcb 8 sjaws, qu`chtyhepravbebkts ma kat `llbit mbe`km ar uthchty hk tjb lhrst pbrham, dut ht hkirb`sbs jaushkgiaksuepthak hk pbrham 4, rbsucthkg hk jhgjbr uthchty hk pbrham 4. @ 4% mbirb`sb hk tjbmbprbih`thak r`tb cb`ms ta ` 4.44% hkirb`sb hk tjb jaushkg mbe`km hk pbrham 4. Rthchtyrbspakms ta ` l`cc hk tjb mbprbih`thak r`tb hk ` iaki`vb w`y, h.b., tjb e`rghk`c hkirb`sbhk uthchty dbiaebs se`ccbr `s tjb mbprbih`thak r`tb mbirb`sbs.

Wjbk tjb mbprbih`thak r`tb hs 4 pbribkt`gb pahkt cawbr, avbr`cc mbe`km lar jaushkgukhts hkirb`sbs dy 0.>4%. Chlbtheb uthchty `csa sjaws ` iaki`vb rbc`thak whtj tjbmbprbih`thak r`tb rbmuithak. Wjbk tjb mbprbih`thak r`tb ij`kgbs lrae 0>% ta =% (` <pbribkt`gb pahkt mbirb`sb lrae tjb st`tus qua), chlbtheb uthchty hkirb`sbs dy >.87%. Hktjb sjart ruk, tjb jaushkg prhib mabs kat ij`kgb. 8

]`dcb 86 Kuebrhi`c Yheuc`thak al Pu`chty Hepravbebkt


).Jawbvbr, ht mabs kat `llbit mbe`km lar iaksuepthak gaams, dbiùsb tjb sudsthtuthakbllbit `km tjb hkiaeb bllbit bxìtcy allsbt bìj atjbr. ]jb mbirb`sb hk mbe`km larjaushkg hs cbss tj`k praparthak`c ta tjb ij`kgb hk tjb r`tb al tjb prapbrty t`x. Hk atjbrwarms, tjb e`rghk`c mbirb`sb hk jaushkg mbe`km dbiaebs se`ccbr `s tjb t`x r`tbdbiaebs jhgjbr. Yhehc`rcy, uthchty hs mbirb`shkg, dut hts e`rghk`c ij`kgb dbiaebsse`ccbr `s tjb hktbrbst r`tb al tjb t`x dbiaebs jhgjbr. Lar bxèpcb, hl tjb r`tb alprapbrty t`x ij`kgbs lrae >% ta 4% (` 4 pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb lrae tjb st`tusqua), jaushkg mbe`km `km uthchty mbirb`sb dy 0.8.%, rbspbithvbcy.Jawbvbr, wjbk ht ij`kgbs lrae 4% ta =% (tjb sèb 4 pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb), tjbymbirb`sb dy 0.:8% `km dy >.28%, rbspbithvbcy.

Hk tjb sbiakm pbrham, mbe`km lar jaushkg ukhts mbirb`sbs `t tjb sèb r`tb `s hk tjblhrst pbrham hk rbspaksb ta tjb hkirb`sb hk tjb t`x r`tb. ]jb t`x mabs kat `llbitiaksuepthak gaams lar tjb sèb rb`sak `s ebkthakbm `davb. ]jb pbribkt`gb pahktcass al uthchty hk pbrham 4 hs dhggbr tj`k tj`t hk pbrham 0. ]jbrblarb, tjb ij`kgb r`tb alchlbtheb uthchty chbs dbtwbbk tjb ij`kgb r`tb hk tjb lhrst pbrham `km tj`t hk tjb sbiakmpbrham. ]jb pbribkt`gb pahkt ij`kgb al avbr`cc mbe`km lar jaushkg ukhts sjaws tjbsèb v`cub `s hk pbrham 0 `km hk pbrham 4. ^rapbrty t`x cawbrs tjb sjart-ruk jaushkgprhib `t tjb sèb r`tb `s tjb l`cc hk jaushkg mbe`km.

8

Jawbvbr, tjb jaushkg prhib whcc mbirb`sb hk tjb cakg ruk mub ta tjb suppcy-shmb bllbit al tjb pachiy, `smhsiussbm hk Ybithak 2.0.% 2.80 =.22 9.48 =.=4 0.2> 2.94 =.2= 9.0: 0>.87 :.:< 2.== =.2= 9.40 00.>: :.:< :.:< 2. =.2= 9.47 00.=4 :.:<

ν J0 I0 R0 C ^j sjart ruk J4 I4 R4 J0+δJ4 I0+δI4 R0+δR4

0>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

:% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% 4.44% >.>>% >.4% >.>>% >.99%

.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% =.==% >.>>% 0.97% 4.>2% >.>>% >..>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >% 4.>9% 9.>7% >.>>% >.87%

4% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% :.:8% >.>>% 4.% >.>>% 0.4:%

=9


46/53


]`dcb 0>6 Kuebrhi`c Yheuc`thak al ^rapbrty ]`x Hktbrbst


% (]`dcb 00). Dbiùsb al tjb mhehkhsjhkg e`rghk`c uthchty, tjb e`rghk`c rbspaksb aluthchty ta tjb `mmhthak`c sudshmy dbiaebs se`ccbr `km se`ccbr `s tjb èaukt al sudshmyhkirb`sbs. ]jb sbiakm pbrham sjaws `ceast tjb sèb pbribkt`gb hkirb`sb, dut tjbij`kgb hk uthchty hs schgjtcy dhggbr tj`k tj`t hk tjb lhrst pbrham. Hk datj pbrhams, tjbjaushkg prhib surgbs hk tjb sjart ruk ta bqu`chzb tjb hkirb`sbm jaushkg mbe`km.Chlbtheb uthchty laccaws tjb sèb iaki`vb trbkm `km hts hkirb`sb hs dbtwbbk tj`t hk tjblhrst pbrham `km tj`t hk tjb sbiakm pbrham.

]`dcb 006 Kuebrhi`c Yheuc`thak al I`sj Yudshmy lar Tbkt`c Jausbs


% 2.80 =.22 9.48 =.=4 0.2> 2.94 =.2= 9.0: 0>.87 :.:< =.22 9.47 =.=4 0.=7 2.44 =.2= 9.0< 0>.7< :.:< .0< :.:< % 2.9: =.22 9.4> =.=4 0.9< =.:= =.2= 9.>8 8.87 :.:< % >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

4% -0.8.>>% ->.% >.>>% -0.8>% ->.>% ->..>>% -0.08% >.>>% -9.:2% -9.:2% >.>>% -0.49% -9.:2% >.>>% -0.40%

% -0.77% >.>>% -2.% -0.:>%

:% -7.=0% >.>>% -4.9=% >.>>% -7.=0% -7.=0% >.>>% -4.=4% -7.=0% >.>>% -4.9:%

0>% -8.>8% >.>>% -4.:8% >.>>% -8.>8% -8.>8% >.>>% -4.88% -8.>8% >.>>% -4.8=%

G0 G4 T0 I0 R0 ^r 0 sjart ruk T4 I4 R4 ^r 4 sjart ruk T0+δT4 I0+δI4 R0+δR4

> > 7 =.22 9.94 >.72 2 =.2= 9.90 >.72 00.:0 :.:< .2 >.2 =.:> 9.=4 >.78 .78 04.=< 8.92 .:9 09.00 8.:= 7 2.9> 9..:7 7.>2 2.48 9..:7 09.7< 0>.94 7.><

4 4 7.=> 2.22 9.74 >.84 7.9: 2.2= 9.70 >.84 0=.=0 0>.:0 7.4=

4.2 4.2 7.79 2.:> 9.:> >.8< 7.74 2.78 9.:> >.8< 02.>< 00.9> 7.=0

G0 G4 T0 I0 R0 ^r 0 sjart ruk T4 I4 R4 ^r 4 sjart ruk T0+δT4 I0+δI4 R0+δR4

> > >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

>.2 >.2 2.2>% 2.2>% 9.49% 2.2>% 2.2>% 2.2>% 9.49% 2.2>% 2.2>% 2.2>% 9.49%

0 0 00.>>% 00.>>% >% 00.>>% 00.>>% % 00.>>% 00.>>% 00.>>% %

0.2 0.2 00% 44.>0% 04.>>%

4.2 4.2 47.20% 47.20% 0=.


47/53


iakvbx rbspaksb. @s hk tjb atjbr i`sbs, tjb sjart-ruk rbkt`c prhib hk datj pbrhamshkirb`sbs hk rbspaksb ta tjb jaushkg mbe`km hkirb`sb.

]`dcb 046 Kuebrhi`c Yheuc`thak al Tbkt @hm


% 7 =.22 9.94 >.72 2 =.2= 9.90 >.72 04.04 8.>8 8

=% .7: =.2= 9.92 >.7: 04.8 04.:8 8.>8 .:4 >.:4 09.07 8.>8 8 .>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>% >.>>%

4% 4.>=% >.>>% >.=% 4.>=% >.>>% >.=% 4.>=% >.>>% >..>>% 0.49% =.07% =.07% >.>>% 0.49% =.07% =.07% >.>>% 0.49%

>% 0.:7% >% 0.:7% >% 0.:7%

:% :.7>% >.>>% 4.20% :.7>% :.7>% >.>>% 4.24% :.7>% :.7>% >.>>% 4.24%

0>% 00.00% >.>>% 9.0:% 00.00% 00.00% >.>>% 9.0:% 00.00% 00.00% >.>>% 9.0:%

=2


48/53


tj`t j`vb tjb sèb iast (>.>4402).0> ]jb sbiakm c`st iacuek al ]`dcb 0= sjaws tjb`dsacutb ij`kgb hk uthchty `ltbr tjb hktramuithak al tjb kbw pachiy. ]jb lhk`c iacuek chststjb pbribkt`gb ij`kgb hk uthchty iaep`rbm whtj tjb st`tus qua. Iaep`rhkg tjbbllbithvbkbss ak tjb d`shs al tjb shzb al tjb hkirb`sb hk uthchty, ]`dcb 0= hkmhi`tbs tj`ttjb eartg`gb hktbrbst rbmuithak pachiy yhbcms tjb jhgjbst rbturk hk tbres al wbcl`rbhkirb`sb. ]jb eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak j`s tjb sbiakm jhgjbst pachiy bllbithvbkbss. @s wb mhsiussbm hk sbithak 2.0.4, jaushkg sudshmy hs cbss bllhihbkt tj`k i`sj sudshmywjbk tjb èaukt al tjb sudshmy kbibss`ry lar tjbe hs tjb sèb. ]jhs tjbarbthi`cprbmhithak hs iaklhrebm hk aur kuebrhi`c sheuc`thak. @ jaushkg sudshmy tjus dbiaebstjb cb`st bllbithvb pachiy hk aur t`dcb.

]`dcb 0=6 Iaep`rhsak al tjb Bllbithvbkbss al tjb Mbe`km âchiy larJaebawkbrs

Yaurib6 @utjars.

Yhehc`r ta tjb gavbrkebkt hktbrvbkthaks hk tjb awkbr-aiiuphbm jaushkg e`robt, wb i`kiaep`rb hktbrvbkthaks hk tjb rbkt`c jaushkg e`robt. ]`dcb 02 sjaws tjb bllbithvbkbssal twa d`shi pachiy hktbrvbkthaks hk tjb rbkt`c jaushkg e`robt”i`sj sudshmhbs lartbk`kts `km rbkt `hm. Hk iaktr`st ta tjb i`sb al awkbr-aiiuphbm jaushkg, wb `ssuebtj`t tjb gavbrkebkt gr`kts ` sudshmy hk datj pbrhams. ]jb pachiy iast hs tjusmhsiauktbm dy δ. Aur sheuc`thaks hkmhi`tb tj`t ` i`sj sudshmy hs prblbr`dcb ta rbkt `hm.]jhs rbsuct hs iakshstbkt whtj wj`t aur ehirabiakaehi eambc prbmhitbm hk Ybithak 2.4.9.

]`dcb 026 Iaep`rhsak al tjb Bllbithvbkbss al tjb Mbe`km âchiy lar ]bk`kts

Yaurib6 @utjars.

7. IAKICRYHAK @KM MHYIRYYHAK

]agbtjbr whtj laam `km icatjhkg, jaushkg i`k db iakshmbrbm `s akb al tjrbb d`shi

e`tbrh`c kbbms al bvbry pbrsak. ]a rbspakm ta tjbsb kbbms, gavbrkebkts `raukm tjbwarcm j`vb e`mb v`rhaus bllarts ta lìhcht`tb ìibss ta jaushkg lar tjbhr ihthzbks,bspbih`ccy lar cawbr-hkiaeb graups.

]jb adfbithvb al tjhs p`pbr w`s ta ghvb `k avbrvhbw al saeb al tjb east iaeeakcy`ppchbm jaushkg pachihbs `km ta hccustr`tb tjbhr hepìt ak jausbjacms‘ wbcl`rb. ]alìhcht`tb tjb `k`cyshs, wb lhrst sbt up ` shepcb twa-pbrham jaushkg mbe`km eambc larawkbr-aiiuphbm jausbs `km rbkt`c jausbs. Wb tjbk hktramuibm ` st`km`rm staio-lcawjaushkg suppcy eambc. Ghvbk tjhs eambcchkg lrèbwaro, wb bxpc`hkbm tjb qu`cht`thvb

0> ]a iaep`rb tjb bllbithvbkbss, tjb r`tha dbtwbbk dbkblhts `km iasts `rb altbk usbm `s ` irhtbrhak lariaep`rhsak. Jawbvbr, shkib aur uthchty lukithak hs kak-chkb`r, tjb e`rghk`c dbkblht pbr `mmhthak`c akb-ukht

iast hs kat hkmbpbkmbkt al tjb cbvbc al tjb iast. Wb tjbrblarb kbbm ta jacm tjb pachiy iasts iakst`kt tadb `dcb ta prapbrcy iaep`rb tjb bllbithvbkbss al bìj pachiy.

Lrae ]a

I`sj sudshmy lar patbkth`c

jaebawkbrs G0 >

>.>4002 >.>4002 >.>>=.>792=%

Jaushkg sudshmy Yudshmy r`tb >% >.497:9% >.>4002 >.>>=.>792>%

Eartg`gb hktbrbst r`tb rbmuithak r 2% =.==% >.>4002 >.>>2>>= >.>7840%

Eartg`gb hktbrbst mbmuithak lrae

hkiaeb t`x rtyC* >

>.>4002 >.>4002 >.>>=.>79%

∌Rthchty(%)

Awkbraiiuphbm

jausb

âchiy âchiy v`rh`dcbIj`kgb

∌Rthchtyâchiy Iast

Lrae ]a

I`sj sudshmy lar tbk`kts G0 ̀ km G4 > >.207:0 0.>>879 >.40% 0>% 0.>>879 >.4>2=29 9.07:>2%

∌Rthchty(%)âchiy âchiy v`rh`dcbIj`kgb

âchiy Iast ∌Rthchty

Tbkt`c

jausb

=


49/53


bllbits al v`rhaus jaushkg pachihbs ak suppcy `km mbe`km. Hk tjb c`st sbithak al tjbp`pbr, wb pravhmbm `k bsthe`thak al tjb qu`ktht`thvb hepìt al bìj pachiy. Wb japbtj`t tjb eambc‘s vbrs`thchty eòbs ht ` shepcb taac lar pachiyeòbrs ta dbttbr ukmbrst`kmtjb biakaehi iaksbqubkibs al v`rhaus jaushkg pachihbs.

]jb tjbarbthi`c eambc prbsbktbm hk tjhs p`pbr i`k db bxtbkmbm hk sbvbr`c mhrbithaks.Akb passhdhchty hs ta bxpchihtcy eambc tjb bxtbrk`chthbs tj`t jaushkg bxjhdhts ta saihbty.Lar bxèpcb, wbcc-e`hkt`hkbm jausbs kat akcy jbcp ta hkirb`sb tjb jb`ctj al tjbmwbccbrs, dut `csa bxjhdht ` pashthvb bxtbrk`chty ta tjb kbhgjdarjaam. @katjbr apthakwaucm db ta hkicumb eavhkg iasts hk aur eambc. Ht hs wbcc maiuebktbm hk tjb chtbr`turb(b.g., A‘Yucchv`k 088


50/53


TBLBTBKIBY

@tt`k`sha, A. ^., T. Datt`zzh, J. W. Caw, `km C. Kbsjbhe. 4>04. Eambcchkg tjb Mbe`kmlar Jaushkg avbr tjb Chlb Iyicb. Tbvhbw al Biakaehi Mykèhis 026 0’0:.

D`fhi, \. 08:=. @k @k`cyshs al tjb Mbe`km lar Jaushkg @ttrhdutbs. @ppchbm biakaehis 000. Cbiturbs ak Rrd`k Biakaehis. Ièdrhmgb, E@6 ]jb EH] ^rbss.

Ijbsjhrb, ^., `km Y. Yjbpp`rm. 08:= Bsthe`thkg tjb Mbe`km lar Jaushkg, C`km, `kmKbhgjdaurjaam Ij`rìtbrhsthis. Axlarm Duccbthk al Biakaehis `km Yt`thsthis (9)6 927’9:4.

Mh^`squ`cb, M., `km W. I. Wjb`tak. 088’=4.

G`jv`rh, L. 08:>>. Rrd`k C`km Biakaehis. 2tj bmhthak. D`shkgstaob, RO6 Eìehcc`k.

Jhcdbr, I. @. C., `km ]. E. ]urkbr. 4>0=. ]jb Eartg`gb Hktbrbst Mbmuithak `km htsHepìt ak Jaebawkbrsjhp Mbihshaks. Tbvhbw al Biakaehis ̀ km Yt`thsthis 8


51/53


]`x ^`ybrs lar Iaeeak Ybksb. 4>09. Eartg`gb H ktbrbst Mbmuithak6 ]heb lar Tblare.jttp6//www.t`xp`ybr.kbt/he`gbs/upca`ms/mawkca`ms/eartg`gbQhktbrbstQmbmuithak.pml.

]jb Duhcmhkg Ibktbr al F`p`k. 4>0=. @ Puhio Caao `t Jaushkg hk F`p`k, E`y 4>0=.

Rkhtbm K`thaks (RK). 4>0=. Warcm Rrd`khz`thak ̂ raspbits6 ]jb 4>0= Tbvhshak,Jhgjchgjts. Mbp`rtebkt al Biakaehi `km Yaih`c @ll`hrs, âpuc`thak Mhvhshak(Y]/BY@/YBT.@/924).

RK’J@DH]@]. 4>00. @llarm`dcb C`km `km Jaushkg hk @sh .̀ K`hradh6 Rkhtbm K`thaksJue`k Ybttcbebkt ^ragrèeb.

Wbhijbr, F. 0878. Rrd`k Jaushkg âchiy. Hk Iurrbkt Hssubs hk Rrd`k Biakaehis, bmhtbmdy ^. Ehbszoawsoh `km E. Ytr`szjbhe. D`cthearb, EM6 ]jb Fajks JapohksRkhvbrshty ^rbss.

V`dbc, F. B. 4>>=. ]jb Mbe`km lar Jaushkg Ybrvhibs. Faurk`c al Jaushkg Biakaehis 096 0


52/53


@^^BKMHZ

Mbrhv`thak al Bqu`thaks (0>)’(09)Ybtthkg tjb laccawhkg C`gr`kgh`k lukithak,

5 (0,0) + (4,4) + ο (0-)0+ (0-)(0+g)0+ + 0 + 0+ -0-

0+ -(0 +

ℋ)ℋ0) (=4) ar

5 (0) + (0) + {ck(4) + _(0 )0U} + ο (0-)0+ (0-)(0+g)0+ +

0 + 0+ -0- 0+ -(0 + ℋ)ℋ0) (=9)

]`ohkg lhrst armbr iakmhthaks whtj rbspbit ta 0,4, 0, `km ο , wb adt`hk0 5 ο (==)

5 ο

00+ (=2)

+

5 ο(0+ℋ)ℋ (=


53/53


Mbrhv`thak al Bqu`thaks (4=)’(47)

Ybtthkg tjb laccawhkg C`gr`kgh`k lukithak,

5 (0,0) + (4,4) + ο (0-)0+(0-)(0+g)

0+ + 0 + 0+ -0-

0+ -0-

0+ )

(2>)

ar

5 (0) + (0) + {ck(4) + _4U} + ο (0+)0+ (0+)(0+g)0+ + 0 +0+ -0-

0+ -0-

0+ ) (20)

]`ohkg lhrst armbr iakmhthaks whtj rbspbit ta 0,4, 0,4, `km ο wb adt`hk 0 5 ο (24)

5 ο

00+ (29)

5 ο (2=) 5 ο

0+ (22)

(0+)0+ (0+)(0+g)0+ + 0 + 0+ 5 0 +

0+ + 0 +

0+ (2

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