HOW TO MAKE A GMO - Oglethorpe University

1/15/2019 How to Make a GMO - Science in the News

http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/how-to-make-a-gmo/ 1/22

AUGUST 9, 2015

BLOG, SPECIAL EDITION ON GMOS

HOW TO MAKE A GMO

by Chelsea Powell

�gures by Anna Maurer

Summary: Genetically modi�ed organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have been altered using

genetic engineering methods. Although genetic engineering is a common and essential practice

in biotechnology, its speci�c use in crops is controversial. The key steps involved in genetic

engineering are identifying a trait of interest, isolating that trait, inserting that trait into a

desired organism, and then propagating that organism. Methods for genetic manipulation have

rapidly improved over the last century from simple selective breeding, to inserting genes from

one organism into another, to more recent methods of directly editing the genome.

—

What quali�es as a GMO?

A common misconception is that any animal or plant considered to be outside the realm of our

reference for “natural” is a GMO. Images of abnormally large cows and tomatoes come to mind.

However, the scienti�c community and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) use a

stricter de�nition for a GMO: an animal or plant that has been created through genetic

engineering [1]. Genetic engineering is a term used to describe biotechnological methods used

by scientists to directly manipulate an organism’s genome. Under this de�nition GMOs do not

include plants or animals made by selective breeding, or animals modi�ed by being given

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hormone supplements or antibiotics. In fact, we do not currently eat any meat products

considered to be GMOs, although farm animals may be fed a genetically modi�ed crop [2].

The main goal of the majority of genetic engineering performed on food is to increase crop yield

and/or to improve the nutrient value in animal feed. No genetically engineered crops on the

market in the United States have been modi�ed to be unusually large (Table 1). Pictures of

extremely large vegetables used to support the “Franken-food” image of GMOs are probably not

GMOs at all; an unusually large vegetable would more likely be created through less

controversial methods of selective breeding or nutrient supplements, not genetic engineering.

The process of genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is widely used in biological research. Mouse models are engineered for

biomedical studies, bacteria are engineered to produce medications such as insulin, and crops

are engineered for agriculture. All of these products of genetic engineering were created using

the same basic steps: identifying a trait of interest, isolating that genetic trait, inserting that trait

into the genome of a desired organism, and then growing the engineered organism (Figure 1).

These steps are explained in detail below, using examples from Monsanto as the details of their

technologies are publicly available. Other major companies such as Syngenta, BASF, Dow, Bayer,

and Du Pont use similar methods, as outlined in brief on their respective websites [3, 4, 5, 6, 7].



Step 1: Identify a trait of interest

In order to identify a desirable new trait scientists most often look to nature. Successful

discovery of a new genetic trait of interest is often a combination of critical thinking and luck.

For example, if researchers are searching for a trait that would allow a crop to survive in a

speci�c environment, they would look for organisms that naturally are able to survive in that

speci�c environment. Or if researchers are aiming to improve the nutritional content of a crop,

they would screen a list of plants that they hypothesize produce a nutrient of interest.



An example of a trait currently in GMOs that was identi�ed through this combination of luck and

critical thinking is tolerance to the herbicide Roundup (see this article). Monsanto created

“Roundup Ready” plants after �nding bacteria growing near a Roundup factory that contained a

gene that allowed them to survive in the presence of the herbicide [8]. Although it is not on the

market in the United States, Syngenta has designed Golden Rice with an increased amount of

pro-vitamin A, which the human body may turn into the vitamin A (see this article). Researchers

at Syngenta identi�ed the gene sequence that produces pro-vitamin A and compiled a list of

plants to screen with that sequence [9]. With a little luck, there was a plant in nature, maize, that

contained a gene that would make Golden Rice produce pro-vitamin A at a level that could meet

the nutritional needs of vitamin A de�cient communities.

Step 2: Isolate the genetic trait of interest

Comparative analysis is used to decode what part of an organism’s genetic makeup contains the

trait of interest. The genomes of plants with the trait are compared to genomes in the same

species without the trait, with the goal of identifying genes present only in the former [8]. The

genomes of different species with the same trait may also be compared in order to identify a

gene, as was the case while developing Golden Rice [9]. If there is no database of genetic

information for comparison, scientists will purposefully delete, or “knock out,” parts of the

genome of interest until the desired trait is lost, thereby identifying the genes that lead to the

trait.

In order to expedite this process, Monsanto has developed and patented a method known as

seed chipping [8]. Through this method Monsanto shaves off parts of seeds for high-throughput

genetic sequencing while leaving the rest of the seeds viable for planting. This creates a genetic

database for plants before they are even grown, where a barcode system is used to match plants

to their genotypes. Researchers may then use this database to identify new traits of interest as

well as to optimize the desirable traits in a crop by selecting for the best genotypes based on

plant phenotypes.

Step 3: Insert the desired genetic trait into a new genome

Altering the genome of plant seeds is dif�cult due to their rigid structure. Many biotech

companies use “gene guns” that shoot metal particles coated with DNA into plant tissue with a

.22-caliber charge [8]. Monsanto no longer uses gene guns, but instead takes advantage of

bacteria, called Agrobacterium tumefaciens, that naturally invade seeds and alter plants by

inserting pieces of their own DNA into a plant’s genome.

In biotechnology research it is common to genetically engineer bacteria to produce a desired

protein. This is done by using enzymes to cut and paste a DNA strand of interest into a plasmid,

which is a small, circular molecule of DNA [10]. Bacteria are then shocked using heat or



electricity so that the cells accept the engineered plasmid. By modifying A. tumefaciens, which is

easier to modify than plant seeds themselves, researchers may use the bacteria’s naturally

invasive behavior as a Trojan horse for inserting desirable traits into a crop’s genome.

Step 4: Growing the GMO

After a genetic trait has been successfully inserted into an organism’s genome, the modi�ed

organism must then be able to grow and replicate with its newly engineered genome. First, the

genotype of the organisms must be checked so that researchers are only propagating organisms

in which the genome was modi�ed correctly.

Biotech companies invest large sums into keeping these plants alive and reproducing once they

have been successfully created. The companies use special climate-controlled growth chambers,

and biologists often check on the plants by hand to make sure that they are growing as expected

[8].

During this process biotech companies will use automated machines, such as Monsanto’s GenV

planter, in order to track plants and calculate optimal seeding and growth conditions to create

the best possible yields. GMO seeds often come with instructions on spacing and nutrition that

result from these studies.

Future directions for the creation of GMOs

Humans’ ability to modify crops for improved yields and nutrients in a given environment is a

keystone of agriculture. The technological advancement from selective breeding to genetic

engineering has opened up a large realm of possibilities for the future of our food. As techniques

for genetic engineering, such as new RNAi- and nuclease-based technologies that allow for

direct modi�cation of the genome (see this article and this article), steadily improve, our ability

to create new GMOs will also grow [11]. As our scienti�c capabilities expand it is essential that

we discuss the ethics and ideals surrounding GMOs so that we may effectively and safely use

this technology in a way that is acceptable to the public.



Table 1. Summary of the FDA’s Inventory of Completed Biotechnology Consultations on Genetically

Engineered Foods as of June 30th, 2015. Crops listed in order of relative abundance of genetically

engineered crop consultations (corn having the most consultations). This information is available to the

public:

http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=Biocon

Chelsea Powell is a PhD student in the Chemical Biology Program at Harvard University.

This article is part of the August 2015 Special Edition, Genetically Modi�ed Organisms and Our

Food.

References



1. “Questions & Answers on Food from Genetically Engineered Plants.” U.S. Food and Drug

Administration. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 22 June 2015.

http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/Biotechnology/ucm346030.htm

2. Cossins, Daniel. “Will We Ever Eat Genetically Modi�ed Meat?” BBC. BBC, 9 Mar. 2015.

http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20150309-will-we-ever-eat-gm-meat

3. http://www.syngenta.com/global/corporate/en/products-and-innovation/research-

development/rdapproach/Pages/research-areas.aspx

4. https://www.basf.com/en/company/research/our-focus/plant-biotechnology.html

5. http://www.dowagro.com/innovation/

6. http://www.cropscience.bayer.com/en/Products-and-Innovation/Research-and-

Innovation.aspx

7. http://www.dupont.com/industries/agriculture.html

8. Boyle, Rebecca. “How To Genetically Modify a Seed, Step By Step.” Popular Science. Popular

Science, 24 Jan. 2011. http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2011-01/life-cycle-genetically-

modi�ed-seed

9. Paine, Jacqueline A., Catherine A. Shipton, Sunandha Chaggar, Rhian M. Howells, Mike J.

Kennedy, Gareth Vernon, Susan Y. Wright, Edward Hinchliffe, Jessica L. Adams, Aron L.

Silverstone, and Rachel Drake. “Improving the Nutritional Value of Golden Rice through

Increased Pro-vitamin A Content.” Nature Biotechnology 23.4 (2005): 482-87.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15793573

10. “Genetic Engineering.” BBC. BBC, 2015. Web.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/guides/zg2bkqt/revision/2

11. Hsu, Patrick D., Eric S. Lander, and Feng Zhang. “Development and Applications of CRISPR-

Cas9 for Genome Engineering.” Cell 157.6 (2014): 1262-278.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867414006047

12. “Biotechnology Consultations on Food from GE Plant Varieties.” Biotechnology

Consultations on Food from GE Plant Varieties. FDA, 30 June 2015.

http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=Biocon

Share this:

53 thoughts on “How to Make a GMO”

471

MD.AL-AMIN MOJUMDER

MARCH 14, 2016 AT 8:59 AM



thanks for all info.they are very useful.

REPLY

akmal

JANUARY 24, 2017 AT 1:24 AM

good articel i using it right now for my experiment thanks

REPLY

Joe mom

OCTOBER 26, 2017 AT 11:25 AM

If cancer and AIDS had a baby, it’s this website

REPLY

Human5484

MARCH 21, 2018 AT 5:32 AM

what do you mean by this Joe mom

REPLY

Makenzi

AUGUST 28, 2018 AT 2:01 PM

yeah girl you right



REPLY

Jules

DECEMBER 9, 2018 AT 10:32 PM

If an idiot and an imbecile had a baby it would be you.

REPLY

dave?

JANUARY 7, 2019 AT 11:12 PM

why do you say this

REPLY

Pingback: gmo?! omg!? (part 1) | roastedroots

Pingback: All about GMO food | Deakin Communicating Science 2016

Sammo

OCTOBER 17, 2016 AT 6:12 PM

Very helpful!

REPLY



Cori


This is such a great article! Thank you so much for helping my understanding of this subject!!

REPLY

Daniel

NOVEMBER 30, 2016 AT 1:59 PM

Im doing a project on this and this website is so helpful

REPLY

dave?

JANUARY 7, 2019 AT 11:13 PM

yeet i agrEEEEEE

REPLY

akhtar abbas

DECEMBER 13, 2016 AT 6:02 AM

nice article brother

REPLY



Godwin


it’s really interesting but could you please in box me always

REPLY

Bob

FEBRUARY 1, 2017 AT 7:36 PM

(^-^) lol

Nice website good job.

REPLY

Ashton Fraser


Gene gun? My science teacher says it’s fake and there’s no such thing and this is a Harvard site, is

it true? Thanks

REPLY

SITNFlash

FEBRUARY 9, 2017 AT 8:19 AM

Gene guns are not fake–Wikipedia has a pretty good description of what a gene gun is.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_gun

Scientists call genetic engineering using a gene biolistic delivery.



REPLY

a person


wikipedia is a site where people can put and change anything i wouldnt trust it

REPLY

Lowe Lundblad

MARCH 22, 2018 AT 11:54 AM

http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0106930

Study only conducted on a certain topic but I have seen similar research on other

�elds of study concluding similar things…

Mostly Wikipedia is very accurate, especially so when viewing the English version.

REPLY

No one

SEPTEMBER 26, 2018 AT 2:12 PM

Wikipedia is never accurate before.

Teah




It probably is I am a science teacher at highland and I am preatty sure it’s true ive seen one

before

REPLY

a person


what do u teach ?

REPLY

Smi�y Boi

JUNE 10, 2018 AT 10:39 PM

Are you still alive after the shooting

REPLY

No one


yes man smiffy boi

REPLY

dominick young




this was very helpful to my group

REPLY

a person


ew

gmos i prefer GEs

REPLY

Kenarter


Very good website me and my group were very impressed by it

REPLY

LOTRlover


This is really amazing! My Biology teacher made us read this article, and it was much more

interesting than I thought it would be.

REPLY

Teah




@SITNFlash this website is more reliable than Wikipedia.

REPLY

SITNFlash


haha good point! The gene gun description on wikipedia is pretty good, though.

REPLY

monkeygod24


no dip

/////////////

REPLY

Barbara Larson


Great job. Very thorough.

REPLY

Isabelle

MARCH 2, 2017 AT 4:27 PM



Great website! It has lots of great info!

REPLY

Nomad

APRIL 8, 2017 AT 5:48 AM

Great website thank you.

Shame this is the end of “human”.

REPLY

Faladefemi

APRIL 8, 2017 AT 8:40 AM

Nice one here. Helpful for my seminar presentation.

REPLY

Cody

APRIL 19, 2017 AT 1:20 PM

This is a long good website.

REPLY

oguz

JUNE 15, 2017 AT 4:59 AM



Good job, thanks!

REPLY

Pingback: GMO ahead. It’s as safe as any other food. | Chad Hayes, MD

BigMummmmma


Lol xd not as good as USCs article

REPLY

Newton -


hahahah so true aye

REPLY

a person


i like �g newtons but sadly there named after a town in massachusetts and not after the

scientist ;(

REPLY



Laura


Would be interesting to share what you think in term of impacts on health when eating those

GMOs ?

REPLY

SITNFlash

JANUARY 4, 2018 AT 10:10 AM

We have articles on that as well– see here: http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/signal-to-noise-

special-edition-gmos-and-our-food/

Thanks for reading!

REPLY

Colin

JANUARY 22, 2018 AT 10:34 AM

This is very helpful for project I’m using on GMOs but can you tell me a list of tech they use in

making Genetically Modi�ed organisms

I’m looking for that speci�c thing. Other that website is extremely Helpfull to me keep up the

good work

REPLY

J




You have a typo in step 3 of the diagram, it should be insert not inset. Thanks for the simple

explanation though.

REPLY

CreativeName

APRIL 18, 2018 AT 4:37 PM

I expect these comments to be a little more scholarly, as of now I am unimpressed. You all fail in

life and on here.

REPLY

EZEKIEL OSINACHI PASCAL

MAY 4, 2018 AT 9:48 PM

THIS WORK IS SO NICE AND HAS HELPED ME AND OTHER RESEARCHERS IN THEIR WORK.

REPLY

BruddaFromMansion

MAY 7, 2018 AT 10:41 AM

Thank you for posting this Article, this has very much helped me with my project in my science

class. You’ve provided many information that I was able to Ace this !

REPLY

Gina



MAY 8, 2018 AT 3:13 AM

Thanks for your article. It was very helpful for me in breaking down the steps for GMO for a

project in my Biology Class. I know there are a lot more technical details involved with scienti�c

names I can’t pronounce, but when I’m only looking for the basic steps in layman terms, your

article is quite helpful.

REPLY

ryan gri�th

MAY 17, 2018 AT 10:31 AM

you guys copied Wikipedia here is the link

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modi�ed_organism

the edit history 2001 none of the edits show that they edited the de�nition of genetically

modi�ed organisms. therefore we can conclude that Harvard has copied Wikipedia you have

modi�ed the de�nition without giving credit to Wikipedia. get exposed.

REPLY

no one important


calm down everyoneeeee

REPLY

Ehsan Ullah




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HOW TO MAKE A GMO - Oglethorpe University