Human-Centered ComputingHuman-Centered Computing- a brief history- a brief history

John CannyJohn Canny1/19/051/19/05

The Academy (387 BCE)The Academy (387 BCE)

Plato founded Plato founded “The Academy” in “The Academy” in 387. 387.

It lasted for nearly It lasted for nearly 900 years.900 years.

The Academy’s entry codeThe Academy’s entry code

““Let no-one ignorant ofLet no-one ignorant of geometry enter here” geometry enter here”

Plato’s perspectivesPlato’s perspectives

Plato’s philosophy was one of Plato’s philosophy was one of absolutes (perfect “forms”), absolutes (perfect “forms”), which nature imitates. which nature imitates.

He abhorred democracy, and He abhorred democracy, and favored rule by “philosopher rulers.”favored rule by “philosopher rulers.”

For Plato, art was an inferior endeavorFor Plato, art was an inferior endeavorto science. Since it imitated life, it wasto science. Since it imitated life, it wastwo steps removed from perfection.two steps removed from perfection.

Aristotle’s PoeticsAristotle’s Poetics

Aristotle wrote and taught on most Aristotle wrote and taught on most subjects known at the time, andsubjects known at the time, andcreated many that were not. created many that were not.

Aristotle’s “Poetics” discussed tragedy, Aristotle’s “Poetics” discussed tragedy, epic poetry, painting, music,…epic poetry, painting, music,…

Aristotle re-elavated poetics and the arts Aristotle re-elavated poetics and the arts alongside science, in opposition to Plato. alongside science, in opposition to Plato.

His poetics defined formal criticism until His poetics defined formal criticism until Renaissance times. Renaissance times.

The New World (ca 1860)The New World (ca 1860)

The 1860sThe 1860s

America is fighting an ideological America is fighting an ideological war that is deeply divisive: war that is deeply divisive:

““..if civilization and progress are the better things, ..if civilization and progress are the better things, why they will conquer in the long run, we may be why they will conquer in the long run, we may be sure, and will stand a better change in their proper sure, and will stand a better change in their proper province—peace—than in war, the brother of province—peace—than in war, the brother of slavery…it is slavery’s parent, child and sustainer at slavery…it is slavery’s parent, child and sustainer at once..”once..”

-Oliver Wendell Holmes-Oliver Wendell Holmes

The 1870sThe 1870s

A “metaphysical club” forms at Harvard including A “metaphysical club” forms at Harvard including C.S. Peirce, William James, O.W. Holmes and others. C.S. Peirce, William James, O.W. Holmes and others.

Peirce, best known as a mathematician, is using the Peirce, best known as a mathematician, is using the term “pragmatism” for a new theory of knowledge. term “pragmatism” for a new theory of knowledge.

The project was much bigger and more complex than The project was much bigger and more complex than Peirce’s work. But a unifying thread was its rejection Peirce’s work. But a unifying thread was its rejection of ideological absolutes. of ideological absolutes.

William JamesWilliam James

Studied painting, chemisty, anatomy, Studied painting, chemisty, anatomy, natural history in several universities.natural history in several universities.

He completed his MD at Harvard in 1869. He completed his MD at Harvard in 1869. He never practiced. He never practiced.

Shifted to psychology and philosophy, eventually Shifted to psychology and philosophy, eventually landing a teaching position at Harvard in 1874. landing a teaching position at Harvard in 1874.

James was the best-known architect of pragmatism. James was the best-known architect of pragmatism.

He preferred the term “humanism,” but Peirce’s term He preferred the term “humanism,” but Peirce’s term stuck. stuck.

PragmatismPragmatismPragmatism short-circuited many of the Pragmatism short-circuited many of the age-old tensions in philosophy: age-old tensions in philosophy:

between subject and objectbetween subject and object

between logical validity and moral qualitybetween logical validity and moral quality

between thought and judgmentbetween thought and judgment

The emphasis was on The emphasis was on actionaction and its likely outcomes. and its likely outcomes.

Pragmatism disarmed heavy debate with an Pragmatism disarmed heavy debate with an evolutionary perspective: thoughts which improve evolutionary perspective: thoughts which improve one’s situation (and societies) are “good”. Those that one’s situation (and societies) are “good”. Those that do not are “bad”. do not are “bad”.

PragmatismPragmatism

Pragmatism implies that knowledge creation is an Pragmatism implies that knowledge creation is an essentially human endeavor. essentially human endeavor.

There are no “deeper truths” to be discovered, There are no “deeper truths” to be discovered, beyond what people believe that serves them well.beyond what people believe that serves them well.

At the same time, religious truth is as valid as At the same time, religious truth is as valid as scientific truth. Both are social constructions with scientific truth. Both are social constructions with social merit. social merit.

Pragmatism in actionPragmatism in action

Pragmatism is an applied philosophy. Its validity Pragmatism is an applied philosophy. Its validity derives from its social impact – which would be derives from its social impact – which would be nothing except through its application. nothing except through its application.

That includes That includes Psychology through the work of James, Psychology through the work of James, Education via John Dewey,Education via John Dewey, Law through the work of O.W. HolmesLaw through the work of O.W. Holmes Mathematics and Logic via PeirceMathematics and Logic via Peirce Art, criticism, theories of knowledge throughArt, criticism, theories of knowledge through contemporary writers. contemporary writers.

In Europe…In Europe…In 1900 there were two leading philosophers in In 1900 there were two leading philosophers in Europe.Europe.

Henri Bergson was a predecessor of Merleau-Henri Bergson was a predecessor of Merleau-Ponty and Piaget, and an ally of the pragmatists. Ponty and Piaget, and an ally of the pragmatists.

Bertrand Russell was a logician, Bertrand Russell was a logician, and the author of “A History of and the author of “A History of Western Philosophy”. Western Philosophy”.

Bergson seems to have been Bergson seems to have been pre-eminent in his lifetime. pre-eminent in his lifetime.

In Europe…In Europe…By the turn of the century, mathematics had finally By the turn of the century, mathematics had finally completed some critical “housekeeping” of its completed some critical “housekeeping” of its foundations. foundations.

In David Hilbert’s 1900 Math Society address, In David Hilbert’s 1900 Math Society address, he proposed a bold program for the he proposed a bold program for the mechanization of mathematics and physical mechanization of mathematics and physical sciences.sciences.

Automobiles, Flight, the Paris exposition, heralded Automobiles, Flight, the Paris exposition, heralded the way to a “technology century.” The 1914-18 the way to a “technology century.” The 1914-18 war removed any doubt. Bergson did not survive it. war removed any doubt. Bergson did not survive it.

And in Russia…And in Russia…

Post-revolutionary Russia was establishing Post-revolutionary Russia was establishing itself as a Marxist state. itself as a Marxist state.

Its intellectuals set about creating an idealIts intellectuals set about creating an ideal

society. This was the era ofsociety. This was the era of

Sergei Eisenstein in film,Sergei Eisenstein in film,

Stanislawsky in acting (“method”), Stanislawsky in acting (“method”),

Rodchenko, Kandinsky in painting, Rodchenko, Kandinsky in painting,

Shostakovich in music,Shostakovich in music,

Mikhail Bakhtin in literature,Mikhail Bakhtin in literature,

and... Lev Vygotskyand... Lev Vygotsky

Lev VygotskyLev Vygotsky

Vygotsky was an extraordinary scholarVygotsky was an extraordinary scholarwho studied Law, and taught Literature, who studied Law, and taught Literature, History of Art and Psychology by age 22. History of Art and Psychology by age 22.

For many scholars of this time, Marxism provided a For many scholars of this time, Marxism provided a unifying framework for scientific, social science, and unifying framework for scientific, social science, and aesthetic discourse. aesthetic discourse.

Vygotsky took it very far, developing theories of Vygotsky took it very far, developing theories of knowledge, development, and education that were knowledge, development, and education that were profoundly influential. His other major influence was profoundly influential. His other major influence was William James.William James.

Vygotsky - EducationVygotsky - Education

Vygotsky is (with Piaget) the leading education theorist Vygotsky is (with Piaget) the leading education theorist of the early 20of the early 20thth century. century.

Vygotsky’s social theory of learning – Vygotsky’s social theory of learning –

Like Piaget he insisted that children learn by Like Piaget he insisted that children learn by constructing their own understanding of the world they constructing their own understanding of the world they experience. experience.

Unlike Piaget, he insisted that “the world” experienced Unlike Piaget, he insisted that “the world” experienced by children is a social, rather than a natural one. i.e. by children is a social, rather than a natural one. i.e. games, toys, and books are social constructions that games, toys, and books are social constructions that embody social norms and expectations for the child. embody social norms and expectations for the child.

Vygotsky – Genetic methodVygotsky – Genetic method

Another of Vygotsky’s key ideas is his “genetic” domains:Another of Vygotsky’s key ideas is his “genetic” domains:

1.1. Onto-genesis: Development by an individual Onto-genesis: Development by an individual

2.2. Socio-historical: Development of the societySocio-historical: Development of the society

3.3. Phylo-genesis: Development of the (human) speciesPhylo-genesis: Development of the (human) species

4.4. Micro-genesis: Creation of ideas & concept learningMicro-genesis: Creation of ideas & concept learning

His social theory involves the interplay between 1. and 2. His social theory involves the interplay between 1. and 2.

Thus Vygotsky’s approach interleaves methods that Thus Vygotsky’s approach interleaves methods that would be regarded as both scientific and humanistic. would be regarded as both scientific and humanistic.

Vygotsky – MediationVygotsky – Mediation

Perhaps Vygotsky’s greatest philosophical Perhaps Vygotsky’s greatest philosophical contribution was his formulation of “mediation” – contribution was his formulation of “mediation” – the intelligent use of tools for a purpose. the intelligent use of tools for a purpose.

And among tools, language is the most important And among tools, language is the most important mediator. mediator.

Human use of mediation develops, individually and Human use of mediation develops, individually and socially, following genetic principles. socially, following genetic principles.

Vygotsky – MindVygotsky – Mind

Vygotsky’s approach involves accounts of both mind Vygotsky’s approach involves accounts of both mind and consciousness. But they have pragmatist roots, and consciousness. But they have pragmatist roots, rather than Idealist derivation. rather than Idealist derivation.

Mind and higher mental functions are natural Mind and higher mental functions are natural (productive) behaviors that rely on mediation (productive) behaviors that rely on mediation through language. through language.

Vygotsky and Leont’ev - Vygotsky and Leont’ev - ActivityActivityAnother important contribution was theAnother important contribution was the“Theory of Activity,” mostly developed “Theory of Activity,” mostly developed after Vygotsky’s death by Leont’ev. after Vygotsky’s death by Leont’ev.

Object

Tool

Subject

Activity TheoryActivity Theory

Activity theory has been paradigmatic through much Activity theory has been paradigmatic through much Soviet social science. It is also well-established in the Soviet social science. It is also well-established in the social sciences in Scandinavia, and has been widely social sciences in Scandinavia, and has been widely applied. applied.

It is used in social science, HCI, computer-supported It is used in social science, HCI, computer-supported cooperative work, and learning research in groups in cooperative work, and learning research in groups in both Europe and the US. both Europe and the US.

Activity theory fits well with Vygotsky’s other Activity theory fits well with Vygotsky’s other principles – the genetic method, mediation, and principles – the genetic method, mediation, and consciousness.consciousness.

A. R. LuriaA. R. Luria

Luria was a psychologist working in Luria was a psychologist working in early post-revolutionary Russia. early post-revolutionary Russia.

He was able to study Russian peasants with little or He was able to study Russian peasants with little or no formal education. His book “Cognitive no formal education. His book “Cognitive development..” gives an extraordinary snapshot of development..” gives an extraordinary snapshot of “natural” human thought without the influence of “natural” human thought without the influence of school learning. school learning.

BakhtinBakhtin

Mikhail Bakhtin is another extraordinary Mikhail Bakhtin is another extraordinary scholar from Vygotsky’s time (1895-1975).scholar from Vygotsky’s time (1895-1975).

A direct connection with Vygotsky is unclear. Their A direct connection with Vygotsky is unclear. Their theories are often linked together by “socio-theories are often linked together by “socio-historical” scholars (Wertsch, Chaiklin,…). Bakhtin historical” scholars (Wertsch, Chaiklin,…). Bakhtin waswas associated with a Bergsonian school in Russia associated with a Bergsonian school in Russia at that time.at that time.

Bakhtin and DialogicalityBakhtin and Dialogicality

For Bakhtin, utterances (and texts) are filled with For Bakhtin, utterances (and texts) are filled with “dialogic” overtones. “dialogic” overtones.

That is, we understand utterances by “answering” That is, we understand utterances by “answering” them. them.

The greater the number and weight of our The greater the number and weight of our “answering words”, the deeper our understanding. “answering words”, the deeper our understanding.

Structuralism in linguisticsStructuralism in linguistics

Around 1900 in France, F. Saussure Around 1900 in France, F. Saussure was founding the “structuralist” was founding the “structuralist”

school of linguistics. school of linguistics.

In Saussure’s version of semiotics, a “sign” In Saussure’s version of semiotics, a “sign” comprises a “signifier” and a “signified” (a concept). comprises a “signifier” and a “signified” (a concept).

Note that “signified”s are not thought of as “things Note that “signified”s are not thought of as “things in the world”.in the world”.

A linguistic approachA linguistic approach

In the strongest interpretations of structuralism, In the strongest interpretations of structuralism, mental concepts, and thought itself, depend on mental concepts, and thought itself, depend on language.language.

In one example, Saussure contrasts the English In one example, Saussure contrasts the English words “river” and “stream” with the French words words “river” and “stream” with the French words “fleuve” and “riviere”. “fleuve” and “riviere”.

They seem similar but a French fleuve flows They seem similar but a French fleuve flows into the sea while a riviere flows into a fleuve. into the sea while a riviere flows into a fleuve. So there is no corresponding So there is no corresponding conceptconcept for an for an English speaker to either fleuve or riviere. English speaker to either fleuve or riviere.

Post-structuralismPost-structuralism

Although most of his work pre-dated the movement, Although most of his work pre-dated the movement, Bakhtin is often considered a post-structuralist. Bakhtin is often considered a post-structuralist.

Julia Kristeva: “Intertextuality” Julia Kristeva: “Intertextuality” – texts always borrow from other texts– texts always borrow from other texts

Jacques Derrida: there is no “hors-texte” Jacques Derrida: there is no “hors-texte” – corpora are always open – corpora are always open

: deconstruction : deconstruction

– – socio-historical analysissocio-historical analysis

Post-structuralismPost-structuralism

Roland Barthes: “Writerly and Readerly texts” Roland Barthes: “Writerly and Readerly texts”

– – the reader (re-)creates meaningthe reader (re-)creates meaning

Michel Foucault: a book is a “node within Michel Foucault: a book is a “node within aa

network” of texts…network” of texts…

Claude Levi-Strauss: Authorship as “bricolage”Claude Levi-Strauss: Authorship as “bricolage”

History of ScienceHistory of Science

But surely there are some facts that are just “true”, But surely there are some facts that are just “true”, and e.g. science should escape the “slipperiness” of and e.g. science should escape the “slipperiness” of post-structuralist analysis?post-structuralist analysis?

Bruno Latour built his career studying the Bruno Latour built his career studying the process of “construction” of knowledge process of “construction” of knowledge in science. He showed it was a social and in science. He showed it was a social and political process and involves protracted political process and involves protracted negotiationnegotiation of truth. of truth.

He is also a pioneer of “Actor-Network Theory” – a He is also a pioneer of “Actor-Network Theory” – a generalization of social networks.generalization of social networks.

Personality and Social Personality and Social InteractionInteractionIf meaning and concepts are socially constructed, what If meaning and concepts are socially constructed, what about personality, social roles and social Interaction? about personality, social roles and social Interaction?

These questions were studied by Erving These questions were studied by Erving Goffman.Goffman.

Goffman developed a “dramaturgical” Goffman developed a “dramaturgical” approach – social behavior as a performance. approach – social behavior as a performance. “Impression management” is one of the primary goals.“Impression management” is one of the primary goals.

Goffman also developed a “linguistic method” to Goffman also developed a “linguistic method” to understand social relations. understand social relations.

Language as Symbolic ActionLanguage as Symbolic Action

The notion of texts as a kind of symbolic action The notion of texts as a kind of symbolic action runs deep through the works of Kenneth Burke runs deep through the works of Kenneth Burke (who wrote “Language as symbolic action”). (who wrote “Language as symbolic action”).

This perspective provides an intuitive description of This perspective provides an intuitive description of activity:activity:

An activity is a “theme” within a factual narrative of An activity is a “theme” within a factual narrative of some subjects’ actions over time. some subjects’ actions over time.

Thus we have a strong link between two fields: Thus we have a strong link between two fields: human modeling and text analysis.human modeling and text analysis.

Berkeley 2005Berkeley 2005

How can this possibly relate to information How can this possibly relate to information system design? system design?

It takes several years to answer this It takes several years to answer this question.question.

We will do what we can in this course… We will do what we can in this course…

Computational LinguisticsComputational Linguistics

Computational linguistics began with a Computational linguistics began with a mathematical view of language: Language was a mathematical view of language: Language was a kind of universal informal logic. kind of universal informal logic.

By attaching the right meanings (formulae) to terms, By attaching the right meanings (formulae) to terms, reasoning would be possible. reasoning would be possible.

Had the authors of this work ever read Luria, its Had the authors of this work ever read Luria, its hard to imagine them pursuing this as far as they hard to imagine them pursuing this as far as they did. did.

Statistical LinguisticsStatistical Linguistics

The entire frontier of computational language today The entire frontier of computational language today is statistical and pragmatic (in the linguistic sense). is statistical and pragmatic (in the linguistic sense). i.e. it is driven by real texts that are “representative” i.e. it is driven by real texts that are “representative” of the social language being studied. of the social language being studied.

This happened for purely empirical reasons, and This happened for purely empirical reasons, and does not appear to link to the bulk of (non-does not appear to link to the bulk of (non-structuralist) linguistics. structuralist) linguistics.

On the other hand post-structuralist views (and On the other hand post-structuralist views (and Bakhtin) provide much more compelling Bakhtin) provide much more compelling explanations of basic phenomena in language. explanations of basic phenomena in language.

The statistics of wordsThe statistics of words

Almost all texts exhibit a peculiar distribution of Almost all texts exhibit a peculiar distribution of word probabilities called a “Zipf” distribution. word probabilities called a “Zipf” distribution.

This is very difficult to explain in behaviorist terms, This is very difficult to explain in behaviorist terms, but follows naturally when writing is treated as a but follows naturally when writing is treated as a socially-situated practice.socially-situated practice.

The statistics of the web etc.The statistics of the web etc.

Many other social artifacts follow a Zipf distribution, Many other social artifacts follow a Zipf distribution, including the web. including the web.

They follow from a generative process in which They follow from a generative process in which artifacts are appropriated by authors in proportion artifacts are appropriated by authors in proportion to their encounters with the artifacts in life. to their encounters with the artifacts in life.

LivenotesLivenotes

Livenotes creates small workgroups (4-7) in large Livenotes creates small workgroups (4-7) in large lecture classrooms using wireless networking.lecture classrooms using wireless networking.

Pen computers are used to mark up skeletal lecture Pen computers are used to mark up skeletal lecture pages, in Powerpoint. pages, in Powerpoint.

A Livenotes screenA Livenotes screen

Transcript analysisTranscript analysis

6 deployments over 3 years, > 1600 pages of 6 deployments over 3 years, > 1600 pages of notes…notes…

What we expected to find:What we expected to find:

Students engaging in discussion with each other Students engaging in discussion with each other over the notes, a cue to cooperative learning. over the notes, a cue to cooperative learning.

While there was plenty of dialogue in graduate While there was plenty of dialogue in graduate courses, it was largely absent in (Computer Science) courses, it was largely absent in (Computer Science) undergraduate courses. undergraduate courses.

Students’ models of the lecture (transcribe notes), Students’ models of the lecture (transcribe notes), and their own learning (listen and read notes later), and their own learning (listen and read notes later), was completely different from ours. was completely different from ours.

What we did find:What we did find:

Dialogical note-taking by students – Dialogical note-taking by students –

Students “answering words” to the Powerpoint Students “answering words” to the Powerpoint bullets abounded. Powerpoint seems to be an ideal bullets abounded. Powerpoint seems to be an ideal “rhetorical” medium, which stimulates dialogue.“rhetorical” medium, which stimulates dialogue.

Some students even described the experience as Some students even described the experience as more like a “conversation” with the Professor (than more like a “conversation” with the Professor (than traditional note-taking). traditional note-taking).

From the beginning our project had appealed to From the beginning our project had appealed to Bakhtin, but we had failed to listen to him carefully. Bakhtin, but we had failed to listen to him carefully.

SummarySummary

The estrangement of science and the humanities is The estrangement of science and the humanities is a consequence of particular human history. It has a consequence of particular human history. It has been, and is otherwise in certain places and times. been, and is otherwise in certain places and times.

This is something people working in HCI should This is something people working in HCI should probably try to work around, because most of the probably try to work around, because most of the research on “humans” is outside of science (i.e. in research on “humans” is outside of science (i.e. in the humanities). the humanities).

SummarySummary

For (sensible) historical reasons, HCI and Cog. Sci. For (sensible) historical reasons, HCI and Cog. Sci. have drawn from a biased set of perspectives from have drawn from a biased set of perspectives from social science and humanities – structuralism, social science and humanities – structuralism, idealism, reductionism…idealism, reductionism…

The concepts from those perspectives were The concepts from those perspectives were “accessible” to experiment and simulation. “accessible” to experiment and simulation.

But today, those constraints are largely gone. E.g. we But today, those constraints are largely gone. E.g. we have access to “social languages” (corpora), and can have access to “social languages” (corpora), and can easily process more text than a person reads in a easily process more text than a person reads in a lifetime. lifetime.

SummarySummary

At the very least, its important to understand some At the very least, its important to understand some approaches that have had very broad applicability approaches that have had very broad applicability across social sciences and humanities.across social sciences and humanities.

These included the “historical” or “developmental” These included the “historical” or “developmental” approach (Vygotsky’s genetic method), and the approach (Vygotsky’s genetic method), and the “linguistic” approach. “linguistic” approach.

Reading for next timeReading for next time

Chapters 2-4 of “How People Learn”.Chapters 2-4 of “How People Learn”.

This is an NRC (National Reseach Council) report on This is an NRC (National Reseach Council) report on the state of the art in education theory. Its written the state of the art in education theory. Its written by many of the leaders in education research today. by many of the leaders in education research today.

The content is “scientific” and should be an easy The content is “scientific” and should be an easy read. But look also for ideas from today: that read. But look also for ideas from today: that learners “actively construct” knowledge in realistic learners “actively construct” knowledge in realistic (everyday) contexts. (everyday) contexts.