How Park Managers Maintain and Conserve Their Site Whilst Justifying the Social

7/29/2019 How Park Managers Maintain and Conserve Their Site Whilst Justifying the Social

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How park managers maintain and conserve their site whilst justifying the social,

economic and natural values.

By

WASIU ADEJOBI OLUKOYA

Student ID: 119072457

BSc. (Hons) International Tourism and Hospitality Management

University of Sunderland

APRIL 2012


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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank a number of people without whom this dissertation would not be

possible.

Firstly, to my wonderful parents, my Dad who has supported me mentally and financially all

through my life, and my mum whose words of encouragement kept me going on, also to my

siblings whose intelligence makes me strive to be the best! I dont tell you guys often how

much yall have impacted in my life.

To all the stakeholders involved in this work who presented invaluable information, allowing

me conduct my research successfully.

To my dissertation supervisor, Miss. Sharon Wilson who has given me continued

understanding, support and encouragement coupled with the insightful suggestions, guide,

patience and time. If not for your help, this dissertation would have been a joke!

And lastly but definitely not least to my lecturers and friends (Guy, Kristie and John) who

have made my time whilst studying this programme worthwhile.


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List of Headings

Acknowledgement..........................................................................................

Abstract..........................................................................................................

Figure and Table List.....................................................................................

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Appendices List.................................................................................

Introduction....................................................................................................

1.1Background.........................................................................................1.2The study area.....................................................................................1.3The research question..........................................................................1.4Rationale..............................................................................................1.5Aims & Objectives..............................................................................

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Literature Review..................................................................................................

2.1 The Tourism Industry..........................................................................

2.2The Impacts of Tourism.......................................................................2.3Sustainable Tourism.............................................................................2.4Nature-Based Tourism.........................................................................2.5Natural Heritage...................................................................................2.6Protected Areas...................................................................................2.7Meaning of National Parks...................................................................2.8History of National Parks in England.................................................2.9National Park Authority......................................................................

2.9.1 The Management Plan......................................................2.10 Economic and Social Benefits of National Park Authority.......

2.10.1 Recreation and Tourism...................................................2.10.2 Better Informed Society..................................................2.10.3 Rural Development..........................................................2.10.4 Social Inclusion................................................................

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2.10.5 Regulating Service............................................................2.11 Funding...........................................................................................

2.11.1 Sustainable Development Fund........................................2.11.2 European Fund.................................................................

2.12 The Effects of Governments cut on National Park.........................2.13 Volunteering....................................................................................2.14 Modes of Environmental Volunteering...........................................

2.14.1 Activism............................................................................2.14.2 Monitoring........................................................................2.14.3 Education..........................................................................2.14.4 Restoration.......................................................................2.14.5 Sustainable Living............................................................

2.15 Motivations for Environmental Volunteering................................2.16 Barriers to Environmental Volunteering........................................

2.16.1 Lack of Time....................................................................2.16.2 Management Cost............................................................2.16.3 Gender.............................................................................2.16.4 Information and Awareness............................................

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Methodology........................................................................................................

3.1Introduction...................................................................................3.2Theoretical Approach.....................................................................3.3Research Strategy...........................................................................3.4Quantitative Research Approach....................................................

3.4.1 The Questionnaire......................................................3.5The Qualitative Approach...............................................................

3.5.1 Participant Observation............................................3.5.2 Focus and Group Interview.....................................3.5.3 Triangulation............................................................3.5.4 Textual Analysis of Secondary Data......................3.5.5 Sampling.................................................................3.5.6 Purposive Sampling....................................................

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3.5.7 Interviews..................................................................3.5.8 Interview Schedule....................................................3.5.9 Coding........................................................................3.5.10 Research Limitations..................................................

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Results and Discussions..........................................................................................

4.1Introduction..............................................................................................4.2Community Participation.........................................................................4.3Economic Development...........................................................................4.4Social Inclusion........................................................................................4.5Funding....................................................................................................4.6Conservation............................................................................................

4.6.1 Visitor Monitoring................................................................................4.7Volunteering Motivations.......................................................................

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Conclusion........................................................................................................... 69

References........................................................................................................... 72


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Abstract

NBT is seen as one of the fastest growing components of tourism (Scott, 2003), as the

number of visits to NPs and PAs keeps increasing. It creates lots of job opportunities to the

people and it brings about motivation for travel. NBT is a global phenomenon, and its

attractions include: landscapes, farmlands, rivers, scenery, NPs and forest. These attractions

motivates tourist trip. The (Northumberland) NP will be the main focus of this study. This

study examines how park manager conserve and maintain their site whilst justifying their role

as a key contributor to economic and social development of the local community. There is

several challenges NNP face in achieving this duty particularly with the current funding

challenges they face (e.g. the governments reduction programme).


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Figure and Table List

Figures

Figure 1: The Cheviot Hill 12

Figure 2: NNP Interactive Map 13

Figure 3: National Parks in the United Kingdom 25

Figure 4: Showing process linking NPA spending to benefits to the community 29

Figure 5: Conceptual framework of individual motivations for environmental

volunteering and benefits to individual, environment, wider society and

volunteering organisation

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Tables

Table 1: IUCN Categories of Protected Areas 22

Table 2: National park designation in England 26

Table 3: Grants and other incomes 36

Table 4: demographic profile of the sample 62

Table 5: Background overview of sample 64

Table 6: Objectives overview of sample 66


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Abbreviation List

ANPA Association of National Park Authority

DEFRA Department of Environment, Food and Rural

Affairs

ENPAA English National Park Authority Association

IUCN International Union for Conservation of

Nature and Natural Resources

NNP Northumberland National Park

NNPA Northumberland National Park Authority

NPAs National Park Authorities

PAs Protected Areas

SDF Sustainable Development Fund

UK United Kingdom

WTO World Tourism Organisation


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Appendices List

Appendix 1: Interview Schedule 82

Appendix 2: The designed questionnaire 83

Appendix 3: E-mail sent to potential respondent 87

Appendix 4: Designed consent form for interview 89

Appendix 5: Graphical representation of the questionnaire results 90


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Introduction

1.1 Background

NPs have become important tourist attraction all over the world due to the increase in the

growth of nature-based tourism (Juutinen et al, 2011). Several authors (Hockings et al, 2000;

Prato, 2001; Saterson et al, 2004; Damania and Hatch, 2005; in Juutinen et al, 2011) argue

that the last decade have witnessed a rise in the level of awareness in evaluating the

management effectiveness of NPs and other PAs. Papageorgiou and Kassioumis (2004)

described the creation of NPs as a means of conserving the cultural heritage and natural

ecosystem for a broad range of human activities. The fourth congress held by IUCN

described NPs as natural areas where ecological integrity of ecosystems are protected as well

as providing foundation for recreational, educational, scientific, spiritual and opportunities

for visitors (McNeely, 1994). Therefore, the need for managers to balance visitor and

community needs with conservation objectives is imperative (Alden, 1997; Cope et al, 1999;

Kerkvliet and Nowell, 2000; in Beunen et al, 2008). In the first place, NPs and other PAs

were established in order to conserve their cultural and biological values but, such is not the

case these days as a result of their multifaceted role in the society (Juutinen et al, 2011).

Tourism and outdoor recreation are seen as the main threats to biodiversity of PAs (Cole and

Landres, 1996) and as a main factor which endangers species (Wilcove et al, 1998; Czech et

al, 2000; In Juutinen et al, 2011). For effective management of NPs, there must be a sound

planning and management in place in order to ensure the right balance between providing

opportunities for peoples leisure and protecting the environment (Torkildsen, 2005). The less

effectiveness of managers within protected area will result into reduced demand for the

tourism site, loss of amenity, environmental degradation and reduced economic benefit to

both the locals and government (Buultjens et al, 2005). Eagles et al, (2005) stressed that in

order to ensure effective management and sustainability within NPs, park authorities and


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mangers must involve stakeholders in the management process. They further highlighted

three major groups of stakeholders who influences the management of tourism in NPs and

PAs, they include: the park managers and tourism operators; the visitors; and lastly, the local

community.

Funding is extremely important if national parks are to (successfully) achieve their purposes.

However, such is not the case these days because national parks are currently lacking funds

needed to fulfil its purpose as a result of the (recent) reduction programme by the

government. This (cuts) raises so many questions as to whether the national parks will cope

i.e. achieving their statutory purpose and duties. If these cuts are so severe and it does affect

the national parks in carry out their multifaceted role within the society, then the role of the

authority would be questioned. There has been relatively little research looking into the

impact of these cuts on Englands national parks.

1.2 The study area

The Northumberland is a county located in North-East England covering an area of 5103

square kilometres with total population of about 1,900 people (being Englands most sparsely

populated County). The County has six Districts, two (Tynedale and Berwick-Upon-Tweed)

of which are among English less populated Districts (each of these Districts have a

population density of about 27 people per square kilometre). However, there is a sharp

increase in the population density in both Blythe Valley and Wansbeck, these two Districts

are heavily urbanised areas sharing it borders with Newcastle-Upon-Tyne and North

Tyneside.


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Figure 1: The Cheviot Hill

Source: (Simon Fraser; in NNP, 2009)

The NNP (located in the County of Northumberland) was designated in 1956. It covers an

area of 398 square miles, straddling the boundaries of Tyneside District, Alnwick and

Berwick-Upon-Tweed Borough. NNP has a total population of about 1900 people who reside

in small hamlets, villages and farms. Thirty percent of the NP is dominated by enclosed

farmland and forests while the remaining seventy percent is dominated by wild, extensive,

and open moorland. Aside from its endowed archaeology remains, NNP also accommodates

recent buildings of historical value (e.g. the military architecture). Tourism in NNP is

regarded as an important activity because the NP relies so much on tourism than other PAs in

the North-East (SQL Limited, 2004). The NP received more than 2 million visitors in 2002,

and its tourism expenditure has been estimated to be more than 42.8 million per year (Ibid;

In Gandariasbeitia, 2010). NNP houses the only four rivers in England and as a result, it

achieves the highest standard of water quality (ENPAA, 2010).


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Figure 2: NNP Interactive Map

Source: (Crown, 2009; in NNP, 2011)


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1.3 The Research Question

The 20th century saw a rise in the pursuit of environmental conservation (which has become a

significant theme) particularly in achieving rural development (Pimbert and Pretty, 1995).

Generally, conservationists have the belief that there is an inverse relationship between

human actions and the environments well-being. Several professionals widely agree that

problems such as: degradation of rangelands, loss of forests, soil erosion, desertification and

destruction of wildlife will emanate if protected areas (PAs) are not well conserved. This can

only be achieved if funds are made available to the managers of these PAs which brings

about the research topic: How park manager conserve and maintain their site whilst justifying

its natural and socio-economic value. This endowed destination (Northumberland NP) will be

the main focus of research aims to answer this question.

1.4 Rationale

The researcher chose this topic in order to understand if the government reduction

programme had any effect on NPs i.e. what areas of work have they cut out on? What

measures do park managers seek to cope with these cuts?

1.5 Aims

To answer the research question effectively, the research aims are as follows:

To understand the role of park managers within NNP To identify some of the management techniques adopted by NNPA

The aims highlighted above require specific objectives in order to be successfully achieved:

the researcher applied the following objectives:


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To review academic literatures (and secondary documents) which relates to NPmanagement

To explore some of the measures taken by park managers in protecting national parks To examine the effects of the (government) spending cuts on NNP To explore the motivations for environmental volunteering within NNP


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LITERATUREREVIEW

2.1 Tourism Industry

Several authors (Turner and Turner, 1978; Robinson, 1979; Smith, 1981; Graburn, 1989; In

Corbin and Russell, 2010) define tourism as activity which is characterized by consumption,

travel, conspicuous and the search for other activities. The World Travel and Tourism

Council (WTTC) described tourism as the largest industry in the world because it surpasses

industries i.e. agriculture, electronic, steel, and auto. Besides creating 204 million jobs to the

people, the gross output of its goods and services reached 3.4 trillion US dollars (In McIntosh

et al. 1995). Global tourism generated 7 trillion US dollars in 2007, and it is estimated that

the figures will rise to US$13 trillion in the following decade (WTTC, 2007; In Stolton and

Dudley, 2010). These days, Travel plays a crucial role in the lives of people. Since 1945, the

numbers of global travellers keep increasing which has made tourism arguably the largest

form of temporary migration in the world (Timothy and Boyd, 2003).

Tourism involves travelling away from ones home for recreation, business or pleasure, and

the activities which go with such travel (Lockwood et al, 2006). The WTO (1994) described

tourism as a set of activities which involves person(s) travelling to and staying in a place

outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure,

business and other purposes (in Gamely, 1998). Therefore, before one is considered as a

tourist, the WTO stipulates that the person would have travelled more than 50km, and stayed

overnight but not more than 12 months (Lockwood et al, 2006). Stolton and Dudley (2010)

described tourism as a range of travel and leisure experiences which can come in the form of

spending a day at a local beach to an all inclusive trip to the Arctic. In tourism, travelling to

places vary considerably. At one end, we have extensive international voyage which requires

planning and could be achieved with the assistance of tour operators, travel agents and other

travel based businesses that specialises in organising holidays. At the other end, we have trips


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which are relatively quick e.g. a day shopping trips, getaway weekend trips to neighbouring

town or city (Corbin and Russell, 2010). The link between tourism and PAs can be traced

back to over a hundred years ago, when the first protected area was created e.g. the first

mandate by the US congress indicated that US parks would be seen as a pleasure ground for

both travellers and visitors (Ceballous-Lascurain, 1996; In Stolton and Dudley, 2010).

2.2 Impact of Tourism

Tourism in natural areas can be either positive or negative. These impacts are physical and

cultural and can only be managed effectively if they have been identified, measured and

evaluated (Ceballous-Lascurain, 1996). There are three areas tourism development can

impact host communities, they include: economic effects e.g. increased income, increased

jobs, tax revenue, local government debts and inflation; socio-cultural effects e.g. increased

crime rate and prostitution, effects on cultures and tradition, increases intercultural

communication; effects on the environment e.g. littering, pollution and overcrowding

(Andereck et al, 2005; In Torn, 2007). Tourism provides economic development, through the

provision of increased employment opportunities and income (Buultjens et al, 2005).

However, recent literatures have been related to negative tourism impact (Newsome et al).

Negative impacts of tourism vary according to the way tourism is managed in the area,

number and nature of tourists and the type of physical facilities present in the area (Kandari

and Chandra, 2004). Tourism can cause adverse environmental impacts (i.e.

overdevelopment, pollution, overcrowding, wildlife disturbances, vehicle use and unregulated

recreation) on PAs (Hvenegaard, 1994; In Newsome et al, 2002), these environmental impact

can affect minerals and fossils, soil, air and water, sanitation, landscapes and cultural

environment (Kandari and Chandra, 2004). However, several authors (Holding and Kreutner,

1998; Cullinane and Cullinane, 1999; Steiner and Bristow, 2000; in Beunen et al, 2008)

recommended that these problems can be addressed if there is balance between nature and


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environment on one hand, and tourism and recreation on the other. On the other hand, the

positive benefits of tourism in natural areas have been fostered for more than two decades

(Newsome et al, 2002) it conserves nature while at the same time providing funding for the

maintenance of NPs and PAs, (Buultjens et al, 2005). In 1985, the European Heritage

Landscapes Conference (held by the Director of the Countryside Commission of the UK)

advocated the cooperation between tourism and conservation. He pointed out three reasons

why conservation should involve tourism, they include: tourism brings resources to

conservation; tourism creates conservation which posses economic justification; tourism

provides support for conservation (Phillips, 1985; In Newsome et al, 2002). In Kenya for

example, natural attraction is used in promoting tourism in protected and non-PAs (McNeely

et al, 1992; Tosun, 1998; Nepal, 2000; In Buultjens, 2005). Other areas of this relationship

include biological impacts on the environment by tourists (Edington and Edington, 1986) as

well as environmental carrying capacity aspects (Industry and Environment, 1986; In

Newsome et al). Ceballous-Lascurain (1996) classified tourism impacts into two namely

direct and indirect. Direct impact is caused by tourist (and it affects the soil, vegetation, water

resources, landscape, animal life, cultural environment, sanitation, minerals and fossils) while

indirect impact is caused by the infrastructure created in connection with tourism impact.

2.3 Sustainable Tourism

Sustainable tourism is a phenomenon of the 1990s and its origin came from the wider concept

of sustainable development which has been ever present (Swarbrooke, 1999). Tourism within

PAs must be sustainable because these areas are often located in sensitive environment and

they have important environmental values. McKercher (1993) defined sustainable tourism as

a vague concept which is difficult to carry-out. Therefore, it is crucial for managers to

consider its benefit and work towards achieving such benefits (In Buultjens et al, 2005).

Sustainable tourism as defined by the World Tourism Organisation is tourism which


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improves the quality of life of the host communities, providing high quality experience for

guests while also maintaining the quality of the environment(WTO, 1993; In Buultjens et

al, 2005). The Brundtland Report defined sustainable tourism as a form of tourism which

meets the need of the host community, the tourists and the tourism industry today without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (in Swarbrooke,

1999). Hunter (1997) supported these views; he later added that sustainable tourism must

also safeguard the environmental resources base of tourism which encompasses built, cultural

and natural features so as to achieve its benefits (In Ritchie and Crouch, 2003). Travis and

Ceballos-Lascurain described sustainable tourism as tourism which is developed and

managed in a way that all tourism activity (particularly those that focus on heritage resources

i.e. natural or cultural) continues indefinitely (In Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). To attain

sustainable tourism, tourists must be carefully managed in order to prevent/reduce the

negative impacts on the environment, visitors satisfaction and the host community

(Buultjens et al, 2005). Kandari and Chandra (2004) argued that tourism development can

pose huge threats to PAs particularly if such development is not properly planned and

controlled. They stressed that with sustainable tourism, such threats are reduced and tourism

within NPs is turned into opportunities while supporting conservation objectives. According

to Buultjens et al (2005) the less effectiveness of management (within PAs) will lead to

environmental degradation thereby resulting to loss of amenity, reduced economic benefits

and reduced demand for the tourism sites.

2.4 Nature-Based Tourism

The term nature-based tourism (NBT) is seen as a simpler concept than ecotourism and in a

view to avoid the confusion and controversy surrounding the term ecotourism some

researchers (McKercher, 1998; Deng et al, 2002; in Spenceley, 2003) use NBT as a less

contentious concept. For centuries, the establishment of NPs and other PAs has been a


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cultural phenomenon (Eagles et al, 2005). NBT is a rapidly growing sector of the tourism

industry and it can be described as tourism which is directly independent on the use of nature

(Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996) estimated to generate US$1 trillion in 19988 (Filion et al, 1992)

and it is proven (in many part of the world) to be a powerful incentive for conservation

(Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). NBT depends heavily on the quality of the environment, more

than any other forms (Boyd et al, 1996; in Deng et al, 2002). Today, NBT is considered as

one of the most significant areas of research in tourism(Hall and Boyd, 2005). Newsome

et al. (2002) described NBT as tourism which occurs in a natural setting and it embraces

viewing of nature as the primary objective. NBT include: tourism which are developed in

order to protect and conserve the natural environment (e.g. NPs, ecotourism); tourism which

focuses specifically on natural environment (e.g. marine tourism, nature tourism, wildlife

tourism); and lastly tourism in a natural setting (e.g. adventure tourism). However, NBT does

not necessarily benefits host community, nor contribute to the conservation of biodiversity

but it includes sub-categories of tourism which does e.g. ecotourism (Spenceley, 2003). Most

research (e.g. Cater and Lowman, 1994; Hall and Johnston, 1995; Holden, 2000; Butler and

Boyd, 2000; Newsome et al, 2002) on NBT focuses both on the relationship between tourism

and the physical environment (in natural areas) and its political, economic and social relation

with destination (Hall and Boyd, 2005). NBT is underpinned by the eco-centric philosophy in

order to ensure that the natural environment provides a platform for environmental

conservation and understanding (Newsome et al, 2002). In recent years, there has been

increase in park visitation prompting increased awareness of the importance of ecological

protection and the need to manage negative impacts caused by visitors (Eagles et al, 2005).

2.5 Natural Heritage

Generally, the word heritage is associated with ancestry and inheritance i.e. something

transferred by a generation to its future generations. Certain areas (in many countries) have


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huge cultural importance and heritage value. In a natural context, heritage include landscapes,

NPs, island, rivers, NPs, wilderness, garden as well as other components i.e. flora and fauna

(Herbert 1989; Zeppel and Hall, 1992; in Leask and Yeoman). Nature as the name indicates

encompasses all form of tourism i.e. adventure tourism, ecotourism, mass tourism, and low

impact tourism. Natural heritage as a form of tourism involves travelling to a particular

destination in order to enjoy its natural attributes and wildlife. There has been increased

recognition of the interdependency between the society and nature (particularly in rural

populated areas) as a result of calls for the promotion of the principles of sustainable

development (Stockdale and Barker, 2009). In such areas, the value of natural heritage begins

from careful and continued forms of environmental modification (Stockdale and Barker,

2009). Holdgate (1992) argued that the maintenance of natural heritage depends on the

promotion of management objectives which account for both conservation and socio-

economic development (in Stockdale and Barker, 2009).

2.6 Protected Areas

Nowadays, the potential criteria for sustainable governance of PAs are defined not only by

their complexity and inner nature, but by their economic and social impact at all levels

(Juutinen et al, 2011). PAs varies across the world, including their size, geographies and

resources they protect, the purpose for which they are established and the management body

responsible for protecting them (Phillips, 2002; in Brown et al, 2005). According to the

World Conservation Union (IUCN) PAs are geographical spaces which are recognised and

managed through legal or other effective means in order to achieve long-term nature

conservation objectives in association with ecosystem services and cultural values (UNEP-

WCMC, 2008). There are set of standard management categories (based on management

goals) defined by the IUCN. Ladle and Whittaker (2011) argued that out of all PAs, NPs are

seen as the most widely recognised categories.


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These categories are represented in the table below:

Source: (Orlovic-Lovren, 2011)

2.7 Meaning of National Park

There is no single definition for NP (Korpas, 2007). Richard et al (2000) defined NP as a

natural environment with large and untouched area, protected at the highest level by the

highest authority, with tourism (recreation) among its uses. Several authors (McNeely, 1990;

Furze et al, 1996; Mitchell, 2003; In ) defined NP as a bounded physical area of land

protected from human habitation and exploitation for the conservation goals of

biodiversity protection, continuation of ecological services, as well as spiritual, intrinsic

and aesthetic values. According to the IUCN (1969) NPs can be described as the following:

a large area with natural landscape of great beauty where ecosystems (plants, animals,

habitats, geomorphologic sites etc.) are protected from human exploitation and habitation; an

Table 1: IUCN Cate ories of Protected Areas


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area where visitors are encouraged to visit under strict conditions and rules for cultural,

recreational, educative and inspirational purpose; and lastly an area where government takes

steps to prevent possible exploitation of the area and enforce people to respect its

geomorphologic, aesthetic and ecological features (Osten, 1972; in Richard et al, 2000).

Aside from protecting natural beauty, NPs create a link with the past as a result of

maintaining cultural characteristics and allowing public access and enjoyment (Uzzell, 1992).

2.8 History of National Parks in England

NPs in England falls in category II of IUCN classification of PAs (Brown et al, 2005) and are

seen as a breathing space for the mental, physical and spiritual wellbeing of the nation

(ENPAA, 2009). The growing concern regarding the unplanned development of public access

to scenic uplands led to the introduction of NP in England (MacEwan and MacEwan, 1982;

Rydin, 1998; Stockdale and Barker, 2009). NPs (in England) were seen as an invention of the

immediate post war years (Thompson, 2010; Clarke and Clarke, 2011) and they were created

as a means of protecting the countryside (Gandariasbeitia, 2010). NPs were created in an era

of austerity by the Labour administrations (Thompson, 2005; 2010) commitment on the

reform of government policy in the countryside (Thompson, 2005). The Dower Report (1945)

was commissioned by the government in response to pressure group calls for institutional

reforms. This report envisaged that NPs should be created in areas which have important

recreational and scenic values (Stockdale and Barker, 2009) and its ownership must be passed

to the public, and must fulfil four aims i.e. public access, agricultural protection, wildlife and

building conservation, and landscape preservation (Hall, 1992; Howkins, 2003; in Stockdale

and Barker, 2008). The Hobhouse (1947) Committee largely endorsed the Dowers

recommendation, but the proposal for public ownership of NPs was rejected which led to the

enactment of the NPs and Access to the Countryside Act in 1949. The UK has a total of 14

NPs which covers more than 20,000km2 i.e. over 8% of UKs territory (Travis, 2011) with


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Lake District (1951) being the first NP created in England (Thompson, 2005) an additional

eight NPs have followed since then (Stockdale and Barker, 2009). The Lake District is one of

UKs top tourist destinations (ENPAA, 2009) and it is the largest NP (with 2229 km2) in the

UK, while the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads (288km2) are the smallest (MacEwen and

MacEwen, 1987; in Ratcliffe et al, 2004). Annually, the country records 75 million visits to

its NPs (ENPAA, 2009).


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Figure 3: National Parks in the United Kingdom

(Source: Barker and Stockdale, 2008)

Britains NP (unlike some other countries) are not publicly owned land, however they operate

in a similar way (Torkildsen, 2005). MacEwen and MacEwen (1982, 1987) highlighted two

distinctive reasons why NPs were created as: for agricultural productivism; and a site for

nature conservation and outdoor recreation (in Thompson, 2005). Being the most treasured

landscape in England (Torkildsen, 2005) NPs were primarily created to protect beautiful and

spectacular areas of countryside as well as providing opportunities for people to appreciate

and enjoy (Uzzell, 1992; Owens and Green, 1997). In addition, NPs were created to balance

the recreation needs of the populace as well as the need to conserve the nations environment

in terms of cultural and natural heritage (Suckall et al, 2009) as stipulated by the countrys


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NPs and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 (Section 5) as amended by the Environmental

Act, 1995 (Section 61) which described the two main requirements of NPs as: conserving

and enhancing the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage; and promoting public

opportunities for the understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of Parks

(MacEwen and MacEwen, 1982, 1987; In Clarke and Clarke, 2011). The 1995 Act also gave

NPA additional duty to: promote economic and social development within the local

community without incurring significant expenditure while performing this duty,. To achieve

this purpose, NPs will have to foster co-operation not just with the local communities but also

with public bodies who promotes economic and social development within NP (in

Cairncross, et al, 2004)

Table 2: National park designation in England

NP Designation Year Area (sq km) Population

Peak District 1951 1438 37,937

Lake District 1951 2292 42,239

Dartmoor 1951 953 34,365

North York Moors 1952 1436 23,939

Yorkshire Dales 1954 1762 19,654

Exmoor 1954 694 10,900

Northumberland 1956 1049 2,000

The Broads 1989 303 5,721

The New Forest 2005 567 34,935

South Downs 2009

(Source: DEFRA, 2011)


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2.9 National Park Authorities

In the UK, NPs (spanning for more than 50 years) are run and managed by the NPAs and

other separate bodies e.g. the National Trust, the Council for NPs, English Heritage, the

Countryside Agency and others. The NPA are made up from local authority appointees;

Secretary of State (parish nominees); and Secretary of State (national appointees). The NPA

are independent body funded by the central government (Torkildsen, 2005; ENPAA, 2009;

Thompson, 2005) and they have become increasingly autonomous from local authorities

(Gandariasbeitia, 2010; Thompson, 2005). Historically, the NPAs are creatures of the local

government (they operate in a similar way as the local councils) and they posses so much

powers in controlling development within NPs (Thompson, 2005). Each of the nine NPs in

England has a NP Authority (i.e. a local body) which protects the special qualities and

encourages the public to understand and enjoy them (ENPAA, 2009). NPA supports the

development and promotion of sustainable tourism within NPs because it helps enhance their

statutory purpose and it is their duty to foster the economic and social wellbeing of the local

communities (ENPAA, 2009).

2.9.1 The Management Plan

The introduction of the Environmental Act (1995) enhanced the powers given to NPA (in

respect to matters like sustainability) by making them become responsible for the

development and preparation of NP management plan (Ratcliffe et al, 2004). Each NPA were

charged to provide their own local plan which must focus on the conservation of the natural

environment as well as the economic and social needs of the local community (Ratcliffe et al,

2004). This management plan is a strategic document which guides the delivery of NP duty

and purposes. The management plan consist a description of the following: the ambition of

the NP; how the ambition is achieved; the role of the park; issues affecting the NP and

associated trends. Thompson (2010) described the management plan as integral because it


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facilitates detailed understanding of future strategies to achieve their objective (i.e.

conservation and recreation). However, the success of this management plan can be achieved

if NPA involves all key stakeholders (e.g. government agencies, local authorities, NGOs,

farmers, land owners and local community) to assist in the delivery of the plan.


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2.10 Economic and Social Benefits Associated with NPA

Without the NPAs, it is assumed that the NP designation would still be in place while the

statutory duties would shift to relevant local authorities. This would pose additional burden

on local authorities while needing extra funds to accomplish these purposes. The benefits of

NPAs can be assessed in a number of ways as shown in the diagram below.

Source: (DEFRA, 2011)

Figure 4: Showing process linking NPA spending to benefits to the community


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2.10.1 Recreation and tourism

NPAs have a duty to promote opportunities for the public to enjoy the NP and fostering

economic welfare for the local communities. These duties can be successfully accomplished

by NPAs if they promote a sustainable recreation and tourism. The NPAs work on access,

cultural heritage, biodiversity and conservation of landscape can all have impact on the level

of recreation and tourism in the NP. Recreation activities (e.g. cycling, horse riding, walking,

rock climbing and visiting villages) overlaps with tourism because most of this activities are

carried out by tourists and residents living in and around the NP (DEFRA, 2011).

2.10.2 Better informed society

According to Walshe (2008) a significant emphasis has been placed on environmental

education, a good example of such programmes is the UNs Decade of Education for

Sustainable Development (in DEFRA, 2011). NPAs are required to promote opportunities for

public to enjoy and understand the special qualities NPs posses. Two benefits can be

generalised from this statement: firstly, the impact environmental education has on

environmental behaviours; and the impact access to natural environment has on the quality of

education. Ofsted (2004) report shows that outdoor educations gives depth to the curriculum

and helps contribute to students personal, physical and social education (in DEFRA, 2011).

NPAs educate not just the young ones alone but also the general public in a more direct

approach through visitor centres, outdoor learning centres, conservation volunteers, guided

walks, rangers and work with schools. With these learning mechanisms, NPAs educated the

people on issues affecting the NPs and this feed through into people undertaking more

environmental behaviours (DEFRA, 2011).


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2.10.3 Rural development

As part of their duty to foster economic and social wellbeing of local communities, NPAs

develop projects which build social capital and have a multiplier effects on the local

community and wider economies. NPAs have direct impact on local economy as a result of

the jobs they creates to the local people. Also, with regards to funding, NPAs lever funding

for community based LEADER projects and they foster economic prosperity through their

administration of the SDF (DEFRA, 2011). The effective implementation of any nature

conservation concepts and practices must evolve around the everyday life of the local

community within the protected area (Borrini-Feyerabend et al, 2004a, b; in Tomicevic et al,

2009). NPs must be seen as areas which bring economic and social benefits to the local

people (Brown et al, 2005). The special and distinctive nature of NPs is associated to the way

they combine their statutory purpose (i.e. recreation and enjoyment by the public) with a pro-

active role social and economic development of the local community (Thompson, 2010). To

ensure successful management of NPs the participation of the local people is fundamental

(Govan et al, 1998) because, without local support, PAs will not achieve their aims, nor

survive (Brown et al, 2005). The support and co-operation of the local people is increasingly

recognised as a major factor which influence the sustainable management of NPs (Wells and

Brandon, 1993; in Tomicevic et al, 2009). In achieving sustainable conservation,

environmental planners and NPAs should involve the local community. Similarly, several

authors (Rao and Geisler, 1990; Gibbs and Bromely, 1990; Western et al, 1994; Gibson and

Marks, 1995; in Tomicevic et al, 2009) identified community-based conservation as a new

conservation paradigm which focuses on the management of biodiversity for, by and with the

local community. Many NPs have pioneered schemes of this nature in place and they work in

partnership with other bodies in order to achieve these projects (Brown et al, 2005).

According to Ezebilo and Mattsson (2010) NPs provide economic benefits to the locals


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directly through subsidies (payment); and indirectly (by government or non-governmental

actors) through provision of services (e.g. small business facilitation and agricultural

development); infrastructures (e.g. health centres, schools etc.). Also, NPs creates

employment for the locals in tourism related businesses e.g. guided tours, hotels and lodges,

tea shops, restaurants, kiosk etc. (Ezebilo and Mattsson, 2010). However, much debate

persists on how NPs provide income, job and affordable housing for local people in ways that

are sustainable i.e. support the protection, enjoyment and enhancement of the NP (Brown et

al, 2005).

2.10.4 Social Inclusion

Specific programmes (aimed at socially excluded groups) are being run by NPAs in order to

encourage groups (who would not usually access the NP) enjoy the benefits NP offers

(DEFRA, 2009). Social exclusion occurs when certain groups within the community are

pushed to the extreme and prevented from participating in training and education as well as

being restricted from gaining access to services and citizenship activities (Wilkinson and

Marmot, 2003; in Wahl, 2009). Social exclusion is also a consequence of what happens to

people who do not get a fair deal throughout their life thereby finding themselves in difficult

situations (e.g. discrimination, poor skills, poor housing, unemployment, family breakdown,

racism and crime). If not addressed, this could be passed from one generation to another

(DEFRA, 2009).

2.10.5 Regulating Service

The land management and ecosystem activities within NP boundaries provide lots of

regulating activities i.e. water quality services and carbon seizure. However, the location of

the NP as well as the habitats present will determine the type of regulating services and the

extent to which these services are provided within the NP (DEFRA, 2009). There are two


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aspect of regulating services provision within NP: the first one is the regulating services

protected due to designation of the NP (e.g. clean water from uplands and carbon storage in

moorland); and the second one is the regulating services which are improved due to the

specific work carried out by NPAs. In the UK, the forest and woodlands remove about

4million tonnes of carbon (each year) from the atmosphere and NPAs contribute to this

through the plantation of tree schemes (DEFRA, 2009).


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2.11 Funding

Funding is extremely important if national parks are to achieve their specific purpose and

duties within the community. Most of its fund (between 53% and 85%) comes from the

central government through DEFRA. National parks also receives fund (both locally and

internationally) from external sources e.g. SDF, HLF, European fund, Natural England etc.

These funds are targeted at conserving and maintaining Britains breathing space while also

creating opportunities for the local communities (e.g. job creation) so as to achieve economic

and social development. Some of these (external) funding bodies are briefly discussed below:

2.11.1 Sustainable Development Fund

SDF is grant scheme aimed at encouraging business prosperity and strong dynamic

communities in a way that enhances the cultural heritage and natural value of the NP, as well

as helping visitors and the local people to understand and enjoy the special qualities of these

endowed destinations. The SDF scheme began in 2002, and it gives annual grants of about

200,000 to each national park to help develop sustainable projects (DEFRA, 2011). SDF is

designed to support and promote projects which demonstrate measures of sustainable

development. Such projects must: engage volunteers and local communities in planning,

delivery and operation; educates and raise awareness of the need for sustainable

development; involves young people; bring different organisations together to tackle rural

problems in a spirit of cooperation and partnership; connects people from an urban centre

with the NP; involves the sustainable management of land; develops model of sustainable

living in the countryside that can be applied elsewhere; add new dimension/values to an

existing sustainability project (NNP, 2010).


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2.11.2 European Funds

The funds the NP receives from Europe include: LEADER; European Agriculture Guidance

and Guarantee Fund; European Regional Development Fund; and the Rural Development

Programme. The LEADER fund (for example) is a wide European approach aimed at

encouraging sustainable development through local business and communities (at large).

Such fund delivers part of the rural development programme (within the UK) and it provides

financial advice and support on the following: bio-energy (increasing the production and use

of bio fuels and biomass); tourism and recreation (promoting tourism and recreation as a

driver for sustainable economic development); sustainable farming and forestry (supporting

the development of farming and forestry supply chain business); micro-enterprises

development (encouraging entrepreneurial activity); sustainable communities (creating

conditions for growth so as to sustain viable communities (NNP, 2010).


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2.12 The Effects of Government Cuts on National Parks

National parks are currently undergoing difficult time as a result of the reduction in

government spending of about 30 percent which is part of wide-ranging public-sector

reduction by the coalition government, as it belief it is necessary to tackle the countrys fiscal

deficit.

Thompson (2010) pointed out that these cuts will affect the management of NPs in England

over the coming years. Aside from NPs, these cuts have also affected Natural England and

Environmental Agency, the combined forces which tackles conservation, pollution and flood

protection (Williams, 2011). Many conservationists belief these cuts will mean that economic

development will assume as high a priority as conservation (TMDH Ltd, 2010). According to

Ruth Chambers (CNPs head of policy) the cuts may not be so bad in the governments eye

but, when inflation and the impact of secondary funding cuts are considered, this will lead to

Table 3: Grants and other incomes (2008/2009)


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a detrimental effect on NP authority in fulfilling their duties. There will be budget planning

challenges for NPAs due to the funding uncertainty for the next few years however, it is also

an opportunity for NPs to explore other possible funding sources and ways to minimise the

impacts of funding cuts in the future (Smith, 2010). The chief executive of CNP (Helen

Jackson) argued that the effect of these funding cuts on NPs will lead to loss of jobs and

reduction in service as a result of their functional role in rural employment (in Smith, 2010).

NPs are powerful advocates for sustainable development as a result of the key role they play

in supporting the local communities along with their conservation responsibilities (Smith,

2010). However, DEFRA pointed out that these cut does not mean NPs will lose their status

(TMDH Ltd. 2010). In order to make ends meet, NPs will have to make some difficult

choices and decisions on which area of work they will have to cut back on (Thompson, 2010)

this might affect their role in championing sustainability and result in less activity on key

work such as education and raising awareness to the public about key environmental

challenges i.e. climate change. A review of governance arrangements is currently being made

by DEFRA, and it include an examination of the extent to which NPA are accountable to the

communities within the NP (Thompson, 2010).

2.13 Volunteering

These days, most environmental organisations do not have the funding required to hire a

large labour force, therefore, they rely heavily on volunteers to help out in order to save

considerable amount of money (Ryan et al, 2001). There are several definitions of

volunteering as a result of diverse countries across the globe. Volunteering as defined by

these authors (Noble, 1991; Cordingley, 2000; Penner, 2004) is a pre-social behaviour

whereby a person willingly offers to help another person, group or cause without monetary

reward (in Measham and Barnett, 2007). Volunteering can be defined as any activity (which

is unpaid for) where someone spends time in order to help an individual, group or not-for-


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profit organisation who they are not related to (Volunteering England Information Team,

2006). Volunteering as defined by the code of practice is an activity which involves spending

time and engaging in something that benefit the environment, individuals or groups other

than close relatives (Home Office, 2005:4; Measham and Barnett, 2007). According to

Stebbins (2004:5) volunteering is either a formal or informal help (with no or little pay)

rendered for the benefit of the volunteer, other people and organisations.

The NPAs adopts volunteering as a technique in order to achieve their objectives.

Volunteering benefits both the NPAs (particularly if the work carried out by volunteers is

much more than the cost in organising them); volunteers (they enjoy what they do); and the

public (volunteering creates public goods which might not have been created). There has

been growing interest in the role environmental volunteers play in the management of natural

resource (Ryan et al, 2001; Byron and Curtis, 2002; Hunsberger et al, 2005; in Measham and

Barnett, 2007). Environmental volunteering is a constructive way which helps people bond

with their environment and natural resource management rely heavily on volunteer labour

(Measham and Barnett, 2007). In Britain, environmental volunteering takes place in many

organisations e.g. the Forestry Commission, Natural England, National Trust, Scottish

Natural Heritage, Countryside Council for Wales etc. and in a wide range of habitats i.e. NPs,

green space, green infrastructure, grasslands, woodlands, coastal areas, wetlands and a range

of indoor environments (OBrien et al, 2008). The focus of this study will be specifically

looking into environmental volunteering within NPs.

2.14 Modes of Environmental Volunteering

The environment has benefited so much from the work of volunteers as a result of their help

in restoring ecosystem, building and maintaining trails, campaigns, identifying and

monitoring endangered species and their habitats (Ryan et al, 2001). Measham and Barnett


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(2007:7) highlighted five principal mode of environmental volunteering activity. They

include: activism, monitoring, education, restoration and sustainable living. However, they

further argued that in any given context, volunteers may engage in more than one mode of

activity. Each of these modes are briefly explained below

2.14.1 Activism

Environmental volunteering is a pro-active approach aimed at bringing change and

empowerment (Bell, 1999) and it lies at the core of social action in civic society (in

Measham and Barnett, 2007). Brunckhorst et al, (2006) stressed the importance of civic

engagement in local affairs, as well as issues in the usage of resource (in OBrien et al,

2008:18). Activism occurs at various levels, from international (e.g. Greenpeace and Friend

of the Earth), to local (e.g. action groups campaigning on local environmental issues).

2.114.2 Monitoring

This is another aspect of environmental volunteering. The importance of volunteer groups is

broadly recognised as human capital for carrying out environmental monitoring (Jacoby et al,

1997; Carr, 2004; in Measham and Barnett, 2007). According to Cohn (2008) environmental

volunteers help scientist gather data on a larger geographical scale and over o long period

of time than is possible in more traditional scientific research. However, the issue of data

reliability is often raised in relation to volunteer environmental programme (Cohn, 2008; in

OBrien et al, 2008) also, volunteer labour is a long-term monitoring which can be difficult to

fund through other mechanism (Earthwatch, 2006; in Measham and Barnett, 2007). Reynolds

and Elson (1996) argued that effective monitoring and review enable managers make

informed decision on PAs. Several literatures (Scottish Natural Heritage, 1993; Countryside

Commission, 1996; MacGregor, 1998; in Cope et al, 2000) identified three distinct

components of visitor monitoring as: visitor counting (collection of quantitative data of


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visitors with the use of manual or technological methods i.e. broken beam system, infrared

detection etc.); visitor profiling (i.e. collecting demographic, socio-economic and recreational

pursuit of visitors using questionnaires, aimed at describing them to the resources); and

surveying visitors opinions (aimed at understanding visitors motivation to a resource).

Cessford and Muhar (2003) highlighted five monitoring processes park management require

as: operational auditing of budget and performance measures; monitoring visitors number,

characteristics and pattern of use; social impacts i.e. visitors satisfaction and conflict with

the quality of their recreation experiences; the current state of natural, historic and cultural

heritage features of conservation as well as its related sustainable issues; and the physical

impacts i.e. visitors effect on natural, cultural and historic heritage features. In the UK

countryside, there are wide range of monitoring approaches taken by land management

agencies and this method varied from place to place (Cope et al, 2000).

2.14.3 Education

Primarily, this aspect of environmental volunteering focus on volunteers assisting with

community education (Measham and Barnett, 2007). They further stressed that education

occurs in line with another mode of environmental volunteering (e.g. restoration or

monitoring). A good example is Reef Environment Education Foundation which involves

volunteers in the monitoring the environment as part of their education programme

(Pattengill-Semmens and Semmens, 2003; in Measham and Barnett, 2007).

2.14.4 Restoration

Volunteer Development Scotland (2006) described restoration as improving access,

managing or improving habitats, and gardening for wildlife (in OBrien et al, 2008).

According to Measham and Barnett (2007:10) ecological restoration is perhaps the most

obvious form of environmental volunteering. Volunteers involvement in environmental


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restoration generally focuses on removal of noxious weeds, replanting of vegetation and

providing habitat for wildlife (Measham and Barnett, 2007).

2.14.5 SustainableLiving

This mode of environmental volunteering is intimately related to both activism and

community education (OBrien et al, 2008). According to Hobson (2006b) this aspect of

environmental volunteering is the most recent, and it relates to new interest in reducing the

ecological footprints by implementing effective modes of energy use and reducing waste at

the household level (in Measham and Barnett, 2007). For example, the Green Volunteer

Network of Singapore promotes practices such as sustainable transport use, eco-labelling and

recycling (Hobson, 2006a) also, the Sustainable Living Foundation (2007) engages

volunteers in promoting and designing ways to recycle, reuse and recycle energy and material

goods (Measham and Barnett, 2007).

2.15 Motivation for Environmental Volunteering

Not until recently, there has been relatively little research focusing on factors that motivate

people to participate in environmental volunteering (Ryan et al, 2001). The decision to

volunteer is a complex one that must be considered in a broader context of social pressure,

personal attributes, circumstances and the organisations characteristics (Penner, 2004; in

Measham and Barnett, 2007). Several studies (Westphal, 1993, 1995; Still and Gerhold,

1997; Schroeder, 1998; Roggenbuck et al, 2000; Grese et al, 2000) found that helping the

environment is an important motivation for volunteering (in Ryan et al, 2001). People

volunteer as a result of their connectivity with the environment or nature (Dutcher et al, 2007)

and environmental volunteers often cite the environment as the main motivation for

volunteering (Dalgleish, 2006; in OBrien et al, 2008). Roggenbuck et al. (2000) study (Save

Our Stream Volunteers) found out that people volunteer in environmental programmes in


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order to protect the environment as well as learning and enjoying nature (in Ryan et al, 2001).

Volunteering fulfils different functions for different individuals (Snyder et al, 1999). Also,

social factors (e.g. networking and making new friends) can be a motivating factor which

encourages environmental volunteering. Some authors (Haas, 2000:35; Ryan et al, 2001;

Gooch, 2005:18; Christie, 2004:5; Peers, 2007:19; in Wahl, 2009) revealed the high value

volunteers place on friendship and social opportunities they had through their participation as

well as opportunities to meet new people within the community (Austin, 2002:182; in Wahl,

2009). The organisation has influence on volunteer motivation (Ryan et al, 2001). Therefore,

organised volunteer programmes tend to be more appealing to volunteers while volunteers

may be discouraged in taking part of disorganised programmes (Ryan et al, 2001). However,

motivation can change over time e.g. ones initial reason for volunteering may be different

from those sustaining continued voluntary action (Penner, 2004; in Measham and Barnett,

2007).


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Figure 5: Conceptual framework of individual motivations for environmental volunteering

and benefits to individual, environment, wider society and volunteering organisation

Source: (OBrien et al, 2008)

2.16 Barriers to Environmental Volunteering

There are several barriers to environmental volunteering among which are:

2.16.1 Lack of time

Time is seen as one of the most obvious reason why people fail to volunteer. Warburton and

Crosier (2001) described time constraint as one of the factors which impacts on potential


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volunteers decision to participate. Pope (2005:30) report on Victorian non-volunteers found

out that the most common barrier to environmental volunteering is that people are too busy to

participate. The report carried out by the Commission on the Future of Volunteering

(2008:16) found out that some people shy away from volunteering because they do not want

to let managers down if they are unable to turn up regularly (in Measham and Barnett, 2007).

2.16.2 Management Cost

The cost of planning, recruiting and training volunteers may discourage managers from

having volunteer particularly if the organisation is facing funding constraint (Tacticos and

Gardner, 2005).

2.16.3 Gender

There is evidence from previous studies that being married and having kids is associated with

higher levels of volunteering (Taniguchi, 2006:87). Taniguchi also reported that women are

significantly more likely than men to volunteer.

2.16.4 Information and Awareness

Lack of information and awareness about volunteering opportunities pose huge participation

barriers to the public, particularly to people from the minority groups, young people and

people in low socio-economic groups (Pope, 2005). People who do not have the strength,

physical fitness and health are also being affected by the lack of information and awareness

of the volunteer programmes in place in the national park because some activities require

little fitness/strength to carry out (The Commission on the Future of Volunteering; in

Measham and Barnett, 2007).


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Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The research was conducted in order to elicit information and understanding on how

Northumberland NP is managed and protected. The method used in conducting the research

intends to influence the research. The researcher adopted both the quantitative (to understand

volunteers motivation) and qualitative (to understand stakeholders perception on the topic)

method in the field research. This chapter explains the reason as well as the advantage of

adopting the quantitative and qualitative research methods. Aside from the introduction, this

chapter also explain the questionnaire survey i.e. definition; the type of questionnaire survey

conducted; how, when and where the survey was conducted. Also, the later part of this

chapter looked into some of the qualitative methods (e.g. observation, focus group,

interviews, triangulation etc.) open to the researcher. The last part of this chapter looked into

some of the research limitations.

3.2 Theoretical Approach

Finn et al. (2000:13) described theories as a conceptual framework which helps make sense

of the research findings, and indicates the conditions under which the research was

conducted. There are different types of theoretical approaches (e.g. deductive approach,

positivist approach, interpretive approach etc.) but only some are ever appropriate (Veal,

2010). The researcher adopted the interpretive approach because it allows the sample group

provide their own explanation of their behaviour or situation (Bryman and Bell, 2007)

thereby, allowing the researcher to see a clear picture of the topic through the subjects eyes

(Veal, 2006). This approach (interpretive) allowed the research to be conducted as accurate as

possible.


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3.3 Research strategy

The researcher finds it helpful to differentiate between the quantitative and qualitative

research methods. Ritchie et al (2005) argued that the difference between both research

methods is mainly related to the amount of data collected or analysed. Bryman and Bell

(2007) described the quantitative research method as a research strategy which emphasizes

quantification in the collection and analysis of data while the qualitative research method on

the other hand was described (Bryman and Bell, 2007) as a research strategy which

emphasizes word (rather than quantification) in the collection and analysis of data. According

to Sirakaya-Turk (2011) the quantitative methods are particularly good at eliciting the etic

(outsider perspective), while the qualitative method is good at eliciting the emic (insider

perspective). Both the qualitative and the quantitative method can be adopted to form two

distinctive clusters of research strategy (Bryman and Bell, 2007). To sum up, the qualitative

research method are more flexible, develops new theoretical insights, and explores meaning

by analysing text and words, whereas the quantitative research strategy is strictly structured,

requires the collection of statistical data and tests hypothesis (Ritchie et al, 2005). In order

achieve a successful research, the researcher adopted both methods.

3.4 The Quantitative Research Approach

The quantitative research method is based on numerical measurement of data (Thomas, 2003)

and specific aspect of phenomena; it seeks measurement and analysis of data which are easily

replicable by other researcher (King et al, 1994; in Thomas, 2003). To be successful, this

method requires careful sampling strategies and experimental design.


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3.4.1 The Questionnaire

Veal (2010) described the questionnaire as a written/printed or computer-based schedule

questions and a pro forma for recording answers to the question. The questionnaire can also

be described as any (written) research instrument which presents respondents with a series of

questions to which they are to react either by selecting from among existing answers or by

writing out their answers (Brown, 2001; in Dornyei and Taguchi, 2010). There are several

types of questionnaires (e.g. street survey, household survey, telephone survey, on-site

survey, captive survey, mail survey and E-survey) in leisure and tourism field. In order to

understand peoples motivation towards environmental volunteering, the researcher adopted

the E-survey technique (where survey is conducted online i.e. via the internet) which involves

not much questions (Veal, 2010). There are two main types of E-survey samples: the

convenience and the probability sample. The researcher considered the convenience sample

because it deals with volunteers, and it is less costly to generate than probability sample

(Schonlau et al, 2002) and it creates privacy for researchers to voice out their opinion on the

topic.

The questionnaire was designed by the researcher using Key Survey website and it was a

single paged questionnaire and it consists three different sections: the first section sought to

understand the demographic (e.g. age, sex, marital status, occupation status etc.) of the

sample; the second section consist the background questions (e.g. how close do volunteers

live to the NP, volunteers travel options to the NP, how pleased are volunteers with the

programme etc.) which sought to understand the samples connection with the volunteer

programme; and the third section include objective questions (e.g. how many time do you

volunteer, what motivates you to volunteer, favourite volunteer tasks etc.) which seeks to

understand what motivates people to participate in NNP volunteer programme.


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The researcher sent an online survey link to the (Northumberland) NP volunteer coordinator

(via email) on 28th March 2012. With the help of the coordinator, the questionnaire link was

forwarded to respective volunteers. The filling process lasted for 3 weeks after which the

researcher collected, analysed and interpreted the data gathered from the sample.

3.5 The Qualitative Research Approach

According to Denzin and Lincoln (1987) qualitative research involves the collection and

studied use of various empirical materials personal experience, case study, life history,

visual text, observation, interview, introspective, interaction and historical- which describe

routine and problematic moment and meaning in individual lives. This type of research

method is based on the assumption that people involved in a particular situation e.g. tourism

and leisure, are in a better position to explain their feelings and experiences in their own

words, and they must be allowed to voice out their opinion without being constrained by the

framework imposed by the researcher or any other intermediary (Veal, 2006). The qualitative

research method consists of several (specific) methods, and they include focus group, in-

depth interviews, participant observation, case study approach, triangulation, the analysis of

text, sampling. The following methods will be explained as well as their relevance to this

research.

3.5.1 Participant Observation

Participant observation helps researchers gain holistic understanding of the phenomena being

studied (DeWalt, 2002). This method encourages the participation of the researcher in the

social process being studied (Veal, 2006:202). This method of data collection may be

appropriate in some research but, it was not required in this research. The negative aspect of

participant observation is that it does not rely on individuals attitude and ideas towards the

subject (Chin, 2009).


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3.5.2 Focus and Group Interviews

A focus group is seen as an option for this qualitative research, and it can be described as a

form of qualitative research method whereby a small group of people interact with one

another in order to explore a particular topic in a relatively unstructured manner (Finn et al,

2000). The main advantage of this research method is that it gives a clear understanding of a

particular social situation to both the researcher and the participants during the research

process (Finn et al, 2000). However, the focus group method would have been fruitless if it

had been adopted in this research because the aim of the research is not to observe the

interaction among park authorities in NNP but rather to obtain their opinion; secondly, the

strong opinionated personalities might overshadow the quieter ones and the result generalised

will not represent the opinion of everyone (Jennings, 2001; in Chin, 2009). The research aims

to give equal opportunities to contacted respondents for them to voice out their opinion on the

topic without being influenced by one another.

3.5.3 Triangulation

Triangulation is used in both the quantitative and qualitative research methods (Veal, 2006).

Triangulation can be defined as the study of social phenomena using more than one method

or source of data (Bryman and Bell, 2007:412; Veal, 2006). Although, the adoption of

triangulation can be fruitful in many cases however that does not mean it must be conducted

in all qualitative study (Flick, 2009). Triangulation can be used in four different ways:

adopting more than one sampling strategy; analysing data in two or more ways; involving

different interviewers, analyst and observers; and lastly, adopting two or more methodology

to gather data (Duffy, 1987:131; In Veal, 2006). Triangulation was somewhat used in this

research, thereby providing a conclusive research paper. However, not all qualitative methods

were suitable for this research only few were utilised (Veal, 2006)


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3.5.4 Textual Analysis of secondary data

Documental analysis from DEFRA, NNP, NPA and NP managers provided a more detailed

background on how park managers maintain and conserve natural areas. These documents

equipped the researcher before, during and after the interview process giving a clearer picture

on how managers manage this endowed natural areas. The secondary data provided the

researcher with a triangulation method with which to analyse, compare and contrast from the

primary data collected. The secondary data allowed freedom from mediation by the rapport

of the researcher and the researched (Jennings, 2001:69) allowing an unbiased view of the

management of NPs.

3.5.5 Sampling

Sampling is necessary in most survey and observational research (Veal, 2011). Thompson

(2012) described sampling as a research method which involves selecting and observing

some part of the population in order to understand something about the whole population.

The researcher adopted the Non-probability sampling where the selection chance for each

element within the population is unknown (Clark, 1998:76) also, with each element of the

population being studied not having equal opportunity of being included in the research

(Jennings, 2001:138) this was necessary and it helped the researcher gain access and

information from the representatives of Northumberland NP. It was inappropriate to adopt the

probability sampling because the specific requirement of experience and expertise within

NNP were a prerequisite for the research.

3.5.6 Purposive Sampling

The purposive sampling can be described as a method of selecting samples within samples

(Patton, 2002; in Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009:387). Veal (2006) defined the purposive


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sampling as a method whereby individuals are selected on the basis of key criterion and other

factors. The various stakeholders (i.e. representatives from the public sector) were selected

through the purposive sampling method. However, the convenience sampling method was

used and as a result, all participant were contacted (at their organisation websites) via the

internet, this paved the way for the researcher to get organised before visiting

Northumberland.

To ensure a broad understanding of the topic, this small scale research intends to involve five

participants (i.e. public sector). The public representation came from some members of the

park authority (e.g. the funding officer and the park ranger) who are directly involved in the

management of NNP.

3.5.7 Interviews

The context of peoples behaviour is understood by researchers with the help of interviews

(Seidman, 2006). The researcher employed an in-depth interview in order to gain a clear

understanding of how park managers maintain and conserve their sites whilst justifying their

existence, social, cultural and natural value. This form of qualitative research method tends to

be much longer than questionnaire based interview and it is usually characterised by its

length, depth and structure (Veal, 2006). Interviews (if properly constructed) tend to be more

consistent because people are able to make meaning through language (Seidman, 2006). An

in-depth interview requires a comprehensive detail therefore the researcher organised one-to-

one interview with different stakeholders who participated in the research. The semi-

structured approach allowed probing to seek clarification and elaboration (Finn et al, 2000)

and it gave the interviewee enough room to speak freely whilst allowing the researcher to

steer the conversation towards interesting topics (Jennings, 2001; In Chin, 2009).


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The researcher contacted all interviewees using an email and arrangements were made

immediately the informants agreed to take part in the interview. In order to ensure

respondents convenience, the researcher allowed the informants to decide the location, date

and time the meeting will take place with the hope that the respondents will feel comfortable

(i.e. more open and willing to talk much longer when asked to voice out their opinions on

NNP) in the surroundings they look familiar to.

As suggested in the emails sent to respondents, the interview length was intended to last for

thirty minutes. The researcher perceived thirty minutes will be sufficient enough to gain

adequate amount of data from respondents without subjecting them to interview fatigue

thereby avoiding the collection of invalid data. However, some of the interview lasted more

(two hours) than the required time.

3.5.8 Interview Schedule

The interview was (tape recorded) split into two different sections (the background and the

objective). The background section comprises of questions which seeks to understand

respondents roles and experience within NNP to create a better understanding about their

informed opinions. This gave the researcher an insight on how knowledgeable the

respondents would be on subsequent topics. Also, the background questions (focusing

specifically on questions relating to the informant) built a rapport between the researcher and

the respondent, paving the way for the interviewee to feel relax while answering other

questions.

The objective section on the other hand comprises of questions which is directly related to the

project topic. These questions tend to create a platform on which to discuss how NNP

managers maintain and conserve their site while also highlighting the challenges they

currently face (particularly issues relating to funding) in ensuring sustainability within this


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endowed destination. This section also includes question which was designed to understand

the negative impact of tourism to NNP. Also, there were questions (in this section) which

seek to understand if the locals are allowed to participate in the management of the NP. In

addition, there were questions which were aimed to highlight the current sustainable projects

being undertaken by the park authority and to determine the success of those completed.

Furthermore, the latter part (of the objective questions) was based around the management

plan of the NNP and it includes questions which seek to understand if the management plan

has been successfully implemented.

3.5.9 Coding

After transcribing the data gathered from the interview, the need to code is imperative.

Coding is as technique used in the grounde

Documents

How Park Managers Maintain and Conserve Their Site Whilst Justifying the Social