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ol r"r'r\,rlr()n',nr(rrr'ilrlilr|rVrllr r!lr,rl r:,lr,r1r1)(ililri,,ilr\',ilr ,l.r ,rrrrl.rl ,o\\rll(,,ilrrl,ilt',\\'('t \'(rilt ()\\'n (llt('r,li{)ns (:,r.r'( lr.tl'lr.r | \\'rrlrrr,,, I .,rrrrrrr,rlton,. (rlt

I rltr,rltttl"'). ll Vorr lr,tt,t'il \\,r'ilin1t, ,rssir',trrrrcrrl. r,1,,.,.r\.rlr.r', lrl,. llr.,,r. ,,rrrltcl1t 1,1v11 l(x trs lll()t'('t loscly ()n,y()ur t()[]i( srrt lr.rs, lr,r,r, l.'r, rrlr..r..r ..r.llrrr1,,

Wlt.tlt'r"t'l V()ttt"l)ttrp()sc, alwaVS tlkp go11cl 1()tes, itp(l l)llI r1 ,r:.; rrr,rrry tlt'l,rils,ttttl tt'sltotts('s (ls y()Ll ca11. l'lle rl()tes \,vill be invaluable to yotr .ls.l nlilt(l l'('

In'sht'r' .rrrrl irs a wellspring rtf thought.

Writing Essays on Literary Topics

liirrislrctl writin€l is the sharpened, focused expressior-l of thought and stucly.ll lrt'r',irrs with the search for sonrething to say-an idea. Not all ideas are eclual;:,( )rn(' ,u'(' [rctter than others, trnd getting good ideas is an ability tl'rat you will,lt'r'r'loP Ilrc more you think and write. As yclu discover idetrs and explainlltt'ttt itt $/()rcls, you will also improve your perceptions and increase your crit-rr,rl l,rt'rrltics.

lrt adclition, because literature itself contains the subject material (thoughrr,( i11 ;1 systematic way) of philosophy, religion, psycl-rokrgy, sctciology, ar-rd

Politics, learning to analyze literature and to write about it will also improveyorrr captrcity to deal with these and otl-rer disciplines.

Writing Does Not Come Easily-for Antlone

A rrra jor purpose of your being in college, of which your composition ancl lit-r'r',rture. course is a vital part, is to develop your capacity to think and to ex,

l)r1'ss your tl-roughts clearly and fully. Thinking is an active process that doesrroI happer-r accidentally. Thinking requires that you develop ideas, clraw con-t'lrrsions, exemplify them and support them with cletails, and connect every-tlrirrs in a coherent manner. It cloes not recluire you to retcll the events in;rstory or play, or to summarize the dctails clf a poem. Rather, your goal shouldl rt' 1o e xPlaitr the results of your thinking-your icleas, yotrr play r.rf mirrcl overllrt' nraterials of a work, your insights, your conclusions. Tl-ris is the ideal.

I lol.vcver, the process of crc.atirrg a successfully arguecl essav.-,-the actu-,rl P11r1-1'<s itself of writirre-is not automatic. Eve.n though wc Llse our lan-rlrr,rll('t'orlstantly, in all sorts of ways, orclinary conversation is not like writing.\Vlrt'rr lvc so to a store to buy sclrnething, we use languagc, usually augme.nteclI'r' I',irrtirrg ar-rd showing, to indicate our preferences. when we me.et peopler ,r',rr,rllv, lvt'irsk each other how we are, and maybe talk about the weathe4 anclllr,'tr ',,ry r',ootlbye and have. a good clay. When we spcak ou the phclne we dis-r t t',', lltr' ,tt tiolts irnd characteristics of our accluaintances ancl friends. When we

l',r, lo,r l),u'lv wc speak in a normal and friendly way to the peclple sitting nearn" llrr,'lr,r1,1x'11 tobehesitant,inexact,orrepetitious,thesocial circumstances,r. i',r',\' ,rrtl lxlrplg are tolerant, and so we go on. Because we manage fairlyrt , ll t ttr, ll t tltt'st' a ncl similar circumstances, we assulne that writing is just ..rs

r',r:'\'. ll l:, rrll,,rtt(l \\'('ltlll:'l tlt,l tlt'tt'tt't'ottt:;t'lvt's,tlrtttt[ [llt'lrt'lllcr" Wltt'tl'uvt'

1,,'llrr 1,, ryrrlr,,rrr r':i:;rr!, p1r'tlrptrl',lrls itt't'ttol t lt'.tr 1o trs; tlrc worcls tlort'I cot.ttc

rrttl r',t:;ilv. Wlr,rt lr.tPPt'rrsl

l lrt' lr.rrtlr is tlr,rt writing is ir special activity, similar to ordinary conversa-

liorr lrrrl nrut ll lrrort'de r.rrandir-rg. Writing begins in uncertainty and hesitation,

,r ntl it lrt'trrnrcs ccrtaiu and confident-accomplished-only as a result of great

cart" apPlit'cl thought, a certain amount of experimentation, the passage of

tirlc, ancl lnuch effort. When you read complete, polished, well-formed pieces

of writitrg, you might assume-as many of us do-that the writers wrote their

successful versions the first time they tried and never needed to make ar-ry

changes ancl improvements at all. Nothing could be further from the truth.

Ii you could see the early drafts of writing you admire, you would be sur-

prised and startled-but also encouraged-to see that good writers are alstr

i-u,r*url and that what they first write is often uncertain, va€lue, tangential,

tentative, incomplete, and messy. Usually, good writers do not like their first

drafts; nevertheless they work with their efforts and build upon them. They

reconsider their ideas and try to restate them, discard some details, add oth-

ers, chop paragraphs in half and reassemble the parts elsewhere, throw out

much (and then maybe recover some of it), revise or completely rewrite sen-

tences, cl-range words, correct misspellings, sharpen expressions, and add new

material to tie all the parts together in a smooth, natural flow'

Three Maior Stages in Thinking and Writing: Diqco-vering

Ideas,lVlaking initial Drafts, and Completing the Essay

For both practiced and beginning writers alike, there are three basic stages of

composition, and in each of these there are characteristic activities. ln the be-

ginning stage writers try to find the details and thoughts that seem to be right

io, ",r"rrtrrul

inclusion in what they are hoping to write. The next (or middle)

stage is characterized by written clrafts, or sketches-ideas, sentences/ Para-

gtolpnr. The final or completion stage is the forming and ordering of what has

freviouslybeen done---the creation and determination of a final essay. Although

ihese stages occur in a natural order, they are not separate and distinct, but

merge wilh each other and in effect are fused together. Thus, when you are close

to fiiishing your essay you may find that you need something else, something

^or", roro"ihing different. At this point you can easily re-create an earlier stage

to discover new details and ideas. You might say that your work is always ten-

tative until you regard it as finished or until you need to turn it in.

The Discovery of Ideas ("Brainstorming")

Let us assume that you have read the work about which you are ttl writt'irrttl

have made notes and observations like those described and illustratt'tl lrt'n'

You are now ready to think about what to include in your essay. This t',rt'lir"'l

Start reading here >>

l,lIt{ I ltrtltltt I

'.l,trit'ol \\'ltlttll', t:. utrlrrlrlrt l,rlrlt',1t(l :,()1t(,\\ lr,rl lrrr,,lr,rlrr1,, l,r,r.1t,,r,\{rlt ,1r,()ll (l s(ill( ll. \ittr tlo ll()l ktlo\V (luil('wlr,rl V()u \\',ltl. lor 1,rl ,ltr' tr,,t( lrrrrr,, orrlIot itlt',rs.rrrtl yorr (lr('n()t v('t srtr('wh.rt tlrt'y ,lt.. llu,, l,r,,,,,,,,, ,,l ,,r,,rri lrinli,ttttl tlisr'ovcry, als() callcd brainstorming, re(luir.(.\ yt,u l,r r.\,nnrr(,,rrry,rrrtlcv('ry subicct that your mitld can produce.

Just as you are trying to reach for ideas, hclwever, you als() slrorrkl try toilrtrclduce purPOSe and resolution into your thought. Ycru have to zertt in orrstmething specific, and develop your ideas through this process. Althoughwhat you first write may seem indefinite, the best way to help your thinkingis to put your mind, figuratively, into specific channels or grooves, and thellto confine your thoughts within thcse boundaries. what matters is to get yourmi'd going on a particular topic and to get your thoup;hts ciown .n paper oronto i'r computer screen. once you can see your thoughts in front of you, youciu.r work with them and clevelop them. Tl're following drawing can be help-iu I to yrlr-r i'rs an illustration of the various facets of a literary work, or ways oftirll<irrg about it.

Consider the work you have read-story poem, play-as tr-re central circle,fmm which a number of points, like the rays of a star; shine out, some of themprrxninently, others less so. These points, or rays, are the various subjects, or top-ics, that you might select in exploration, discovery, and discussion. Becauiesottlc c'lements in a work may be more significant than others, tl-re poir-rts are not,r ll t'tlrral in size. Notice also that tl-re points grow larger as they gef nearer to theivork, srrggesting that once you select a point of discussion y.r.t *ay amplify thatpoirrI with details and your own observations about the work.

'l'lrt're are many ways to consider literary works, but for now as a way clf

r',r'llirrr', startcd, you might choose to explore (1) the work's characters, (2) its his-t,r'rt ,rl pt'riorl and background, (3) the social and economic conclitions it depicts,(,1 ) rts rr r,r jor itk'as, or (5) any clf its artistic clualities.2 These topics, of course, have

lrrlr'llr.r rr illr ,trltliliort.rl krpics, the.se critical appnrerches arc cliscusscd irL more dctail in Ap,l)"r( lr\ .\

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rrr.rrrl'',rrl,lpl,rr:,, lrttl,ttty rtttr'pl lltt'ttt t,ttt lrt'llt yptr itt tltt'tptttt'ttlt,tttptt.ypttrr rll rr,,,,, 1 lor Irr'.t,,rnnrl1,, V()ul t,ss.rv (.tttrl .tlso lrlt'tl.tssrooltt tl isttrssiorr). All

\'('l n('('(l i:; ont' lo1rrt, jrrst ottt'; tlott'I try t'verytlrilrg at the satnt: tinlc. l,et

ur,:i(,('lrolv orrl illrrstr.ttiorr t.ttt be rcvised to acctlUnt fOr theSe tclpiCS. The

l,ornls ()r'r'(lvs illtrstratt'thc itlcas or;tpproaches we have just raised (with

,rrr ,rtltlitiorr,rl arrtl unnar.necl point to represent all the other approaches that

rrrir,,lrt lrt'rrst'tl). -fhcse pttints represent your ways of discovering ideas

,rlrorrt Ilrt'work.

AdditionalApproaches

5. ArtisticOualities

2. Historical Periodand Background

3. Social and EconomicConditions

Major ldeas

Study the Characters in the Work

It is not necessary to be a practicing psycl-rologist to discuss the people or chtrr-

acters that you fir-rd in a work (see also Cl-rapter 4). You need only to raise is-

sues about the characters and what they do and what they represent. What are

the characters like at the work's beginning? What happens to them? Do they

clo anything that causes then-r to change, and how are they changed? Are the

chanS;es for good or for bad? Why do the characters do the things they do?

What do they do correctly? What do they do incorrectly? Why? For example,

Mathilde is wrong not to tell Jeanne about her losing the necklace. sucl-r an im-

mediate admission of truth would save her and her husband ten years of hard-

ship and deprivation. But Mathilde doesn't tell the truth. why rrot? what dcr

we learn about her character because she avoids or ignores this admission? Is

her avoidance understandable? Why?

In discussing character, you might also wish to raise the issue of whetller

the people in the work do or do not do what might normally be expected fronl

people in their circtrmstances. Do they correspond to type? The idea herc is

that certain attitudes and behaviors are typical of people at particular strtgt's

of life (e.g., children behaving like children, lovers dealing with their affair, ;r

youn€t couplc coping with difficult finances). Thus we might ask clrtt'stiotts

about whether the typical circumstances experienced by the charactt't's ,t I lt'r I

them, either by limiting them in some way or by freeing them. What ,r tlilr rt lr ",

1. Characters

Tur Nlilrllo PntsnN'r'nN Arrt;ll\u N I

WHrru WRrrrruc Essnys Asou'l l,ll r,,rrnlrrrr

As you write about literature, you should always keep trying to conrrc,ctyour explanations to a specific argument; that is, you are writing abouta specific work, but you are trying to liroac-or demonstrste-a point oridea about it. This book provides you with a number of separate sub-jects relating to the study of literature. As you select one of these anclbegin writing, however, you are not to explain jusi that such-and-such astory has a character who changes and grows, or that such-and-such apoem contains the thought that nature creates great beauty. Rather, youshould demonstrate tl-re importance of your topic to the work as a wholein relatiolr to a specific point or argument. one example of an argumentmight be that a story's first-person point of view permits readers io drawtheir own conclusions about the speaker's character. Another argumentmight be that the poet's thought is shown in the poem's details aboutthe bustling sounds ancl sights rlf auimals in springtime.

It must the'rcfore be rcpcatetl and strcssecl that your writing shcluldalways h.'rvc.rr.r argtrnrt'nt.rtivc t'clge-a goal of demonstrating the truthol'votrr (r()n('lrrsi()lls irutl r'lirrifyinc irrrcl illuminating your ideas about theto1ri1' ;1',,1 irlso irborrI tlre work. lt is here that the accuracy of your choic-t's ol tlt'llils lrorrr thc work, thc soundness of your conclusions, and thet'rrrrrtrl.rlivt' wt'iglrt of your cvidence are essential. You cannot allow yourrrririrr iclcas to rcst on one detail alone, but must support your conclu-si,ns by showing that the bulk of material leads to them and that theyarc linked in a reasonable chain of fact and logic. It is such clarificationthat is the goal of argumentation.

t ltrtl,lr't I

seem typical of the characters? How do tl-rese attitudes govern what the char-acters do, or don't do? For example, one of the most typical circumstances oflife is marriage. According to the positive and ideal type of marriage, a hus-bar.rd and wife should be forthcoming with each otherjthey should tell eachother things and should not conceal what is on their minds. ir tn"y have prob-Icr.r.rs, they should discuss them and try to solve them together. In ,,The Neck-lace" we see that Mathilde and Loisel do not show these desired qualities,alrtl thcir absence of communication can be seen as a cause of their iir-rancialcatastrophe. However, during their long years of trouble tlley work together,they share a typical quality of honesty, and in this respect ihey fulfiii theirnrle, or type, as a married couple.

An analysis of typical attitudes themselves can also furnish you witl-r ma-terial for cliscussion. For example, Mathilde, who is a membei of the lower

r:, n() \\',rY llr,rl :;lrt't.trr Itli,ll',,'lllis r',,rP,,ttttl ltt't-lt ttslt.tliotl

lrrrsl,,rrttl lo i]i1',' ltt't't'ttottt:'lt lll()ll('y to livt'or-rt hcr clrcatrt,

I )tl rrtttirrr' !hc Work's llistoricsl Period and Background

,\n ol'r,iorrs toPir'is thc historical circumstances of the work. Wherr was thc

rvolk rvrittt'n/ llow wcll does it pclrtray details about life at the time it ap-

i)r,,il.t,tl l wlr.rt is historically uniclue about it? To what degree does it help yotr

i,',rlrr s,rnr'thing trbout the past that you did not prcviously know? What ac-

Irorrs in tlte wtlrk are like or unlike actions going on at the present time? What

tr,rrthlulrrcss to life clo you discover in the work? In "The Necklace," for ex-

,rnrpl1,, which was published more than a century ago, Mathilde's duty is to

st,ry at home as a irousewife-a traditional role-while her husband is the

t,,'rlity breaclwinner. After the loss of the r-Lecklace she can no longer afford

,l,ilnclstic help, and she is compelled to do all her own housework and her

own shopping. She has none of today's conveniences such as a dishwasher,

,r.licr,rwave, oicar. Her husband, a clerk or secretary-copyist, spends l-ris work-

irrg day copying business records by l-rand, for at the period of the story there

,".j." ,-ro typ-ewiiters or word processors. Discussing matters like these might

,rlso help ybu with works written during modern times, because our own as-

sUrnptic-[rs, artifacts, and habits will bear analysis and discussion.

Describe the social and Economic Conditions Depicted in the work

('losely related to the historical period, an obvious topic to Pursue in many

works is the social and economic condition of the characters. To what level of

life', economically, do the characters belong? Flow are events in the work re-

lated to their condition? How does their money, or lack of it, lirnit what they

t6? How do their economic circurnstances either restrict or liberate their imag-

irrations? How do their jobs and their apparent income determine their way

of life? If we ask some of tl-rese questions about "The Necklace," we find that

Mathilde and her husband are greatly burdened by their lack of money, and

also that their obligation to repay their huge loan drives them into economic

want and sacrifice.

An important part of the social and economic analysis of literature is the

consideraiion of female characters and what it means to be a woman. This is

the feminist analysis of literature, which asks questions like these: What role

is Mathilde compelled to take as a result of her sex and family background?

l{ow does Jeanne's way of life contrast with that of Mathilde? what carr

Mathilde do with her life? To what degree is she limited by her role. its .t

housewife? Does she have any chance of a vocation outside the home? I lolr'

does her economic condition cause her to yearn for better things? Whil I t ;t t t:;

es her to borrow the necklace? What is her contribution, as a w()l"nillr, ltt lltl

I'r, ltutttt,tt,, ) |

,lr,,,,,rlr:,l,rr lrorr,urrl rrnlr.rlrln(('\\'lllt lr,'t :'tttttttttttltttlis. As tllt'st()l'V l)l()1'11'ss

r,:,. llrt.,,lor'1,1,,11,.' llt(':,('nl:i lrtl ltt'rstttt.ttttl,tr'liotts tttort'olrjt'ttivt'ly.trltl itlstr

nr('tr.(li,,l,rrrllv. Anollrt'r',rllistit'.ll)l)r()il(ll w()ul(l lrc ttl clctcrtnine the story's

l), r llt,r'rr oI ,lt'r,t'loPrrrt'rr I lrow, t'ltrorrttlogicrrlly, the lclss of the necklace brings

lirr,rrrt i,rl rrrislorttrrrc to the Loiscls. We might also look for the author's inclu-

:;i11 pl sVltlr()ls i1 tfte stgry, such aS the name of the street where the Loisels

,,r.ir.,,in.rlly livt', the ir ltlove to an attic flat, or the roughness of Mathilde's hands

,)s ,l r('sult ()i ht'r c()nstant housework. There are many other ways to consid-

t'r llrt' lirrrrrirl aspects of a literary work.

Assembling Materials and Beginning to Write

Ity this tirne yc'ru will already have been focusing on your topic and will have

.tsscntblectl much that you can put intcl your essay. You sl-rould now aim to Lle-

vt'krp ptrragraphs and sketches of what you will eventually include. There is

nlLtch that you can do. You should think constantly of the point or algument

v()u want to develop, but invariably digressions will occur, together with other

tl ifficulties-false starts, dead ends, total cessation of thought, digressions,

tlcspair, l'ropelessness, and general frustration. Remember, horvever, that it is

inrportant just to start. jump right in and start writing anything at all-nonl.ttter how unacceptable your first efforts may seem-and force yourself to

tlcal with the materials. The writing down of ideas does not commit you. You

should not think that these first ideas are untouchable and holy just because

V()u have written tl-rem on paper or on your computer screen. You can throw

them out in favor of new ideas, you can make cross-outs and changes, and you

('.u1 move paragraphs or even sections around as you wish. However, if you

tlo not start writirrg, youl first thoughts will remain locked in your mind and

you will have nothing to work with. It is essential to accept the uncertainties

irr the writing process and make them work/or you rather than a.qalnsf you.

Builrl on Your Original Notes

vru need to get your mind going by mining your notebook or computer file

Ior useful things you have already written. Thus, let us use an observation in()ur original set of notes-"The attic flat is important," in reference to the poor-

(.r rooms where Mathilde and her husband live while they are paying back

their creditors. With such a nclte as a start, you might develop a number of

irleas to support an argument about Mathilde's charactet as in the following:

The attic flat is important. Early in the story, in her apartment, Mathilde is

drearny and impractical. She seems delicatc, but after losing the necklace,

she is delicate no longer. She becomes a worker after they move to the flat. Sht'

does a lot more when living there.

ln the flat, Mathilde has to sacrifice. she gives up her servallt, washes grt,asv

pots, clirtrbs st.rirs carrying buckets of water, sloshes water aroutrcl to t lt',ttt

floors, atrcl does all the clothes washing by hand.

t('l),t\,nt(,nl ol llrt'lo,rrr:,,'lilrorrltl Vl.rllrrltlt,:, lrrrrrlr.,l lrl, rrr I lr,.Ll,., l.l,r, r.., l,r,,(}ttr-ttlt'tt,tl ,rs,tlrt}litir,rl.il.riUilr0rtt ltlt. l,rt,,rlt,r. lri,r,, l,,rrrlrrt r1,,,,,,,,,,()111 1,1,,y1,:;l,rIt ,tsl'ittr', tltrt'stiorts_lil<t'Iltt'st', vorr will lirrtl llr,rl y'rrr llrrrrl. rr.ll r,, (lt.r,r,lp;r.ing irlonrt rvith yorrr iclcas lirr \4,ritir1g.

'l'he 11'rlrillist approaclr to the interpretation clf literattrrt' lr.rs lrt't.rr well es-t.rblishet'|, ancl it will usually provide you with a way to cjiscuss a work. lt is.rlso possible, clf course, to analyze what a work says about the cclnditiol ofLreing a ma., or being a chiid. Depending o. the *.',.k, -u.ry of the questionsirlportant in a feminist approach are not dissimilar to tl-rose you might trse ifyolr are dealing with childhood or male adulthoocl.

()ne of the most importar-rt social and economic topics is that of race andt'thnicity. What happens in ti-re work that seems tcl occui mainly because of thelirt't'of tl're characters? Is the autl-ror pointing out any deprivatitins, any absence.l rrpportunity, any oppression? what do the charact-ers do uncler such cir-t'u nrstances? Do they succeed or not? Are they r-regative? Are they angry? Arethcy resolute and determirred? your aim ir-r an inquiry of this type sliould be[o concentrate on actions and ideas in the work that are clearly ielated to race.

Explain the Work's Major Ideas

one of the major ways of focusing on a work is to zero in on various ideas arrdvalues or issues to be discovered there. what ideas might we gair-r from the

:t-r.I 9l the lengthy but ^eedless

sacrifice and drudgery experienced byMathildc and her husband? one obvious ancr acceptarte lala is presented bythe speaker; namely, that even the smallest, most accidental incicient can causelrnmense consecluences. This is an idea that we might expand and illustratein an entire essay. Here are some other ideas that we also might pursue, all ofthem based on tl-re story's actions.

' Ma'y actions have unforeseeable and u'controllable consecluences.r Lack of communication is a major cause of hardship.. Advcrsity brings otrt a character,s good qualities.. Mutual effort enables people to overcome difficulties.

'fhcse ideas are all to be found in Maupassant's story. In other works, of course,w. may find comparable ideas, in addition to other rnajor ideas and issues.

Learn About and Describe the Work,s Artistic euatitiesI lrt'rc are many possible topics for studying a work's artistic qualities, but ba-sit',rlly here you may consider rnatters such as the work's pLan or organiza-li.rr arrcl the author's narrative method, writing style, or poetic tecluriques.'llrrrs, i. "The Necklace," we observe that almiist ihe e.tire story deveiopsr'illr Mirtlrilde at the center (narrative method; see also Chapter 5, on point.I

'it'rr'). At first, the story brings us close to Mathilde, for we are told ,rf h".

,l rl0 r' l'tr'luttnttl lt

,'\lllt,trrt'lrlltt';r1r'1 11)rt:,:,('nl('n(('llt()nli:i(':, lorlr",,rrl,r',rrrrrlr'.r rlrlilr",nottri,tr'llt,rtt :,ttntttt,rr izt' llrt':il()r'y':- ln.ri()r',r( liorr. ll n('r,(l:, ,rrlrlrlr.rr,rl r.llrrrrl rrrr', ,ttt,l

r('l)lr',rsilrt Io rrritkt'it rrtort'tornPrt'lrt'rtsivt',,r* irr llrt':,r'l\\'o rlvr:.ron:,.

Irr "'l'ht'Nr'ckl.rcc" Mar-r;rt-tssant brings otrt thc rtcccssity Io ovt'rtonrt r))rs

lakcs thnrugh harcl rt,ork and rcsponsibility.

Mauprill;1;i1111's surprise ending in "The Necklace" symbolizes tl-re need for al-

w.rys lreing truthfrrl.

IJoth rrew sentences are connected to the action described by the original pluas-ing, "Mathilde and her husband work hard to pay for thc lost necklace," a7-

thotrgh they pclint toward differing treatments. The first sentence concernsthe virttrc shown by the Loisels in their sacrifice. Because the second sentence

int'ltrclcs the word symholizes, an essay stemming from it would stress theLoiscls' mistake in not confessing the loss. In dealing with the symbolic mean-ing of their failure, an essay developed along the lines of the second sentence

would focus on the negative aspects of their characters, and an essay devel-opcd from the first sentence would stress their positive aspects. Both of the re-

visc.d sentences, therefore, are more comprehensive than the original sentence

imd tl'rus would help a writer get on the track toward a thoughtful and ana-

lytical essay.

Of course it is never easy to create fine sentences, but as a mode of im-provement, you might use some self-testing mechanisms:

For trcating stonl rnnferinls. Always relate the materials to a point or argu-

ment. Do not say simply that "Mathilde works constantly for ten years tohelp pay off the debt." Instead, blend the material into a point, like this:"Mathilde's ter-r-year effort shows her resolution to overcome the horror ofindebtedne.ss," or "Mathilde's ten-year effort brings out her strength ofcharacter."

For rcsponsas untl in7trcssions. Do not say sirnply, "The story's ending left me

with a clefinite impression." Where does that sentence take you? Yourreaders want to know what your impression is, and therefore you need to

describe it, as in the followirrg: "The story's ending surprised me and also

made me svmpathetic to the n'rajor charactc-r," or "The story's endingstruck rne rvith the unpredictability and unfairness of life."

For idms. Make the idea clear and direct. Do not say, "Mathilde is living ina poor householcl," but rather use the story material to bring out an idea,

as follows: "Mathilde's story shows that livinp; in poverty hurts the qual-ity of a person's life."

Ior critical cornmantttry. Do not be satisfied with a statemcnt such as "lIotrrrd 'The Necklace' interestinp;." All right, the story is interesting, butrvhat does that tell us? Instead, it is important to try to describe what wasrrrlt'rt'sting and wlly it was interesting: "I found 'The Neckiace' interestingl)r'(iruse it shows how chance and bad luck may either make or destroy

l',', 'l'lt"s lives."

( ,oorl tt ttlirrr', lrrr',rn:, rlrllr ,rllt'rrrlrls lo rt'1r111',15,1'st'lrtt'ntcs [o rrtakc tltcnr rcal-11, ,,,lq,.r,rrrrcllrir11',. ll yorr ,rlrvirys lliultr'ancl pin clown c'lescriptions, rc.sporlscs,

,rrrtl jrrtlr',rrrt'rrls, no nrirttt.r how cliiiictrlt the task seems, your sentences can be

slrorrri ,r ntl lorce f trl because you will be n-raking then'r exact and comprehensive.

Usrr.ic rHE NAMES oF AurHoRSWHrru WnmrNc Anour LrrrRATuRr

For both men and women writers, you should typically include the au-

thor's fuII nsme in the first sentence of your essay. Here are model first sen-

tences:

Ambrose Bierce's story "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" features

both suspense and horror.

"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge," by Ambrose Bierce, is a storyfeaturing both pathos and sr-rspense.

For all later references, use only last namcs, such as Bicrct', Cl'tckhoa, orHardy. However, for the "giants" of literaturc., you shoulcl use. the last

names exclusively. In referring to writers like Shakespeare ancl Co-

leridge, for example, there is no need to include Willinm ot Slntual.

In spite of today's informal standards, do not use an author's firstname, as in " Ambrose skillfully creates pathos and suspensc in 'An Oc-currence at Owl Creek Bridge."' Also, do not use a social title before the

names of dead authors, such as "Mr. Bierce' s 'An Occurrence at OwlCreek Bridge' is a suspenseful horror story," or "Mr Shakespeare's idea

is that information is uncertain." Use the last names alone.

As with all conver"rtions, of course, there are exceptions. If you are

referring to a childhood work of a writer, the first name is appropriate,but be sure to shift to the last name when referdng to the writer's ma-

ture works. If your writer has a professional or a noble title, such as

ludge, Goaernor, Mayor, Lord, Queen, King, Prime Minister, or President, itis not improper to use the title. Even then, however, the titles are com-

monly ornitted for males, so that most references to Lord Byron and A1-

fred, Lord Tennyson, should be simply tt\ "Byton" and "Tennyson."Referring to living authors is somewhat problematical. Some jour-

nals and newspapers ,like The Nettt York Times, often use the respectfultitles Mr. and Ms. in their reviews. Flowever, scholarly journals, whichare likely to remain on library shelves for rnany decades, follow the gen-

eral principle of beginning with the entire name and then using onlythe last name for subsequent references.