in the soybeans is decomposed into amino acids and thesugar in the wheat mainly into glucose. Also in moromi,salt-tolerant lactic acid bacteria induces laticfermentation, which produces lactic acid. Next, salt-tolerant yeast induces alcoholic fermentation, givingrise to over 300 different aromatic compounds. As themoromi matures, the amino acids and sugar compoundsin the moromi slowly give it a brownish color.

Finally, the mixture is heated to sterilize it and adjustthe color, a process that also gives it a magnificentroasted fragrance, or higa. The finished shoyuincorporates a variety of aromas, including vanillin (themain ingredient in vanilla essence), a pleasant smokedfragrance similar to that found in whisky and coffee,and an almost brandy-like fragrance. Shoyu is also ladenwith flowery and fruity aromas, and its spiciness gives itan international appeal. As a result, shoyu goesextremely well with meat. It is often referred to as anall-purpose fermented seasoning, as it incorporates thefive basic tastes of sweetness, saltiness, sourness,bitterness, and umami. In fact, the popularity oftraditional Edo period dishes, such as tempura, soba orudon noodles, kabayaki (broiled eel), tsukudani (foodsimmered in shoyu), and sushi, can be partly attributedto the development of quality shoyu. Shoyu is also themain seasoning in various modern Japanese dishes, suchas sukiyaki and yakitori (grilled skewered chicken).Shoyu has played an important role in Japanese cuisine,including such daily dishes as simmered vegetables,beans, and yams, as well as other foods, such as pickles.

Today, shoyu can be found in powdered andgranulated forms in addition to the traditional liquid

FOOD CULTURE 54 FOOD CULTURE

The kanji character combination now used for the wordshoyu (soy sauce) is said to have first appeared in Japanduring the mid-Muromachi period (1336-1573). Themethod for making Japanese shoyu was not established,however, until the early Edo period (1603-1867), and itwas not until the late Edo period that the method wasperfected using its present ingredients (soybeans andwheat).

An important part of the shoyu manufacturingprocess is making the koji. Koji is a fermenting agentmade by breeding koji-mold on steamed grains, such asrice, and is an essential ingredient in the production offermented foods. Koji has played an important role indeveloping certain unique aspects of Japanese culinaryculture. Many of this country’s traditional fermentedfoods, such as shoyu, miso (soybean paste), sake,shochu (a distilled spirit), mirin (sweet cooking sake),amazake (a sweet beverage made from rice koji), ricevinegar, some varieties of tsukemono (pickles), andsakamanju (sake flavored dumplings), are made usingkoji. In other words, it is impossible to discuss traditional

Japanese culinary culture without mentioning koji.Koji-mold actively produces enzymes that

decompose protein and starch. It is used as shoyu-koji(koji-mold culture), which is made by mixing steamedsoybeans and roasted wheat, and then adding tane-koji(a seed starter of koji-mold). Salt water is added to thisshoyu-koji to make moromi (mash). In moromi protein

Kikkoman Institute for International Food Culture

Shoyu (Soy Sauce)

Source: Shimousa shoyu jozo-no-zu, in the Dainihon-bussan-zueProperty of Kikkoman Corporation

boiled, salted and eaten as edamame.A new look at the nutritional value of soybeans

has revealed that the proteins they contain are theequivalent of animal proteins. Scientific research hasbegun to demonstrate that soybeans are endowedwith properties that may prevent cancer, some life-style related diseases, and certain chronic conditions.It has also been discovered that the fermentation ofsoybeans produces certain constituents within thebeans that are beneficial to the health.

The diverse climates within the Japanesearchipelago are reflected in the various foods createdby using fermented soybeans: the fermentedproducts of each region carry their own distinctiveflavors. Dishes such as tempeh, kinema and jiang arejust a few examples of the wide variety of fermented

soybean foods found throughout Asia – a clear signthat the versatile soybean may be considered thestarting point in the exploration of Asia’s dietaryculture.

Today, however, fermented soybean foods are nolonger considered strictly categorized within eitherthe Japanese or Asian food cultures – this traditionalfoodstuff of the Orient has now been recognizedworldwide as essential to any healthy diet. Here wepresent a picture of these foods: their history,characteristics and how they are prepared.

Soybeans contain large quantities of proteins andlipids, rendering them so nutritious that they aresometimes referred to in Japan as the “meat of thefields.” Originally a crop that preferred coolclimates, soybeans were at first grown only in China,Japan and other parts of Asia; today they aresuccessfully cultivated in the United States and intropical climates as well, including South Americaand Africa.

In Japan, soybeans play a key role in the dailydiet. They appear on the table in the form of typicalfermented foods, such as shoyu, miso and natto(fermented soybeans); and are enjoyed in popularprocessed foods such as tofu, abura-age (fried tofu),soymilk and nimame (cooked soybeans). At theirsimplest, succulent young soybeans are simply

Fermented Soybean Foods in Daily LifeFermented Soybean Foods in Daily Life

�

Pasteurized

Examination

Bottled

Koji-mold

Production of Brewed Shoyu

Koji

Raw shoyu

Complete product

SoybeansWheat

Moromi mash

�

Brine added

Pressed

Koji Production Stage ①�

②�

③�

Shoyu cake

Shoyuoil

Incubated for 3 days to produce Roasted and crushed

Soaked in water and steamed

Lactic acid bacteria Mash Fermentation Stage

Refining Stage

Brine

Yeast

Fermentation for mash to mature

Shoyu (Soy Sauce)

Japanese stingfishcooked in shoyu

Potatoes, green beansand beef simmered inshoyu

Seaweed salad

Sushi

Sukiyaki

6 FOOD CULTURE FOOD CULTURE 7

Sweet white rice miso

Sweet red rice miso

Relatively sweet light-colored rice miso

Relatively sweet red rice miso

Relatively salty light-colored rice miso

Relatively salty red rice miso

Relatively sweet light-colored barley miso

Relatively sweet red barley miso

Relatively salty red barley miso

Red soybean miso

Hokkaido miso

Tsugaru miso

Sendai miso

Relatively salty barley miso

Edo sweet miso

Saikyo white miso

Sanuki miso

Relatively sweetred barley miso

Relatively sweet light-colored barley miso

Echigo miso

Sado misoShinshu miso

Red soybean miso

Ai white miso

Naka miso

Fuchu miso

Distribution of miso in Japan

Variety of Futsu Miso (standard miso)Variety Flavor (sweet or salty) Color (tone of color) Koji rate (rice/soybean) 10 Salt percentage (%) Major brands & districts where produced

Rice miso Sweet miso White 20-25 5-7 Saikyo white miso (Kyoto)Red 13 6 Edo red miso (Tokyo)

Relatively sweet miso Light-colored 8-10 10 Ai white miso (Shizuoka)Red 10-20 11-13 Naka miso (Hiroshima)

Relatively salty miso Light-colored 8-10 12-13 Shinshu miso (Nagano)Red 8-10 12-14 Sendai miso (Miyagi); Sado miso (Niigata)

Barley miso Relatively sweet miso Light-colored 20 9-11 KyushuRed 15-25 9-11 Kyushu; Shikoku; Chugoku

Relatively salty miso Red 10 11-13 Saitama; TochigiSoybean miso Relatively salty miso Red 0 10-12 Aichi/Mie; Gifu

Feature: Fermented Soybean Foods in Daily LifeFeature

ReferencesYokotsuka, T. and Sasaki, M. “Fermented Protein Foods in the Orient: Shoyu and Miso in Japan.” Microbiology

of Fermented Foods. Ed. Brian J.B. Wood. Blackie Academic & Professional, 1985. 351-415.Fukushima, Danji. “Industrialization of Fermented Soy Sauce Production Centering around Japanese Shoyu.”

Industrialization of Indigenous Fermented Foods. Ed. K.H. Steinkraus. Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989. 1-88. Hamano, Mitsutoshi. “Water Activity and Water Behavior of Soy Sauce, Dehydrated Soy Sauce and the

Improvement on Hygroscopicity of Dehydrated Soy Sauce.” Developments in Food Engineering—Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Engineering and Food. Ed. T. Yano. Blackie Academic &Professional, 1994. 179-181.

Miso & NattoKan Kiuchi, Ph.D., Professor Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Kyoritsu Women’s University

Miso & NattoIntroductionThe influence of Buddhism in traditional Japan led tovarious restrictions on the consumption of animalproducts other than fish. For this reason, people had toobtain vital proteins through the skillful use ofsoybeans.

Both miso (soybean paste) and natto (fermentedsoybeans) are said to have originated in China, but onceintroduced into Japan they inspired the development ofa variety of unique local soybean-based products. Now,some 1,000 years later, miso and natto have becomefirmly established as part of the traditional Japanesediet. A range of different methods are used tomanufacture them, and the finished products arepresented in a variety of containers and used inhundreds of different ways.

Whole soybeans are used to make natto, and because

only a single variety of natto mold is used in thefermentation process, the beans retain their originalshape. Miso, on the other hand, is fermented using lacticacids, yeast, and tane-koji (mold starter), and whilesome of the texture of the beans is retained, the finishedproduct is in the form of a paste. Here we will look atthe position held by miso and natto in the Japanese dailydiet.

type. Powdered shoyu and shoyu in granulated form areused in instant soups, ground seasonings, frozen foods,sweets, processed meat products, and liquid seasonings.

Japanese shoyu was exported to Europe throughinternational trade between the Netherlands andNagasaki (see compra bottle below). There is a sectiondedicated to shoyu in the Encyclopédie edited by therenowned French philosopher Denis Diderot in 1772, inwhich the superior qualities of Japanese shoyu areintroduced.

Japanese shoyu has developed from a symbol ofcultural exchange to one of cultural fusion. It is nowused in a wide variety of dishes such as pizza, teriyaki

salmon, steak with shoyu-based sauce, salad dressingand meatloaf. No doubt it will continue to be used indifferent forms of cooking all over the world.

Text by Mitsutoshi Hamano

Used for the first time in the Japanese foodindustry in 1977 by Kikkoman and in manydifferent ways since then.

PET Bottles

Used since the Taisho period to present day.

Glass Bottles

Used since the Taisho period (1912-1926) topresent day. (The particular type photographedis not in use today.)

Cans

Used from the Edo period until the higheconomic growth period after World War II.

Casks

Used from the late Edo period until thebeginning of the Meiji period as a containerfor exporting shoyu from Nagasaki to theNetherlands.

Compra Bottles

Powdered shoyu: Used inprocessed foods, such as soupsfor instant ramen noodles.

(Table 1)