Human Dimensions of the Conflicts between People and Jaguars (Panthera onca) in Brazil

HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF THE CONFLICTS BETWEEN

PEOPLE AND JAGUARS (PANTHERA ONCA)

IN BRAZIL

Photo by Arne Sucksdorff

A thesis submitted for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Silvio Marchini

Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Department of Zoology

Linacre College, University of Oxford

Hilary Term 2010

ii

ABSTRACT

Human dimensions of the conflicts between people and jaguars (Panthera onca) in Brazil

Silvio Marchini

Linacre College

Doctor of Philosophy

Hilary 2010

The most urgent issue in jaguar conservation is the killing of jaguars by humans. In addition

to turning the killing of jaguars an illegal practice throughout most of the species range,

conservationists have approached jaguar killing within the framework of human-wildlife

conflicts, and concentrated on ways to decrease the economic damage caused by jaguars. We

hypothesized, however, that the ultimate motivation for persecution was not the loss of

livestock to jaguars (or attacks on humans – which are very rare), but rather the perceived

potential for these threats and for their impact on human livelihoods. We also hypothesized

that jaguar killing was not strictly retaliatory, and that the perceptions that determine the

human behaviour of killing jaguars were amenable to change through education and

communication. In the following chapters, we investigated people‟s perceptions of jaguar

impact on human livelihood in Amazonia and the Pantanal within the theoretical framework

of conservation psychology; the development of such perceptions in young people, their

influences on jaguar killing, and how to change them through education and communication.

Our study showed that perceptions behind the conflicts between people and jaguars in Brazil

have more to do with social and psychological factors than previously considered, and

therefore may be more amenable to change through education and communication than

generally believed. As predicted, we found perceptions of jaguar impacts on livestock to be

important elements in conflicts between people and jaguars, but they are not the only

predictors of the intention to kill jaguars. Fear, personal and social motivations, and internal

and external barriers to killing jaguars can also influence jaguar killing behaviour. The

relative importance of these factors in determining intention to kill varies with region and

affluence. Livestock loss is relevant, but it acts in combination with attitudes, knowledge and

perceptions of the economic situation to determine how people perceive the impact jaguars

have on their livelihoods. Attitudes and knowledge, in turn, are influenced by age, gender and

whether respondents live in urban or rural areas. We found that school-based communication

interventions can have a powerful effect on perceptions of jaguars among pupils, and that

pupils can successfully transfer that effect to their fathers. In our communication experiment,

fathers were influenced not only by the information explicitly conveyed in the content of

books and their children‟s homework, but also by the implicit message that a community

institution (e.g., the local school) - and therefore other community members - support jaguar

conservation more than they had realised. If jaguar killing in rural Brazil is to be prevented,

conservationists will need to find and support ways to make jaguar killing not only illegal and

unprofitable, but also socially and personally unacceptable.

iii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to

Manoel „Manolo‟ Pacheco (in memoriam),

for his friendship and unconditional support to my work,

and for taking me to the most stunning place on Earth: Amazonia.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely thank my supervisor David Macdonald. His cordial advice during planning, field

work, analysis and writing of this thesis was invaluable. It has always been a great honour

working under his supervision. I also thank Sandra Baker for reviewing the chapter drafts and

Paul Johnson for providing statistical advice. Their help was most appreciated. I would like to

thank the other members of the WildCRU who provided support of some sort – intellectual,

logistical or moral – during these last five years: Christos Astaras, Alan de Barros, Dawn

Burnham, Adam Dutton, Merryl Gelling, Lauren Harrington, Jorgelina Marino, Thomas

Merckx, Tom Moorhouse, Greg Rasmussen, Philip Riordan, Diana Roberts, Claudio Sillero,

Lucy Tallents and Alex Zimmermann. Special thanks to Andrew Taber, for supporting my

coming to Oxford, and to Erika Cuellar for sharing with me the bittersweet adventure of being

a South American backcountry person in Oxford.

My studies at the University of Oxford would have not been possible without the generous

financial support of Kevin Duncan, or of the Robertson Big Cat Conservation Fellowship

received from the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), and grants from the Iris Darnton

Foundation and the People‟s Trust for Endangered Species. Field work in Amazonia and the

Pantanal was supported by the Whitley Fund for Nature, Anglo American, HSBC Brazil, O

Boticario Foundation, Fauna & Flora International, Chester Zoo, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo,

Woodland Parks Zoo and Floresta Amazonica Hotel. I am also grateful to the following

public schools in Alta Floresta: Mundo Novo, Ouro Verde, Aluízio Azevedo, Rui Barbosa,

Jaime Veríssimo de Campos, Guimarães Rosa, Benjamin Pádua, Geni Silverio, Marinês de Sá

Teixeira and Presbyterian.

I wish to thank Vitória da Riva. Dona Vitória brought me to Alta Floresta and ever since then

has been instrumental in turning the dream of the Escola da Amazônia into reality. Thanks to

all the people at the Cristalino Ecological Foundation (FEC): Márcia de Col Farias, Luiz

Cézar Dias Jorge and Thamiris Mendes for their help with administrative matters, and André

Araújo, Marie Petretto, Viviani Pereira and Queli Ferreira Silva for their assistance in the

field and data processing. I am particularly grateful to Claudio Vicenti and Tiago Henicka for

their assistance, companionship and for showing me the way – sometimes dusty and other

times muddy – to the properties and schools of rural Alta Floresta. I also thank Alexandre

Faria for facilitating my first contacts with ranchers in Amazonia and enthusiastically sharing

v

with me his seemingly endless knowledge about the region and its wildlife. Special thanks to

Ricardo „Osmosis‟ Luciano, my co-author of People and Jaguars: a Guide for Coexistence.

His talent and passion for the project were much appreciated.

I am grateful to Rafael Hoogesteijn for translating the Guidelines for Coexistence into

Spanish and so enthusiastically supporting its printing; to Howard Quigley, Alan Rabinowitz

and Peter Crawshaw for writing the prefaces for the Spanish and Portuguese versions of the

book, Howard also translated it into English; to Edson Grandisoli, my partner in crime, for

keeping Escola da Amazônia alive while I was busy writing this and for taking that awesome

photo of the jaguar in the Pantanal; to José Márcio Ayres (in memoriam) for introducing me

to the world of Conservation and changing for the better the course of my career; and a

special thanks to Renato Aparecido Farias, my irmão in Alta Floresta, for being there 24/7,

always willing to help. His goodwill and support were simply vital to this project.

Very special thanks to my father Toninho Marchini, my mother Anna Maria and my sister

Maria Angela for their love and endless support. They are the only ones who know the long

and crooked path I took to get here. And very very special thanks to my wife Cris, whose

belief in my ability and confidence that one day I would finish, despite my groans to the

contrary, made this work possible. I am eternally grateful for her love, patience and

understanding.

Finally, I want to express my gratitude to the almost 600 adults and over 1100 children and

adolescents in Amazonia, Pantanal and São Paulo who gave up their time to share with me

their thoughts and feelings about the most fascinating representative of the Brazilian fauna:

the onça-pintada!

Contents

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES

xi

CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF THE

CONFLICTS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND JAGUARS IN BRAZIL

1

Introduction 1

Conflicts between people and jaguars 3

Conflicts between people and jaguars in Brazil 3

Jaguar impact on people. 4

Human impact on jaguars 6

Mitigating human-jaguar conflicts by changing jaguar behaviour 7

The human dimensions approach to understanding and predicting

conflict

9

Human dimensions of wildlife 9

Human dimensions of the conflicts between people and jaguars 9

The human dimensions approach to mitigating conflicts 12

Understanding, predicting and changing human behaviour 12

Mitigating human-jaguar conflicts by changing human behaviour 15

Study areas 16

Amazonia 18

Pantanal 20

São Paulo city 22

Structure of the thesis 22

CHAPTER 2 PERCEPTIONS OF JAGUARS AMONG CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS IN BRAZIL: IMPLICATIONS FOR

CONSERVATION

25

Introduction 26

Review and hypothesiss 27

Methods 30

Results 36

Experience and knowledge 36

Prominence 39

General perceptions 44

Contents

vii

Concern and attraction 47

Sources of information 48

Discussion and conclusions 50

CHAPTER 3 PERCEPTIONS BEHIND THE CONFLICTS BETWEEN

PEOPLE AND JAGUARS IN BRAZIL

56

Introduction 57

Methods 62

Photograph interpretation experiment 68

Results 71

Perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods 71

The effect of region, land use and place of residence 77

Predicting perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihood 79

Photograph interpretation experiment 84


CHAPTER 4 FROM PERCEPTIONS TO PERSECUTION: CONFLICTS

BETWEEN PEOPLE AND JAGUARS

91

Introduction 92

Linking attitudes to behaviour: the Theory of Planned Behaviour 93

Extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour 95

Modelling jaguar persecution 97

Methods 99

Results 105

Differences between Amazonia and Pantanal 105

Predicting intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia 106

Predicting intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal 110

Relationship between intention and behaviour 114


CHAPTER 5 SCHOOL-BASED APPROACHES FOR IMPROVING

PERCEPTIONS OF JAGUAR AMONG CHILDREN AND

THEIR FATHERS ON THE AMAZON DEFORESTATION

FRONTIER

124

Introduction 125

Changing perceptions: information and elaboration 126

Disseminating perceptions: intergenerational learning and modelling 129

Methods 130

Results 137

Information and elaboration 138

Intergenerational learning 142


Contents

viii

CHAPTER 6 GENERAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FUTURE RESEARCH

150

Findings 150

Implications 151

Future directions: zooming out for a broader perspective 155

Jaguars versus pumas 155

Conflicts between humans over jaguars 156

From ecological to multidisciplinary to interdisciplinary approaches 157

From ranch to region to range 158

After all, can people and jaguars coexist? 159

LITERATURE CITED 162

APPENDIX I THE JAGUAR IN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS IN BRAZIL

172

APPENDIX II QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 173

APPENDIX III PHOTOGRAPHS OF DEAD LIVESTOCK 181

APPENDIX IV A GUIDE FOR COEXISTENCE: ACTIVITY BOOKS 183

APPENDIX V ELABORATION EXERCISE 191

APPENDIX VI PEOPLE AND JAGUARS: A GUIDE FOR COEXISTENCE 192

APPENDIX VII JAGUARS, LIVESTOCK AND PEOPLE IN BRAZIL:

REALITIES AND PERCEPTIONS BEHIND THE CONFLICT

204

APPENDIX VIII CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF HUMAN-CARNIVORE

CONFLICTS IN WILD RANGELANDS

228

APPENDIX IX OTHER COMMUNICATION MATERIALS 252

List of tables

ix

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1.1 Reported number of people killed by large carnivores in the 20th

Century

(Loe and Roskaft, 2004)

6

1.2 Study areas addressed in each data chapter. 17

2.1 Results of analysis of variance of knowledge of, concern about, and

attraction towards jaguars by students‟ gender, age1, place of residence

(rural/urban)2 and location3

38

2.2 Percentage of respondents whose answer to the question “Of all animals,

the jaguar is the most…?” revealed their prevalent perception of the jaguar

to be threatening, attractive or endangered.

45

2.3 Relative importance of different sources of information about jaguars:

importance scores and rank (between parenthesis) by location and age

class.

48

3.1 Summary statistics for each socio-economic variable and results of general

linear models, Tukey tests and χ2test comparing variables among sample

groups (p < 0.05; groups indicated by the same letter were not significantly

different).

72

3.2 Factor loadings and eigenvalues for the two factors extracted using

Exploratory Factor Analysis to describe perceptions of jaguar impact on

human livelihood. Variables selected to construct the final scales are shown

in bold.

73

3.2 Summary statistics for perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and

human safety and results of general linear models and Tukey tests

comparing these variables among sample groups (p < 0.05; groups

indicated by the same letter were not significantly different).

75

3.4 Summary statistics for experiences, attitudes and knowledge about jaguars,

perception of change in jaguar abundance and perception of the economic

situation, and results of general linear models, Tukey tests and χ2test

comparing these variables among sample groups (p < 0.05; groups


76

3.5 General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on livestock in

Amazonia. Results shown in bold are significant.

80

3.6 General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on human

safety in Amazonia. Results shown in bold are significant.

81

3.7 General linear models of the effect of socio-economic variables on the

factors that significantly affected perceptions of the impact of jaguars on

human livelihoods in Amazonia. Results shown in bold are significant.

82

3.8 General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on livestock in

the Pantanal. Results shown in bold are significant.

83

3.9 General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on human

safety in the Pantanal. Results shown in bold are significant.

84

3.10 General linear models of the effect of socio-economic variables on the

factors that significantly affected perceptions of the impact of jaguars on

human livelihoods in the Pantanal. Results shown in bold are significant.

85

4.1 Comparison of variables between Amazonia and Pantanal; means, standard

deviations (SD) and GLM results.

106

List of tables

x

4.2 Pearson correlations between variables and Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients

(shown on main diagonal) for respondents in Amazonia. Results shown in

bold are significant.* p 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.01. NB: A= Cronbach‟s alpha not

computed (single measurement).

107

4.3 Results of GLM predicting intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia. 108

4.4 Results of GLM examining the effect of perceived impact of jaguars on

livestock, and on human safety, and of property size, on the extended TPB

variables that influenced intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia.

109

4.5 Pearson correlations between variables and Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients

(shown on main diagonal) for respondents in the Pantanal. Results shown

in bold are significant.* p 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.01. NB: A= Cronbach‟s alpha

not computed (single measurement).

111

4.6 Results of GLM predicting intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal. 112

4.7 Results of GLM examining the effect of perceived impact of jaguars on

livestock, and on human safety, and of property size, on the extended TPB

variables that influenced intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal.

113

4.8 Proportion of Amazonia respondent who had and had not killed jaguars in

the previous five years, who did and did not intend to kill them in the

future.

115

4.9 Proportion of Pantanal landowners who had versus had not killed jaguars in

the previous five years, and who did versus did not intend to kill them in

the future.

115

5.1 Mean scores standard deviations for, and paired t-tests between, pre-test,

post-test and delayed post-test on pupils‟ perceptions of jaguars.

139

5.2 Mean scores standard deviation for, and paired t-tests between, pre-test

and post-test on fathers‟ perceptions of jaguars.

144

List of figures

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 Historical and current jaguar distribution range 7

1.2 Map of Brazil showing (a) biomes, (b) expected areas of conflict between

people and jaguars over livestock based on jaguar occurrence and cattle

density (Silveira et al. 2008), and the three study areas: 1) southern

Amazonia; 2) northern Pantanal; and 3) São Paulo city.

16

1.3 Maps of the Brazilian Amazon showing the study area (red ellipses), (a)

deforested areas (grey), and (b) the „Arc of Deforestation‟ and ecoregions.

18

2.1 Percentage of respondents reporting a jaguar sighting (shown white), family

livestock depredation by jaguars (rural students only) (shown black), and

acquaintance with a victim of jaguar attack (shown grey).

37

2.2 Mean knowledge scores by age (● 10-11, ● 12-13, ● 14-15, ● 16-17, ● 18-

19) and location. Bars represent the 95% confidence interval for mean.

38

2.3 Cognitive prominence (black bars) (percentage of respondents who

mentioned various taxa first when asked “cite three animals that you know

to occur in the nearest forest”) and associated sighting rate (white bars)

(percentage of respondents who reported ever seeing the taxon in the wild)

in a) Amazonia (n=862), b) Pantanal (n=147) and c) Sao Paulo city (n=118).

40

2.4 Affective prominence (percentage of respondents in a) Amazonia (n=882),

b) Pantanal (n=147) and c) Sao Paulo city (n=118) who cited the taxon when

asked “What animal do you like most?” (white bars) and “What animal do

you dislike most?” (black bars). Sorting based on the summated citations for

like and dislike.

41

2.5 a) Mean cognitive prominence of jaguars by age class (● 10-11, ● 12-13, ●

14-15, ● 16-17, ● 18-19) and location, and b) mean negative affective

prominence (dislike) by location. Bars represent 95% confidence intervals of

the mean.

43

2.6 Most prevalent perception of jaguars (threatening, attractive, endangered or

other) by location and place of residence.

45

2.7 Mean standardized scores for a) concern, and b) attraction, by gender (○

female, ■ male) and location. Bars represent the 95% confidence interval for

mean.

46

3.1 Perception of jaguar impact on livestock: difference between neighbouring

ranches and own ranch (positive values mean higher impact on neighbouring

ranches and zero means no difference) and property sizes in Amazonia and

Pantanal.

74

3.2 Relationship between perception of jaguar impact on livestock and attitudes

to jaguars at different levels of knowledge (scores 1 and 2: R2 = .460 and

scores 3 and 4: R2 = .198) among cattle ranchers in Amazonia. The

relationship was not significant for knowledge scores 5 to 7.

80

4.1 Diagrammatical representation of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. 95

4.2 Final model showing intention to kill jaguars in the Amazonia deforestation

frontier.

110

4.3 Final model showing intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal. 114

5.1 Diagram showing assignment of pupils and fathers to experimental

treatments (and sample sizes). Dashed lines indicate that fathers were not

132

List of figures

xii

aware of the involvement of their children‟s school in the study.

5.2 Variation in pupils‟ perceptions of jaguars between pre-test, post-test and

delayed post-test in response to the following treatments: control (◊),

information (●), elaboration (▲), and information plus elaboration (■). *

denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p <0.01.

140

5.3 Variation in attitudes towards jaguars and jaguar killing between pre-test

and post-test among pupils exposed to elaboration alone (▲ and Δ) and

elaboration and information combined (■ and □). Solid shapes denote

positive initial attitudes while hollow shapes denote neutral and negative

initial attitudes. * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p <0.01.

143

5.4 Variation in fathers‟ perceptions of jaguars between pre-test and post-test in

response to the following treatments: control (◊), book via conservation

organization (○), book via child‟s school (●), child‟s homework (▲), and

book via child‟s school plus child‟s homework (■). * denotes p < 0.05, **

denotes p <0.01

145

Chapter 1 - Introduction

1

CHAPTER 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN DIMENSIONS OF

CONFLICTS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND JAGUARS IN BRAZIL

To start with, I had to know something about the people, the country and the trees. And of the

three, the first was the most important.

Gifford Pinchot

Introduction

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is one of the most charismatic species of conservation concern in

Central and South America. From the ancient rituals of indigenous communities (Saunders

1998), to classic literature (Cunha 1954; Lobato 1933; Rosa 1968) and painting (e.g., Debret,

Florence, Rugendas, Vanderbuch), to tourism marketing images, and the current Brazilian

fifty-real bill, the jaguar has been - more than any other species in the continent - celebrated

as a symbol of power and beauty. Nonetheless, jaguars are not always welcome in rural areas

and their presence can be intolerable for many people. Ironically, this intolerance is rooted in

the similarity between jaguars and us, human beings. Jaguars and humans are approximately

the same size, we both eat meat, and, therefore, we contend for the same prey species (i.e.

native and domestic ungulates). The most common complaint about sharing the land with

jaguars is that they feed on what should be food exclusively for people: domestic cattle.

Another similarity between jaguars and humans is that both are formidable predators. Jaguars

are admired for their hunting skills, but feared for their ability to defend themselves or attack

humans, which very rarely happens. In reality, it is we, humans, who persecute and kill the

jaguars and, as a result, jaguars are disappearing.


2

The killing of jaguars by ranchers is indeed a major threat to the species (Nowell and Jackson

1996; Zeller 2007). Because jaguars are renowned for preying on livestock (Hoogesteijn

2000), one might assume that ranchers kill jaguars in an effort to reduce economic losses

associated with livestock predation. Conservationists have approached jaguar killing within

the usual framework of human-wildlife conflicts (Rabinowitz 2005), in which conflict is

defined as the situation when the behaviour of a (otherwise non-pest) wild animal species

poses a direct and recurring (real or perceived) threat to the livelihood and/or safety of a

person or a community and, in response, persecution of the species ensues (Macdonald et al.

2009). To date, research and conservation efforts have focused on the ecological (Azevedo

and Murray 2007; Cavalcanti 2008) and economic (Silveira et al. 2006) dimensions of the

conflict respectively. Little effort has been made to understand the link between jaguars

killing livestock and people killing jaguars. The killing of jaguars may not be strictly

retaliatory (i.e. in direct response to the negative impact caused by jaguars) and might be

motivated other than by economics. If we are to curb the killing of jaguars, first we have to

understand the underlying causes of this behaviour.

In this thesis, I use a broader approach than the usual human-wildlife conflict framework to

examine why people kill jaguars in Brazil. I address the human perceptions behind conflicts

among jaguars, livestock, and cattle ranchers. I adapt techniques from the social sciences to

examine how perceptions about jaguars develop in children and adolescents, and the factors

that influence ranchers‟ perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and human safety. I

investigate how these perceptions translate into the killing of jaguars and how education and

communication can be used to improve perceptions of jaguars among farmers and cattle

ranchers, and consequently reduce jaguar killing. Finally, I discuss how information on the

ecological, economic, social and cultural dimensions of a human-carnivore conflict can be


3

integrated fruitfully into a strategy spanning from individuals to populations (of both jaguars

and humans), in an attempt to promote coexistence between jaguars, livestock and people.

Conflicts between people and jaguars

Around one third (36%) of the jaguar‟s global distribution overlaps protected areas (A.

Zimmermann, pers. comm.), but very few of these areas offer true protection for jaguars and

their prey. Indeed the edges of protected areas often become hotspots for human-wildlife

conflict (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998). Outside of protected areas, jaguars most often

occupy livestock ranches (Zeller 2007). Conflicts between ranchers and jaguars over

livestock are widespread and have been documented throughout the jaguar‟s range, (e.g.:

Belize: Rabinowitz 1986; Brazil: Crawshaw and Quigley 1991; Dalponte 2002; Conforti and

Azevedo 2003; Michalski et al. 2006; Azevedo and Murray 2007; Palmeira et al. 2008; Costa

Rica: Saenz and Carrillo 2002; Argentina: Schiaffino et al. 2002; Venezuela: Polisar et al.

2003; Scognamillo et al. 2002). Ecological, socioeconomic, cultural, and historical aspects of

the relationships between people and jaguars in Brazil render the country particularly

important for jaguar research and conservation.

Conflicts between people and jaguars in Brazil

Brazil covers 40% of the land area of Latin America. Jaguar abundance estimates are as

scarce for Brazil (Almeida 1986; Quigley and Crawshaw 1992; Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006)

as for other parts of their range (cf Wallace et al. 2003, Maffei et al. 2004, Silver et al. 2004).

However Brazil encompasses the world‟s two largest jaguar population strongholds

(Sanderson et al. 2002) - the wetlands of the Pantanal (140,000 km2) and the rainforests of

Amazonia (3,400,000 km2) - and is thought to contain more than half of the world‟s c. 30,000

jaguars (Medellin 2009). The southern Pantanal of Brazil has the highest recorded density of


4

jaguars (estimates range from 6.7 to 11.7 individuals/100 km2) (Soisalo and Cavalcanti

2006). The Pantanal is also home to the largest jaguars on record, with males weighing an

average of 100 kg (females are typically 10-20% smaller) and the largest individuals reaching

158 kg (Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi 1992).

Brazil is also home to the world‟s largest commercial cattle herd (>200 million head) and is

the world leader in beef exports (Nepstad et al. 2006). Cattle ranching threatens jaguars

indirectly, insofar as it is the major driver for deforestation in Amazonia, this being the

primary cause of >66% of the habitat loss in the region (Nepstad et al. 2006). Between 1987

and 2006 an average of 18,000 km2 of prime jaguar habitat was lost in this region every year,

mostly from the Amazonian agricultural frontier (PRODES 2007). In the last two decades,

Brazil has lost larger areas of jaguar habitat than any other country.

For ecological and historical reasons, there is overlap between areas where beef production

flourishes and jaguars survive, namely the Pantanal and the agricultural frontier of southern

Amazonia (Thornton et al. 2002). Cattle ranchers have never rejoiced in this overlap, and

have a long tradition of killing jaguars (Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi 1992). In essence, jaguars

kill livestock, and ranchers kill jaguars in an attempt to prevent further losses. But overall,

what is the magnitude of the impact caused by jaguars on livestock and human livelihoods in

general?

Jaguar impact on people

Impact on livestock

Although livestock depredation on small ranches, stocked with small herds of cattle, can be

ruinous (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993), livestock losses to jaguars are generally small when


5

averaged over time and space. Average losses attributed to jaguars in Brazil range from 0.2 -

2.3% of livestock holdings in the Cerrado (Palmeira 2004), the Atlantic Forest (Conforti and

Azevedo 2003), southern Amazonia (Michalski et al. 2006), southern Pantanal (Azevedo and

Murray 2007), two ranches in northern Pantanal (Dalponte 2002), and a larger portion of the

northern Pantanal (Zimmermann et al. 2005). Sometimes, a major factor predisposing a

particular herd to jaguar predation is poor husbandry (Azevedo and Murray 2007; Michalski

et al. 2006). While the risk of predation is greater among cattle left unattended close to forest

cover (Azevedo and Murray 2007), documented losses of cattle to jaguar predation are

generally much fewer than those attributable to accident, snake bite, disease, parturition

problems, flood (Azevedo and Murray 2007) and even theft (R. Hoogesteijn, pers. comm.).

Furthermore, on some ranches, livestock depredation by puma (Puma concolor) may be more

common than predation by jaguars (Polisar et al. 2003), but it may be difficult for ranchers to

distinguish predation by jaguars and pumas.

Impact on personal safety

In contrast to the historical and contemporary record of unprovoked attacks on humans by

lions (Panthera leo) (Patterson 1907; Yamasaki et al. 1999; Saberwal et al. 1994), tigers

(Panthera tigris) (McDougal et al. 2001), leopards (Panthera pardus) (McDougal 1989),

pumas (Beier 1991; Deurbrouck and Miller 2001), wolves (Canis lupus) (Linnell et al. 2002;

McNay 2002), and bears (Ursus sp.) (Herrero and Higgins 1995) (see Table 1.1), attacks by

jaguars have been almost invariably associated with the cornering or injury of hunted jaguars

(Marchini and Luciano 2009a), or the defence of cubs or carcasses. In Brazil, the only

documented, unprovoked, fatal attack by a jaguar on a human occurred on 24 June 2008,

when a young fisherman was killed by a jaguar while sleeping in his tent on a bank of the

Paraguay River in the Pantanal (Marchini and Luciano 2009a). One speculation has been that


6

this unique incident was a result of jaguars in that area becoming habituated to people around

baits used to attract jaguars to be photographed by tourists.

Table 1.1. Reported number of people killed by large carnivores in the 20th

Century (Loe and

Roskaft 2004)

Species Number of humans

killed

Tiger (Panthera tigris) 12,599

Leopard (Panthera pardus) 840

Wolf (Canis lupus) 607

Lion (Panthera leo) 552

Brown bear (Ursus arctos) 313

Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) 48

Black bear (Ursus americanus) 37

Puma (Puma concolor) 18

Human impact on jaguars

Irrespective of the magnitude of damage or threat posed by jaguars, they have been severely

persecuted; indiscriminate killing of jaguars is one of the most serious threats to their survival

across Latin America (Zeller 2007). Persecution is the major cause of jaguar mortality outside

of protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996) and, because they range widely, persecution

threatens jaguars within protected areas as well (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998). Different

methods and approaches are used to kill jaguars in Brazil. One such method involves using

dogs to find and pursue the jaguar; either the jaguar climbs a tree or turns at bay on the

ground, whereupon the hunters arrive and kill it. Alternatively, the hunters wait at night on a

rudimentary tree platform, set up a few metres above a half-eaten carcass or other dead or

live bait, and then shoot the jaguar on sight. Poison baits are sometimes used. Landowners

kill jaguars alone, or together with other landowners or a hired professional hunter.


7

Among the ranchers who face livestock predation problems, the most popular jaguar

„management‟ method remains the „triple S solution‟: shoot, shovel and shut up (although

shovelling is often omitted). Together with habitat loss, persecution has reduced jaguars to

46% of their historical range (Sanderson et al. 2002) (Figure 1.1). Up to around 1500, when

European colonization started, jaguars were widely distributed throughout Brazil, but now

they are extirpated from entire regions (Sanderson et al. 2002). Some jaguars remain in

fragments of the Atlantic forest and the Cerrado, but large jaguar populations are present only

in Amazonia and the Pantanal, where human population density has historically been low.

The jaguar is currently considered as near threatened in Brazil (Caso et al 2008).

Figure 1.1. Historical and current jaguar distribution range

Mitigating human-jaguar conflicts by changing jaguar behaviour

Jaguar impacts on people result ultimately from jaguars killing livestock (and potentially

killing people). Several measures have been recommended or implemented that aim at


8

changing – directly or indirectly – the behaviour of jaguars to prevent them killing livestock.

The use of barriers such as electric fences, guards, acoustic (explosives) and visual (lights at

night) repellents, translocation of problematic animals, and changes in husbandry practices

(e.g. keeping calves away from forest edges) are examples of such interventions (Hoogesteijn

2000). The effectiveness of these interventions has not been systematically evaluated and,

meanwhile, lethal control, although illegal, remains the main management practice adopted

by the ranchers in Brazil.

Preventative measures are aimed at decreasing the economic burden on ranchers who coexist

with jaguars, on the assumption this will reduce their motivation to kill them. However,

human persecution of jaguars may be related less to livestock predation than was previously

believed, and the economic justification for killing jaguars may be equally unclear. The

ultimate motivation for retaliatory persecution may not be the actual impact of jaguars on

human safety or livestock, but rather the cultural and social perceptions of the potential threat

that jaguars pose to them. In conflicts between people and carnivores, the perceived impacts

often exceed the actual evidence (Conover 2001; Chavez and Gese 2005, 2006; Chavez et al.

2005; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2007). In addition, factors not related directly to jaguar impacts on

human livelihoods (e.g. perceived social status of jaguar hunters in the community and the

thrill of the chase) may also be involved in the persecution of jaguars, making it difficult to

evaluate the economic rationale for killing them. If we are to understand, predict and resolve

the conflicts between people and jaguars, we also need to consider the human side of the

conflict.


9

The human dimensions approach to understanding and predicting conflicts

Human dimensions of wildlife

Human Dimensions has emerged as a sub-discipline of wildlife management over the last two

decades (Decker and Purdy 1988). This area of interest developed among wildlife

professionals who were concerned with how people's values affect and are affected by

decisions about the management of wildlife populations, habitats, and people's use of these

resources (Purdy and Decker 1989). Typically, human dimensions research and management

have focused on values, beliefs, norms, attitudes and behaviours, as well as socioeconomic

and demographic characteristics of wildlife user-groups, with emphasis placed on

incorporating information on such factors into wildlife management decisions.

Human dimensions of the conflicts between people and jaguars

Jaguars are of outstanding significance to people in rural Brazil. Felines in general have had a

profound effect on human sensibilities since the beginning of time. Throughout history, as

described by Saunders (1994), jaguars have inspired fear, respect and emulation as the

embodiment of supernatural power. In the Americas the jaguar was invoked in art and

religion of Amerindians, from Amazonia and the Andes, to Meso-America and North

America. Depicted in gold, pottery and stone, and conjured up in shamanistic visions, they

were associated with sacrifice, cannibalism and war, and employed in the subtle symbolism

of metaphor as icons of power, aggressiveness, ambition and prestige. In Brazil, the 12,000-

year old rock painting of Serra da Capivara, depicting a jaguar, suggests that people and

jaguars have had a close relationship since ancient times. The jaguar is still a central figure of

the mythology of many peoples, including several Brazilian tribes (e.g. Matis), in which role

they are at the same time feared and admired.


10

The first Europeans in Brazil may have been profoundly impressed by the jaguar. After all,

Europeans were afraid of large cats such as lions and leopards (Miranda 2003). Here, the

powerful yaguar of the Tupis would be called „onça‟, a word of European origin. The word

„onça‟ comes from the Greek lugkos, which became lynx in Latin, and lonce in Provençal. In

the 15th Century the „l‟ would have been regarded as an article and therefore suppressed,

giving rise to once; in Spanish the term was already onza by 1495, and the same origin is

attributed to the Portuguese expression onça (Miranda 2003) (the English, on the other hand,

would keep the indigenous term jaguar).

The very first account of the relationship between people and onças in Brazil was left by the

French Jesuit Jean de Léry in 1557. Léry reports that “whenever it (the jaguar) can, it catches

an Indian, kills him, smashes and devours him”. The Portuguese priests José de Anchieta and

Pero Magalhães de Gândavo were the first authors to report predation problems caused by

jaguars in Brazil. In his „History of the Province of Santa Cruz’, published in 1575, Gândavo

provides detailed descriptions of a jaguar attack on cattle and on Indians.

Since then, jaguars have been mentioned frequently in a variety of forms, from explorers‟

accounts and classic literature, to arts and folklore. It seems unlikely that any other species

has been depicted more often in hunting situations than jaguars, with examples ranging from

the paintings of Johann Moritz Rugendas and Jean-Baptiste Debret in the 19th Century, to the

hunter‟s accounts of the 20th Century (Roosevelt 1914, Cunha 1918, Siemel 1953, Almeida

1976) to contemporary movies and soap-operas (e.g. “Amazônia” by Globo Network). In

children‟s literature the jaguar has been almost invariably depicted as the villain that is killed,

or otherwise dies, at the end of the story (e.g. Lobato 1933). In folklore, sayings involving the

word „onça‟ have a rather negative connotation such as amigo da onça (false friend). On the


11

other hand, jaguars are currently used as an icon by the Brazilian ecotourism industry, and are

depicted more often in marketing materials than any other mammal species in the Pantanal

and Amazonia (unpublished data). Jaguars are also used as mascots by several Brazilian zoos,

and are receiving growing attention from conservation-oriented popular media including the

internet, magazines and TV documentaries.

Despite the prominence of the jaguar in human life, studies on local perceptions of jaguars

had not been conducted in Brazil until very recently. The first such study was conducted by

Conforti and Azevedo (2003), who evaluated 72 livestock ranchers around Iguaçu National

Park in southern Brazil. They found that perceptions towards jaguars were not influenced by

the history of predation on the properties surveyed. Likewise, among the 50 landowners

interviewed in northern Pantanal by Zimmermann et al. (2005), attitudes towards jaguars

were more closely related to the age and relative wealth of respondents than to cattle losses,

with younger and wealthier ranchers holding more positive attitudes towards jaguars. In

southern Amazonia, over half of the 62 ranchers interviewed by Michalski et al. (2006) were

interested in implementing non-lethal methods to control predation levels on their ranches,

but about one third explicitly were not. Palmeira and Barrela (2007) evaluated 28

householders in a small, traditional, rural community in southeastern Brazil, where most

respondents held negative attitudes towards jaguars and wished the species could be

eliminated. In contrast, the majority of the 1,007 people interviewed by Santos et al. (2008) in

the five biomes of Brazil (i.e. Amazonia, Pantanal, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado and Caatinga)

were in favour of jaguar conservation. Altogether these studies revealed strong and

contradictory attitudes towards jaguars and, together with our previous results (Cavalcanti et

al. 2010), suggest that the perceived impact of jaguars on human livelihoods may often

exceed the evidence.


12

Except for the work by Santos et al. (2008), each of the foregoing studies was conducted at a

single site and evaluated only people who were directly involved in conflict with jaguars;

negative experience with jaguars – specifically, livestock predation – was addressed as the

predictor of conflict. Attitudes towards jaguars and / or jaguar management have been

assessed, but only Zimmermann et al. (2005) have examined the potential predictors of

attitudes, and nobody has reported on any relationship between attitudes and people‟s

tendency to kill jaguars. Knowledge about jaguars was assessed by Conforti and Azevedo

(2003), but the influence of knowledge on people‟s perceptions about jaguars has not been

examined.

The human dimensions approach to mitigating conflicts

As highlighted by Manfredo (2008), the common thread in the wide range of circumstances,

and species, that spawn human-wildlife conflicts is the fact that the course and resolution of

the conflict is ultimately determined by the thoughts and actions of humans. Because humans

are the constant in human-wildlife conflicts, approaches that aim to understand human

behaviour would best address this issue.

Understanding, predicting and changing human behaviour

Anthropology, sociology, psychology and their applications to communication, education and

marketing, form the basis of many theories used to understand and influence certain

conservation behaviours (Gardner and Stern 2002; Jacobson et al. 2006). While a significant

progress has recently been made in our understanding of the relationships between people

and nature in general, and the conflicts between people and large carnivores in particular,

from an anthropological perspective (Borgerhoff-Mulder and Coppolillo 2005; Dickman

2008; Hazzah et al. 2009), this study adopts a theoretical structure that is based on social and


13

cognitive psychology. The goals of social and cognitive psychology may have more in

common with those of conservation than is the case for branches of social science

preoccupied only with understanding human behaviour, in so far as both psychologists and

conservationists are interested in the practicalities of bringing about changes in human

behaviour. This study drawns upon the following theories: the Theory of Planned Behaviour

(Ajzen 1985), the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo 1981),

and the Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977). These theories are described briefly below.

Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) proposes that human behaviours are governed not

only by personal attitudes, but also by social pressures and perceived control over one‟s own

behaviour. According to the TPB, the most proximal determinant of a person‟s behaviour is

their intention to engage in that behaviour. In turn, behavioural intentions are influenced by

three main factors: attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms and perceived

behavioural control (PBC). Attitude scores reflect an individual‟s overall positive or negative

evaluation of performing the behaviour. Subjective norms represent an individual‟s

perception of whether people important to them would approve of them performing the

behaviour. Perceived behavioural control reflects the extent to which an individual perceives

the behaviour to be under their volitional control. Thus, according to TPB, people who have

positive attitudes towards killing jaguars, think that there is normative support for killing

jaguars, and perceive that they can easily kill jaguars (or pay someone else to do it for them),

should have strong intentions to kill jaguars. In addition, to the extent that PBC is a proxy for

the actual control (accurately accounts for both the internal factors [e.g. knowledge, skills,

courage] and external factors [e.g. legal barriers, money, equipment, help from others])

needed to perform the behaviour, it may also have a direct impact on behaviour.


14

Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion

The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (ELM) proposes that attitude change

depends upon the amount of thoughtful consideration (cognitive elaboration) that occurs in

response to a persuasive communication. According to the ELM, there are two types of

attitude change: 1) central route; and 2) peripheral route attitude change. These two routes of

attitude change differ in the amount of elaboration involved. Central route attitude change can

occur when there is significant cognitive elaboration (high elaboration likelihood), whereas

peripheral route attitude change can occur in the absence of cognitive elaboration (low

elaboration likelihood). Central route attitude change requires the motivation, and the ability,

to process cognitively a persuasive communication. For example, a person‟s attitudes are

more likely to change by the central route if they are presented with new information on a

subject they find stimulating, and this is done in a thought-provoking way. Attitudes are more

likely to change by the peripheral route if new information is presented on a subject they find

uninspiring, and without their active involvement. Central route attitude change is more

difficult to achieve deliberately than peripheral route change, but when it does occur, it lasts

longer, influences behaviour more, and is more resistant to counter-persuasion than

peripheral route change.

Social Learning Theory

People can learn from observing someone and following their lead, not just from verbal

interchange. The Social Learning Theory is the foundation for modelling, also called

observational learning. It recognizes that humans live in social environments, with other

people, and the relationships we have with these people are sources of learning and change.


15

The TPB, ELM, Social Learning and other theories of behavioural change [e.g. Motivational

Theory (Maslow 1954), Stages of Change (Prochaska et al. 1992), Diffusion of Innovation

(Rogers 1995)] have provided the theoretical framework for the four basic methods of

promoting conservation-oriented behaviours (Gardner and Stern 2002): 1) government laws,

regulations and incentives; 2) small group / community management; 3) education; and 4)

moral, religious and / or ethical appeals.

Mitigating human-jaguar conflicts by changing human behaviour

Efforts to deter jaguar killing among ranchers and farmers have focused largely on economic

incentives, e.g. monetary compensation for livestock loss (Silveira et al. 2006) and legal

prohibitions and sanctions, e.g. making jaguar killing illegal. Although compensation

programs have been implemented worldwide (Naughton-Treves et al. 2003; Swenson and

Andrén 2005), there is growing scepticism among conservationists about their effectiveness

and sustainability (Nyhus et al. 2003, 2005). As for legal approaches to deter jaguar killing,

in 1967, the Brazilian Wildlife Protection Act prohibited commerce in wildlife and products

derived from their capture, pursuit or destruction. The Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species (CITES) of 1973 made it illegal to conduct international trade in jaguar

skins or parts for commercial gain. Commercial, sport, and recreational hunting are

prohibited in Brazil. In 1998 the killing of jaguars was rendered a crime under Brazil‟s

Environmental Crimes Act (Lei de Crimes Ambientais - 9.605/98). The CITES listing, in

combination with the Brazilian legislation and anti-fur campaigns, brought about a sharp

decline in the fur trade, helping to reduce the pressure on wild jaguar populations. However,

law enforcement has been relatively ineffective in remote areas of rural Brazil, such as the

Amazon agricultural frontier and the Pantanal. Jaguar persecution continues (Crawshaw

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_International_Trade_in_Endangered_Species



16

2002; Michalski et al. 2006) – now very rarely for (illegal) trade, but because of their

perceived threat to people and their livelihoods and also for social and personal reasons.

This study proposes a model to understand and predict the human behaviour of killing jaguars

and examines the potential of an integrative intervention - combining elements of education,

community management and incentives – to deter such behaviour.

The thesis

Study areas

Because this study examines the social factors in conflicts between people and jaguars, over

livestock, the work took place in two regions of Brazil that differ significantly in social

conditions, but with the common feature of having large populations of both livestock and

jaguars. These regions were the deforestation frontier in southern Amazonia, more

specifically in the districts of Alta Floresta and Novo Mundo, and the northern Pantanal, in

the districts of Cáceres and Poconé, both in the State of Mato Grosso (Figure 1.2.a). Indeed,

the two regions have been identified as hotspots of jaguar-rancher conflict (Silveira et al.

2008) (Figure 1.2.b). The deforestation frontier in southern Amazonia was colonised recently

- from about 35 years ago - by people from different parts of the country, including parts of

Brazil where jaguars were no longer present. In contrast, Northern Pantanal is home to a few

traditional families that have raised cattle in the region for generations. The perspective of

people who do not share the space with jaguars was also addressed. In order to investigate

perceptions regarding jaguars on a broad social spectrum, wealthier pupils of the largest

metropolitan area in the continent – São Paulo city – were evaluated to represent a social

sector that is both geographically and culturally distant from conflicts with jaguars (Figure


17

1.2). The Amazon deforestation frontier is in the subject of all data chapters in this thesis,

while the Pantanal is the subject of three, and São Paulo city, one (Table 1.2).

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2. Map of Brazil showing (a) biomes, (b) expected areas of conflict between people

and jaguars over livestock based on jaguar occurrence and cattle density (Silveira et al.

2008), and the three study areas: 1) southern Amazonia; 2) northern Pantanal; and 3) São

Paulo city.

Below is a brief description of the physical, ecological, historical, economic, social and

cultural aspects of the Amazon deforestation frontier, northern Pantanal and São Paulo city.

A summary of relationships between people and jaguars in each region – conflicts, research

and conservation – is also presented.


18

Table 1.2. Study areas addressed in each data chapter.

Thesis chapter/study area Southern

Amazonia

Northern

Pantanal

São

Paulo

city

Chapter 2. Perceptions of jaguars among children

and adolescents in Brazil

X X X

Chapter 3. Perceptions behind the conflicts between

people and jaguars in Amazonia and

Pantanal

X X

Chapter 4. Conflicts between people and jaguars:

from perceptions to persecution

X X

Chapter 5. School-based approaches for improving

perceptions of jaguars among children and

their fathers on the Amazonia

X

Amazonia

The Amazon Rainforest is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon Basin of South America.

The area, also known as Amazonia or the Amazon Basin, encompasses seven million square

kilometres (1.2 billion acres), though the forest itself occupies some 5.5 million square

kilometres, located within nine nations: Brazil (with 60 % of the rainforest), Colombia, Peru,

Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. The Amazon contains

over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich

tract of tropical rainforest in the world. The Brazilian Amazon was subjected to massive rates

of deforestation during the 1970s and 1980s, following the implementation of several large,

central-government sponsored agricultural resettlement programmes, subsidised by generous

fiscal incentives for large-scale cattle ranching (Fearnside 1993; Nepstad 2006). In 2004, over

27 thousand square kilometres of forest were destroyed. Rates of deforestation have dropped

since then (PRODES 2007). In 2009, the Brazilian Amazon lost approximately 7 thousand

square kilometres of forest, most of this in southern Amazonia, within the so-called „Arc of

Deforestation‟ (Figure 1.3).


19

This study was conducted in Alta Floresta, a frontier town in Southern Amazonia (lat -

9.8779, lon -56.0975). Alta Floresta, founded as recently as 1976, has approximately 51

thousand inhabitants and hosts the fourth largest herd of domestic cattle in the State of Mato

Grosso (approximately 700,000 head) (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics 2007)..

The majority of the ranchers of Alta Floresta came from the southern state of Paraná, where

they had little contact with wildlife and where jaguars were rare or absent.

Figure 1.3. Maps of the Brazilian Amazon showing the study area (ellipses), (a) deforested

areas (grey), and (b) the „Arc of Deforestation‟ and ecoregions.

The forests in Alta Floresta are extremely important from a conservation perspective.

Cristalino State Park (CSP), located in that area, has the greatest levels of biodiversity among

all of the protected areas in Brazil. It is home to 515 bird species, of which 50 are endemic to

the region; 70 mammal species; 43 reptile species; 29 amphibian species and 16 species of

commercial or sport fish. Because of the diversity of habitats in the park („terra firme‟ forest,

seasonally dry forest, flooded forest, swamps, rivers and rocky outcrops), plant diversity is

also exceptionally high. The region‟s exceptional biodiversity is a result of its position in the

transition zone between the Amazon forest and the „cerrado‟ savannas of central Brazil. CSP


20

also lies between two major tributaries of the Amazon River, which acts for some species as a

barrier to dispersal, thus explaining the concentration of endemic species in the area.

In 1999 at a workshop on Brazilian conservation priorities, the Alta Foresta area was placed

within the highest priority conservation category because of its high levels of endemism and

rich diversity of vegetation and habitats, as well as the great urgency with which the area

needs protection, given the sheer pressure from smallholders, logging interests and large

cattle ranchers (Capobianco et al. 2001). Specific urgent interventions identified for the Alta

Floresta area were anthropological studies, creation of protected areas, environmental

education and biological surveys addressing aquatic systems, reptiles, amphibians and

mammals (Capobianco et al. 2001).

Cattle depredation by jaguars is considered a severe problem in Alta Floresta (Michalski et al.

2006), and persecution and habitat loss are major threats to jaguars there (Michalski and

Peres 2005). According to a range of formal and anecdotal accounts of jaguar and puma

mortality obtained over the year 2003–2004, an estimate of 110–150 jaguars and pumas are

killed annually in Alta Floresta through direct persecution by professional hunters or ranch

staff, or by poisoned carcasses (Michalski et al. 2006).

Pantanal

The Pantanal is the world‟s largest wetland area, a flat landscape, with gently sloping and

meandering rivers. The region, whose name derives from the Portuguese word „pântano‟

(meaning „swamp‟ or „marsh‟ ), is situated mainly within the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso

and Mato Grosso do Sul. Small parts of the Pantanal are in Bolivia and Paraguay. In total, the

Pantanal covers about 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi). The Pantanal floods during


21

the wet season, when over 80% of the area may be submerged, and the world's richest

collection of aquatic plants is nurtured in the process.

The ecosystem of the Pantanal is under threat from human activities, including uncontrolled

recreational fishing, the hunting and smuggling of endangered species (caiman, parrots and

macaws), uncontrolled tourism, and deforestation and forest fires for agricultural use in

neighbouring areas (Swarts 2000). In recent rainy seasons, flooding has been extreme and

many cultivated areas surrounding the park have been inundated. Receding flood waters have

carried large amounts of pesticides into the rivers and lakes, killing a great number of fish.

Pressure for economic development (such as oil pipelines and shipping canals) is of particular

concern. A plan to dredge the Paraguay and Parana Rivers to allow ocean-going ships to

travel far inland could have serious consequences for the ecosystem by affecting the flooding

and drainage cycles (Swarts 2000).

This study was conducted in the Pantanal districts of Poconé (location of town of Poconé: lat

-16.2575, lon -56.6234) and Cáceres (lat -16.0588, lon -57.7034). Cattle ranching is the main

economic activity in Poconé and Cáceres and conflicts between cattle ranchers and jaguars

are a major issue (Dalponte 2002). Cáceres and Poconé have approximately 87,000 and

32,000 inhabitants respectively, and cattle ranching is their main economic activity (Brazilian

Institute of Geography and Statistics 2009). As with the Amazon frontier, northern Pantanal

rears large cattle herds (around 832,000 and 347,000 head in Cáceres and Poconé,

respectively) (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics 2007) and livestock depredation

by jaguars is a major complaint among ranchers (Marchini 2003; Zimmermann et al. 2005).


22

The southern Pantanal has the greatest density of jaguars recorded in Brazil (6.7-11.7

individuals/100 km2; Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006), but no estimates of jaguar density are

available for northern Pantanal or southern Amazonia where this study took place. Indeed

estimates of jaguar abundance are as scarce for Brazil as for other parts of their range (Maffei

et al. 2004; Silver et al. 2004; Wallace et al. 2003). Nonetheless, reports of livestock loss to

jaguars (Dalponte 2002; Michalski et al. 2006) and jaguar sightings (Paula et al. in press)

suggest that jaguars are also present in relatively large numbers in northern Pantanal and

southern Amazonia.

São Paulo city

We also evaluated children and adolescents from a private school in Sao Paulo city, the

largest metropolitan area in the continent, home to more than 19 million people. Despite its

size and regional influence, Sao Paulo is surrounded by large remnants of the Atlantic Rain

Forest (e.g., Serra do Mar State Park, with 350 thousand hectares), some of them still

inhabited by jaguars (Torres et al. 2008).

Structure of the thesis

This thesis includes four data chapters, which I describe briefly below, together with this

introduction and a concluding chapter. The data chapters are written in the format of

scientific papers and, for this reason, there is some repetition between chapters, e.g. sites are

described both in the introduction and in data chapters.

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../../../../Documents%20and%20Settings/Documents%20and%20Settings/Sandra/Local%20Settings/Temporary%20Internet%20Files/OLK1888/%20/%20_Maffei,_L.,_Cuéllar,




23

Chapter 2 – Perceptions of jaguars among children and adolescents in Brazil: implications

for conservation

The children and adolescents of Brazil are future decision-makers in a country that contains

more than half of the world‟s jaguars. Therefore, jaguar conservation would benefit from an

understanding of the perceptions of jaguars among young Brazilian people. To investigate the

variation and development of perceptions about jaguars, and to inform strategies for

conservation education and communication, I assess children and adolescents between ages

10 and 19 in urban and rural areas of both Amazonia and the Pantanal, and São Paulo city.

Chapter 3 – Perceptions behind the conflicts between people and jaguars in Amazonia and

Pantanal

I explore how perceptions of the impact of jaguars on livestock and on human safety vary

with region, place of residence, experience of jaguars (including reported livestock loss),

attitudes towards jaguars, knowledge of the species, and perceptions of changes in jaguar

abundance and the regional economic situation. To investigate further the role of negative

experiences versus attitudes and knowledge in determining perceptions of jaguar impact on

livestock, I conduct an experiment in which respondents are asked to interpret photographs of

dead cattle and assign the most likely cause of death.

Chapter 4 – From perceptions to persecution: conflicts between people and jaguars

I use the Theory of Planned Behaviour to examine the role of ranchers‟ perceptions, norms,

attitudes and intentions concerning jaguar killing, in determining their jaguar-killing

behaviour. I also investigate the influence of: 1) descriptive norm and social identity on

ranchers‟ intention to kill jaguars on their properties; and 2) the effect of perceptions of

jaguar impact on human livelihoods (livestock and human safety), and of property size, on

the variables that influence intention to kill.


24

Chapter 5 – School-based approaches for improving perceptions of jaguars among

children and their fathers on the Amazon deforestation frontier.

Based on the findings of Chapters 3 and 4 (landowners in Amazonia are more likely to kill

jaguars if they approve of the behaviour and believe that their neighbours commonly kill

jaguars, and these attitudes and social norms are affected by perceived impact of jaguars on

human livelihoods, and ultimately by attitudes towards, and knowledge of, the species) I

conduct a school-based experiment in the Amazon deforestation frontier to examine the

effects of information and elaboration on these psychological measures among pupils, and the

effects of information (communicated via printed materials including children‟s homework)

on these measures among pupil‟s fathers.

Chapter 6 – General summary and recommendations for future research.

I summarise the findings and discuss their implications for conservation. In addition, I

discuss future research that could draw upon my findings to expand our understanding of the

human dimensions of human-jaguar conflict. Specifically, I recommend comparative studies

involving jaguars and pumas, research on the conflicts between humans over jaguars,

interdisciplinary research, and a model to address human-jaguar conflicts at the levels: ranch,

region and range.

Chapter 2 – Perceptions among children and adolescents

25

CHAPTER 2

PERCEPTIONS OF JAGUARS AMONG CHILDREN AND

ADOLESCENTS IN BRAZIL: IMPLICATIONS FOR

CONSERVATION

It is time to look to the very roots of motivation and understand why, in what circumstances

and on which occasions, we cherish and protect life

E.O. Wilson

Abstract

The children and adolescents of Brazil are future decision-makers in a country that is home to

the majority of the world‟s c. 30,000 jaguars. Therefore, jaguar conservation would benefit

from an understanding of the perceptions of jaguars held by young people in Brazil. To

investigate variation in, and the development of, perceptions about jaguars, and to inform

strategies for conservation education and communication, we assessed children and

adolescents between 10 and 19 years of age in urban and rural areas of both Amazonia and

the Pantanal, and São Paulo city. Jaguars were more prominent in the perceptions of

youngsters than any other native mammal. Their prominence was not fully explained by

knowledge about the jaguar or direct experiences with the species, such as experiencing

family livestock depredation problems. Nonetheless, knowledge predicted selection of the

jaguar as the most liked species in rural Amazonia. The jaguar was predominantly perceived

as threatening, but also as beautiful and endangered. Adjectives attributed to jaguars were

mostly emotion-laden. The parents were the most important source of children‟s information

about jaguars in rural Amazonia and Pantanal. Prominence, perceptions and knowledge of

jaguars varied significantly with gender, age and location. Education and other opinion-

forming interventions that aim to increase tolerance towards jaguars among young people,

will be most effective if they capitalise on the prominence of the jaguar and the emotions it

elicits, as well as taking into account variations in prominence, perceptions and knowledge,

and involving the parents.


26

Introduction

Conflicts between people and wildlife often depend less on the real impact of wildlife on

humans, and more on people‟s perceptions of that impact and of the species involved

(Conover 2001). Such perceptions can affect human behaviour towards the species

concerned, for example, influencing whether a person decides to persecute or tolerate it, or to

resist or support a related conservation policy (Marker et al. 2003). In conflicts between

people and large carnivores, the perceived impact often exceeds the evidence for it (Sillero-

Zubiri et al. 2007), and people‟s opinions and behaviours are often divided (Scarce 2005). As

the largest terrestrial predator in the Neotropical lowlands, the jaguar (Panthera onca) is

simultaneously cherished as a symbol and reviled as a threat to livestock and human safety

(Cavalcanti et al. 2010). Consequently, while jaguar protection has been advocated by

representatives of the scientific, non-governmental and eco-tourist sectors, jaguar persecution

is perpetrated or supported by cattle ranchers, farmers and poachers (Marchini 2003).

Perceptions of jaguars among Brazilians are particularly important factors in conserving the

species because Brazil is home to the majority of the world‟s c. 30,000 jaguars (Medellin

2009), and it encompasses half of the species‟ current distribution (Torres et al. 2008),

including the two largest jaguar strongholds in the world (Sanderson et al. 2002), namely the

rainforests of Amazonia (3,400,000 km2) and the wetlands of the Pantanal (140,000 km

2).

The future of the species arguably depends upon perceptions held by various interest groups

in the country, and in particular Brazil‟s young people who, as future decision-makers, hold

the key to the long-term planning required to save the jaguar. Nonetheless, little is known

about how Brazilians – children and adolescents in particular - perceive the jaguar. We

believe that a deeper knowledge of Brazilian young people‟s perceptions of jaguars, how they

are formed, and how and why they vary, could be pivotal for jaguar conservation. We sought


27

to understand these factors to better inform conservation, education, and communication

strategies.

Review and hypotheses

Large carnivores figure prominently in people‟s perceptions of animals and often elicit both

positive and negative feelings. Macdonald (2001) states that carnivores “are simultaneously

different things to different people (and sometimes also to the same people)”. For instance,

while lions and leopards in Tanzania are among the most prominent or important species to

the Maasai and Barabaig in the Rungwa-Ruaha region (Dickman 2005), and the favourite

game species in and around Selous Game Reserve (Leader-Williams and Hutton 2005), they

are also some of the least popular animals among rural populations adjacent to the Serengeti

National Park (Kaltenborn et al. 2006). Most people in the Brazilian countryside consider

jaguars either beautiful or dangerous, while 10% consider them to be both (Santos et al.

2008). Several studies have demonstrated that among children and adolescents large

carnivores provoke both attraction and concern (Andersone and Ozolins 2004; Skogen 2001).

Children in the United Kingdom and Spain like wolves but are afraid of them (WWF-UK

2000). Brazilian children in Amazonia, the Atlantic Rainforest and Pantanal are particularly

aware of the presence of jaguars in the biome (Santos et al. 2008). The jaguar features as the

main character in more books for children and adolescents than any other native species; in

some of these books the jaguar is the hero and in others the villain (Appendix I). We

hypothesized that jaguars feature more prominently than other native mammals in the

perceptions of Brazilian young people (Hypothesis 1) and that perceptions of jaguars among

young people are both positive and negative (Hypothesis 2).


28

Several characteristics can affect how an animal is perceived by people. Animals with large

body size, that are beautiful or attractive, similar to humans, that can be identified

individually, have social habits and economic value, that neither compete with nor cause

damage to humans, and that do not exhibit predatory behaviour are usually perceived more

positively than animals with opposite characteristics (Kellert 1996). The characteristic of

jaguars that has received most attention from conservationists is their potential to cause

economic damage to cattle ranchers through livestock predation (Hoogesteijn 2000).

However, Conforti and Azevedo (2003), found that perceptions towards jaguars among

landowners in southern Brazil were not influenced by the history of predation on the

properties surveyed. Likewise, among the landowners interviewed in northern Pantanal by

Zimmermann et al. (2005), attitudes towards jaguars were more closely related to

respondents‟ age and relative wealth than to cattle losses, with younger and wealthier

ranchers holding more positive attitudes towards them. Therefore, we hypothesized that

livestock loss has a relatively minor effect on young people‟s perceptions of jaguars

compared to other factors (Hypothesis 3).

Several studies have demonstrated that perceptions of animals differ with demographic and

socioeconomic status, including age, gender and place of residence (rural/urban) (Kellert

1996). For instance, Kellert and Westervelt (1983) demonstrated clear and predictable

development stages in children‟s perceptions of animals. Four distinct developmental stages

were identified: (a) under 6 years old, when animals are viewed in highly instrumental,

egocentric and exploitative ways, and children reveal the greatest fear and anxiety toward

nature; (b) age 6-9, when children become more aware of animals possessing interests and

feelings unrelated to themselves and recognize their right not to be harmed; (c) age 9-12,

when the child shows a dramatic increase in factual understanding and knowledge of animals;


29

and (d) age 13-17, when adolescents reveal a sharp increase in abstract, conceptual and

ethical reasoning about the natural world. Using Kellert‟s typology of attitudes (Kellert 1976;

1996), Eagles and Muffit (1990) and Bjerke et al. (1998) found similar age trends for some

types of attitude (e.g. „dominionistic‟ attitude scores [i.e. levels of interest in exercising

mastery and control over wildlife] decrease with increasing age), but contrasting results for

others (e.g. „naturalistic‟ and „ecologistic‟ attitude scores [i.e. levels of interest in

experiencing direct contact with wildlife and understanding the biological function of

organisms and their habitat, respectively] decreased with increasing age among Norwegians

but increased in North Americans). Røskaft et al. (2003) found that fear of brown bears and

wolves increased with age among young Norwegians. Despite the apparent contradictions in

findings, these studies all revealed that major transitions in perceptions about wildlife occur

during pre-adolescence and early adolescence. For this reason we selected 10 to 19 year olds

as subjects in this study and predicted that perceptions of jaguars would change significantly

over this age range (Hypothesis 4). Irrespective of age, women express significantly more

fear of large carnivores than do men (Bjerke et al. 1998; Røskaft et al. 2003), but also exhibit

greater concern for their conservation (Czech et al. 2001). Examples of differences in

perceptions of animals between rural and urban young people include in Norway stronger

dominionistic and moralistic attitudes in rural and urban areas respectively (Bjerke et al.

1998) and in Latvia greater support for lethal control of wolf and lynx among adult rural

inhabitants than urban dwellers (Andersone and Ozolins 2004). We hypothesized that gender

and place of residence also affect perceptions of jaguars among children and adolescents in

Brazil (Hypothesis 5 and 6, respectively).

Perceptions of animals have also been demonstrated to change with socioeconomic, cultural

and historical factors (Dickman 2008; Kellert 1996; Manfredo 2008). Northern Pantanal and


30

southern Amazonia both contain large populations of cattle and jaguars (see Study Areas

below), but the regions differ in many socioeconomic, cultural and historical respects.

Northern Pantanal is populated by traditional families that have raised cattle there for

generations and southern Amazonia is largely inhabited by recent immigrants from different

parts of Brazil, including areas where jaguars have long been extirpated and forests replaced

by pastures and crop fields (Cavalcanti et al. 2010). In São Paulo city (Southeastern Brazil),

people are not exposed to any threat that jaguars may pose to livestock or human safety.

Therefore, we predicted that perceptions among young people would vary across the study

area (Hypothesis 7).

While previous studies on perceptions of wild animals among young people have investigated

certain factors relevant to conservation, none has focused on a particular taxon and examined

simultaneously differences between biomes, socio-economic, cultural and age groups. This

study adopted a comprehensive approach, forming the first step in examining: 1) the relative

prominence of the jaguar among other species in the perceptions of children and adolescents;

2) the role of knowledge and experience in determining this prominence; 3) the variation in

prominence, knowledge and perceptions of jaguars in young people across ages, between

sexes, from rural and urban areas and in contrasting regions; and 4) the sources of

information that contribute to this knowledge and shapes those perceptions.

Methods

Study Areas and Participants

This study was conducted in Alta Floresta, on the deforestation frontier in southern Amazonia

and Cáceres, in the northern Pantanal. We also evaluated children and adolescents from a

private school in Sao Paulo city (Study Areas, Chapter 1)


31

All of the children and adolescents assessed for this study were school students. We

evaluated students in the 5th

and 7th

grades of elementary schools (expected ages 10 to 15)

and 1st and 3

rd years of high schools (expected ages 15 to 18). In Amazonia and Pantanal the

schools participating in the study were public. In Alta Floresta, we worked with the only two

rural schools with both elementary and high school education (Mundo Novo and Ouro Verde

State Rural Schools) and two of the largest schools in the urban area (Vitoria Furlani da Riva

and Jaime Veríssimo de Campos State Schools). In Cáceres, we worked with one urban and

one rural school. The urban school (São Luiz State School) was selected at random and the

rural school (Laranjeiras Rural School) was the school closest to the floodplain and which

could be reached by car. All participating schools in Amazonia and the Pantanal had a single

classroom for each grade and all students in the selected grades were assessed. In Sao Paulo,

the school was selected at random from a short list of the most renowned private schools in

town. The selected school (Vera Cruz) had many classrooms for each grade. One classroom

of each selected grade was chosen at random and all the students in the room were evaluated.

Public rural schools of Amazonia and Pantanal and private schools in São Paulo city

represent two opposing extremes in the broad range of socio-economic and cultural contexts

in which Brazilian children and adolescents live. Most of the young people in Brazil lie

somewhere between these two extremes and therefore results from our survey may shed light

on the perceptions of other children and adolescents in the country.

Questionnaire Development and Data Collection

Self-completion questionnaires were used to collect data. Between March and November

2007 we conducted a pilot study using focus groups (Oppenheim 1998) in which groups of

10 to 15 elementary and high school students from the participating schools in Alta Floresta


32

discussed the positive and negative aspects of coexisting with jaguars. By listening to

students talking freely, we were able to identify salient beliefs, perceptions and peculiarities

of their parlance, which were then used in the design of the questionnaire. The questionnaire

was then pre-tested in one classroom at each of the four schools in Alta Floresta and revised

accordingly for use in the main study.

We visited the schools in Amazonia, Pantanal and São Paulo between September and

November 2008. SM introduced himself and his assistant as representatives of an educational

project from outside the school and gave the students a brief introduction. The introduction

was devoid of value statements and merely invited them to participate in a project involving

questions about their opinions about wildlife. SM stressed that there were no right or wrong

answers to the questions, that no grade would be assigned to the answers and therefore the

students could feel at ease to offer their views transparently. SM also emphasized the

importance of each student completing their questionnaires individually. Jaguars were not

mentioned in the introduction to avoid influencing students‟ answers to the open questions in

the first part of the questionnaire. Teachers were given the choice of staying or leaving the

room; a few stayed but did not interfere with the survey. Questionnaires and pencils were

distributed and questions were read out one at a time. We checked that students understood

the question and ensured that they were writing animals‟ names and numbering their

responses correctly. This approach allowed us to repeat questions and provide further

explanations when necessary, and help groups of students avoid confusion with their task.

The questionnaires were completed in approximately 30 minutes and returned directly to SM.

Questionnaires were divided into five sections: 1) socio-demographics (e.g. gender, age and

residence [urban/rural]); 2) prominence of jaguars relative to other species; 3) experience of


33

jaguars; 4) knowledge and perceptions of jaguars; and 5) sources of information about

jaguars (Appendix II).

Open questions were used to gauge the jaguar‟s prominence (i.e. how the species features in

people‟s hearts and minds). The question “Cite three animals that you know to occur in the

nearest forest” was used to assess the propensity of different species to come to mind in

response to an open question on knowledge (or belief) about occurrence (hereafter called

„cognitive prominence‟). Because the Portuguese names for jaguar and puma (Puma

concolor) are similar (onça-pintada and onça-parda, respectively), we asked the students to

make sure they had written the complete name of the animal they meant before moving on to

the next question. Cognitive prominence scores were calculated by assigning the numbers 3,

2 or 1 to respondents who mentioned the jaguar in the first, second or third options,

respectively, and 0 to those who did not mention the jaguar. The questions “What animal do

you like/dislike most?” were used to assess the propensity of different species to come to

mind in response to open questions on both positive and negative feelings towards animals

(hereafter called „affective prominence‟). Answers were coded as dichotomous variables,

using 1 for jaguar and 0 for other species.

We assessed three categories of experience with jaguars: livestock loss; acquaintance with

injured person; and sighting. The questions were: Has your family (i.e. household) ever lost

livestock to jaguars? When did that happen?; Do you personally know anyone who has been

injured by a jaguar? Who was it and how did that happen?; and Have you ever seen a live

jaguar in the wild? Where?”. Answers to the first part of each of these questions were in a

binary (yes/no) format. The secondary “when”, “who”, “how” and “where” questions were

included in an effort to validate the answer to the first part of the question.


34

For knowledge questions all answers were coded as binary variables (1 for a correct answer

and 0 for an incorrect answer or for “do not know”). Knowledge was measured using seven

questions so the resulting scale ranged from 0-7 (minimum to maximum knowledge).

Questions were posed as statements, three of which were correct and four incorrect. The

statements were: (i) The jaguar generally begins to consume its prey from the front while the

puma consumes the areas from the ribs backwards (correct); (ii) A jaguar‟s prey is usually

hidden and covered with leaves, while a puma‟s prey isn‟t (incorrect); (iii) The jaguar‟s prey

generally presents a bite mark at the base of the neck, while the puma‟s prey generally has a

bite on the throat (correct); (iv) The jaguar‟s footprint is longer than wide with thinner and

pointed toes, while the puma‟s footprint is slightly wider than long, with round toes

(incorrect); (v) A female jaguar produces on average 1 or 2 cubs every other year (correct);

(vi) Black jaguars are more dangerous to cattle than yellow jaguars (incorrect); (vii) Jaguars

kill more people every year in Brazil than do domestic dogs (incorrect).

Respondents‟ general perceptions of jaguars were assessed using the open question

“Complete the sentence: of all the animals, the jaguar is the most…”. Concern about the

impact of jaguars on human safety and property, and attraction to the species were assessed

through multiple questions including five statements regarding „concern for safety/property‟

(e.g. “If I had to walk in the forest, I would be afraid of encountering a jaguar”) and three

regarding „attraction‟ (e.g. “It would be fun if jaguars were seen more often”). Answers to

these questions were gathered using a 5-point Likert scale (i.e. strongly disagree, mildly

disagree, neither disagree nor agree, mildly agree, strongly agree).

The relative importance of different information sources about jaguars was assessed by

asking the respondents to complete the sentence “What I know about jaguars I have learnt


35

mostly from…”. Respondents could then tick one or more boxes in a list of ten options

(television, parent, teacher/school, book, nature/travel, zoo, internet, friend/neighbour,

magazine, other).

Data analysis

The independent variables were gender, age (coded according to the following age classes:

10-11, 12-13, 14-15, 16-17, and 18-19 years old), location (rural Amazonia, urban Amazonia,

rural Pantanal, urban Pantanal, and São Paulo city) and experience with jaguars (i.e. sighting

of a jaguar in the wild, household livestock depredation by a jaguar, and acquaintance with a

victim of personal attack by a jaguar).

Answers in either a binary (yes/no) or in 5-point scale formats to the questions of knowledge,

concern and attraction enabled us to construct summated rating scales and calculate scores for

each variable. The scales were adjusted to range from 0 (no knowledge, concern and

attraction) to 1 (maximum knowledge, concern and attraction). Cronbach‟s alpha was used to

estimate the internal consistency of the scales (Cronbach 2004). The high values of

Cronbach‟s alpha for the concern and attraction scales (Table 2.1) provide support for our

grouping of related questions. Cronbach‟s alpha for the knowledge score was at the lower

limit of acceptability (α = 0.63); this is most likely the result of the multi-dimensional nature

of the questions and might also derive from frequent guessing of the two-choice questions.

The construction of psychological scales and reliability analysis have been described in detail

elsewhere (DeVellis 2003; Vaske 2008).

Differences in cognitive and affective prominence among genders, age classes, and regions

were assessed using Pearson‟s chi-square test. Logistic regression was used to predict


36

cognitive and affective prominence in rural Amazonia and rural Pantanal based on experience

with jaguars and knowledge about the species. For this analysis, cognitive prominence was

coded as a dichotomous variable, scoring 1 when jaguar was mentioned (as the first, second

or third option), and 0 when it was not. We used log-linear analysis to examine relationships

between prevalent perceptions of jaguars and each of age class and region. Analysis of

variance was used to test for differences in knowledge, concern for safety/property and

attraction scores among genders, age classes, places of residence and locations; post-hoc

Tukey tests were used to assess differences between locations.

Results

In total 1,115 questionnaires were properly completed and analyzed, 886 of them in

Amazonia (567 urban and 319 rural), 151 in the Pantanal (82 urban and 63 rural) and 118 in

Sao Paulo. Responses were received from respondents who were: 10-19 years old in

Amazonia and the Pantanal; and 11-17 years old in São Paulo. Males and females were

approximately evenly represented in the final sample (53% males and 47% females). Age

classes were represented as follows: 10-11 years (21%), 12-13 years (26%), 14-15 years

(21%), 16-17 years (25%), 18-19 years (7%).

Experience and knowledge

As shown in Figure 2.1, only a minority of students reported seeing a jaguar in the wild. The

percentage varied significantly (χ2

= 74.9, df = 4, p = 0.001) among the five main survey

groups. Some of the sightings reported by Sao Paulo students had taken place in the Pantanal

during holiday trips. The majority of the respondents who reported a sighting told us that they

had seen the jaguar only once and that the sighting had been brief, typically a glimpse. The

percentage of students reporting household livestock predation by a jaguar was similar in


37

rural Amazonia and rural Pantanal (χ2

= 330.9, df = 1, p = 0.142). Reports of jaguar attacks

on people differed significantly (χ2

= 26.3, df = 4, p < 0.001) among the main survey groups

and were most frequent in rural and urban Pantanal, followed by rural and urban Amazonia.

Just 7% of Sao Paulo students reported personal acquaintance with a victim of jaguar attack

and the person attacked was either a ranch-hand on a property owned by the student‟s

household or someone met during a trip to the Amazon. None of the reported cases of attack

was fatal. Knowledge about jaguars did not differ significantly among age classes, but was

greater among male than female students (male: Mean = 0.30, SD = 0.01; female: Mean =

0.24, SD = 0.01), differed significantly among locations (Amazonia: M = 0.28, SD = 0.17;

Pantanal: Mean = 0.35, SD = 0.17; Sao Paulo: Mean = 0.19, SD = 0.18), and was marginally

significantly greater in rural than urban areas (rural: Mean = 0.34 , SD = 0.02, urban Mean =

0.29, SD = 0.09) (Figure 2.2 and Table 2.1.).


38

Figure 2.1. Percentage of respondents reporting a jaguar sighting (shown white), household livestock

depredation by jaguars (rural students only) (shown black), and acquaintance with a victim of jaguar

attack (shown grey) in different locations.


39

São PauloPantanalAmazonia

Mea

n K

now

ledg

e Sc

ore

1.0

0.0

Figure 2.2. Mean knowledge scores by age class (● 10-11, ● 12-13, ● 14-15, ● 16-17, ● 18-19) and

location. Bars represent the 95% confidence interval for mean.

Table 2.1. Results of analysis of variance of knowledge of, concern about, and attraction towards

jaguars by students‟ gender, age1, place of residence (rural/urban)

2 and location

3.

Cronbach‟s

alpha

df MS F-value p-value

Knowledge 0.61

Gender 1 6.282 6.351 0.012

Age 4 0.268 0. 271 0.320

Rural/urban 1 6.657 6.789 0.054

Location 2 17.829 18.025 <0.001

Concern 0.77

Gender 1 138.062 18.997 <0.001 Age 4 9.340 1.285 0.274

Rural/urban 1 0.200 0.179 0.351

Location 2 77.532 10.668 <0.001

Attraction 0.84

Gender 1 0.011 0.002 0.963

Age 4 6.602 1.255 0.287

Rural/urban 1 3.008 3.134 0.097

Location 2 47.440 9.015 <0.001

1. Age classes: 10-11, 12-13, 14-15, 16-17, 18-19 years.

2. Only for Amazonia and the Pantanal.

3. Locations: Amazonia, Pantanal and São Paulo city.

Prominence

In support of Hypothesis 1, the jaguar was mentioned more often than any other species or

taxon as the first answer to the question “Cite three animals that you know to occur in the

nearest forest” (Amazonia 24%, Pantanal 37%, and Sao Paulo 28%), even despite its


40

elusiveness (it was seen by far the least often among the ten most prominent species in

Amazonia and Pantanal) (Figure 2.3). Capybara, monkey, snake and macaw also appear

among the ten most salient taxa in the three samples. However, the answers “monkey”,

“snake” and “macaw” do not refer to single species, but multi-species taxa (there are 83

species of primates, 330 species of snakes and 13 species of macaws in Brazil). The puma

was not among the 10 most prominent animals reported for any of the three locations.

The jaguar was also the most common answer to the question “What animal do you like

most?” (Amazonia 20%, Pantanal 28%, Sao Paulo 26%) (Figure 2.4). „The monkey‟ was the

second most liked animal in Amazonia and Sao Paulo, whereas in the Pantanal second place

was occupied by the symbol of the region, the jabiru stork. As for the question “What animal

do you dislike most?”, snake topped the ranking in each of the three locations, followed by

jaguar in Amazonia (9%) and Pantanal (20%). In Sao Paulo, the jaguar was the fourth most

disliked (3%), behind snake, spider and insects. These results support Hypothesis 2.


a) b) c)

0% 100%

Peccary

Caiman

Macaw

Armadillo

Tapir

Snake

Paca

Monkey

Capybara

Jaguar

Percentage of respondents

Amazonia

Pantanal

0% 100%

Macaw

Monkey

Deer

Coati

Tapir

Snake

Jabiru stork

Capybara

Caiman

Jaguar


B

São Paulo City

0% 25%

Marmoset

Sloth

Macaw

Toucan

Golden lion tamarin

Capybara

Birds

Monkey

Snake

Jaguar


C

Figure 2.3. Cognitive prominence (black bars) (percentage of respondents who mentioned various taxa first when asked “cite three animals that

you know to occur in the nearest forest”) and associated sighting rate (white bars) (percentage of respondents who reported ever seeing the taxon

in the wild) in a) Amazonia (n=862), b) Pantanal (n=147) and c) Sao Paulo city (n=118).


42

a) b) c)

Pantanal

0% 30%

Birds

Capybara

Deer

Monkey

Anaconda

Macaw

Jabiru stork

Caiman

Snake

Jaguar


São Paulo City

0% 30%

Frog

Rat

Golden lion tamarin

Insects

Toucan

Spider

Macaw

Monkey

Snake

Jaguar


Figure 2.4. Affective prominence (percentage of respondents in a) Amazonia (n=882), b) Pantanal (n=147) and c) Sao Paulo city (n=118) who

cited the taxon when asked “What animal do you like most?” (white bars) and “What animal do you dislike most?” (black bars). Sorting based on

the summated citations for like and dislike.


Neither cognitive nor affective (like and dislike) prominence of jaguars differed significantly

between student genders (p = 0.635, 0.095 and 0.945, respectively). However, cognitive

prominence differed among age classes (χ2

= 33.9, df = 12, p = 0.001) and locations (χ2

=

16.8, df = 6, p = 0.010), with greatest prominence at intermediate ages (Figure 2.5) and in

Pantanal, followed by Amazonia and then Sao Paulo (Means = 1.59, 1.20, 1.17 respectively).

Neither positive nor negative affective prominence differed significantly among age classes

(like: p = 0.220; dislike: p = 0.974). Differences among locations approached significance for

positive affective prominence (greatest in Pantanal 28%, then Sao Paulo 26% and Amazonia

20%, χ2

= 5.728, df = 2, p = 0.059), and differed significantly for negative affective

prominence (greatest for Pantanal 20%, then Amazonia 9% and Sao Paulo 3%, χ2

= 24.798,

df = 2, p < 0.001) (Figure 2.5). In support of Hypothesis 3, logistic regression did not reveal

any effect of experience, or knowledge, of jaguars on either positive or negative affective

prominence in rural Pantanal, while cognitive prominence was predicted by reports of

acquaintance with a jaguar attack victim [β = 1.548, SE = 0.580, df = 1, p = 0.008, Exp(β) =

4.704; Hosmer and Lemeshow: p = 0.20; R2

= 0.20 (Nagelkerke)] but not by knowledge of

the species or other measures of experience of the species. In rural Amazonia, positive

affective prominence was predicted by knowledge about jaguars [(β = 1.076, SE = 0.301, df =

1, p = 0.000, Exp(β) = 2.934; Hosmer and Lemeshow: p = 0.56; R2

= 0.33 (Nagelkerke)] with

students who were more knowledgeable about jaguars being more likely to choose the jaguar

as their favourite species. Experience with jaguars did not predict prominence in rural

Amazonia.


44

a) b)

Figure 2.5. a) Mean cognitive prominence of jaguars by age class (● 10-11, ● 12-13, ● 14-15, ● 16-

17, ● 18-19) and location, and b) mean negative affective prominence (dislike) by location. Bars

represent 95% confidence intervals of the mean.

General perceptions

The question “Of all the animals, the jaguar is the most…?” elicited a total of 80 adjectives,

among which „dangerous‟ and „beautiful‟ were the most frequent (23% and 19%,

respectively). The adjectives were grouped into four categories: „threatening‟ (e.g. dangerous,

ferocious, detrimental), „attractive‟ (e.g. beautiful, interesting, fascinating), „endangered‟ (e.g.

persecuted, hunted, extinct), and „other‟ (e.g. stinky, silly, unknown) (Table 2.2). Log-linear

analysis revealed that the relative frequency of the four categories differed with age class and

location (partial χ2

= 30.9, df = 4, p < 0.001; partial χ2 = 15.4, df = 2, p < 0.001), and there

was a significant interaction between age class and location (partial χ2

= 136.7, df = 8, p <

0.001). Jaguars were most frequently labelled as threatening, followed by attractive and then

endangered by all age classes in all locations except for 10-11 year olds (the youngest group)

and 14-15 year olds in Sao Paulo both of which most frequently considered them attractive.

Jaguars were described as threatening by 70% of respondents in the Pantanal, 55% in

Amazonia and 38% in São Paulo. The population most likely to perceive the jaguar primarily


45

as threatening lived in urban Pantanal (Figure 2.6). The population most likely to consider

them primarily attractive were those in São Paulo (36%), compared to 32% in Amazonia, and

23% in the Pantanal (Table 2.2). Respondents in the Pantanal were also least likely to

consider the jaguar primarily as endangered (4%) compared with 7% in Amazonia, and 9% in

São Paulo. In all three study areas, jaguars were most likely to be perceived primarily as

endangered by 16-17 year old students (16-18 in Sao Paulo): 12% in Amazonia, 8% in São

Paulo, and 4% in the Pantanal.


46

Table 2.2. Percentage of respondents whose answer to the question “Of all animals, the jaguar is the

most…?” revealed their prevalent perception of the jaguar to be threatening, attractive or endangered.

Location and age

class

Jaguar perceived as

Threatening Attractive Endangered Other

Amazonia

10-11 57 32 2 9

12-13 48 37 7 8

14-15 61 26 5 9

16-17 55 28 12 5

18-19 59 26 7 8

Total 55 32 7 8 Pantanal

10-11 82 18 0 0

12-13 72 28 0 0

14-15 81 16 3 0

16-17 67 25 4 4

18-19 80 20 0 0

Total 70 23 4 4 Sao Paulo city

10-11 39 44 6 11

12-13 41 34 7 17

14-15 33 37 7 22

16-18 50 38 8 4

Total 38 36 9 17

Figure 2.6. Most prevalent perception of jaguars (threatening, attractive, endangered or other) by

location and place of residence.


47

Concern for safety/property and attraction

As shown in Table 2.1, concern about jaguar attack on people and livestock differed

significantly between genders, being greater among female than male students (males: Mean

= 0.43, SD = 0.21; females: Mean = 0.53, SD = 0.18) and differed significantly among

locations, being greatest in Pantanal (Mean = 0.53, SD = 0.18), then Amazonia (Mean = 0.48,

SD = 0.21) and Sao Paulo (Mean = 0.42, SD = 0.15) (Figure 2.7). Attraction differed

significantly among locations, being greatest in São Paulo (Mean = 0.66, SD = 0.20) and

Amazonia (Mean = 0.64, SD = 0.20), followed by the Pantanal (Mean = 0.73, SD = 0.16) (F

= 9.015, df = 2, p < 0.001). These findings support hypotheses 5 and 7. We detected a

significant interaction between the impacts of location and age on attraction to jaguars (F =

5.347, df = 2, p = 0.005) (Figure 7b). Post hoc Tukey tests indicated that students in Sao

Paulo were significantly more attracted towards jaguars than were students in Amazonia and

Pantanal. There was no significant difference in attraction to jaguars between these two

locations. Contrary to hypotheses 4 and 6, knowledge, concern and attraction did not vary

with age and place of residence (rural/urban).

a) b)

Sao PauloPantanalAmazonia

Mea

n C

once

rn S

core

1.0

0.0

Sao PauloPantanalAmazonia

Mea

n A

ttrac

tion

Scor

e

1.0

0.0

Figure 2.7. Mean standardized scores for a) concern for safety/property, and b) attraction, by gender

(○ female, ■ male) and location. Bars represent the 95% confidence interval for mean.


48

Sources of information

Television was the most important source of information about jaguars for urban children and

adolescents (except for 10-13 year olds in urban Pantanal), whereas the parents were the most

important information source for rural respondents (Table 2.3). School, teachers and books

were the next most important sources of information about jaguars in Amazonia and rural

Pantanal and the zoo was the second most important source of information in São Paulo. The

internet was more important to urban than rural respondents in Amazonia and Pantanal,

whereas friends and neighbours were more important to rural respondents.


Table 2.3. Relative importance of different sources of information about jaguars: frequency and rank (between parenthesis) by location and age

class.

Location and

age class

Source of information

Television Parent Teacher/

School

Book Nature/

Travel

Zoo Internet Friend/

Neighbour

Magazine Other

Rural Amazon

10-13 0.66 (2) 0.81 (1) 0.56 (3) 0.55 (4) 0.52 (5) 0.16 (9) 0.18 (8) 0.34 (6) 0.25 (7) 0.02 (10)

14-19 0.79 (2) 0.80 (1) 0.54 (4) 0.61 (3) 0.41 (6) 0.25 (8) 0.14 (9) 0.42 (5) 0.30 (7) 0.05 (10)

Urban Amazon

10-13 0.65 (1) 0.45 (5) 0.51 (2) 0.46 (3) 0.37 (6) 0.33 (7) 0.49 (4) 0.19 (9) 0.26 (8) 0.01 (10)

14-19 0.79 (1) 0.73 (2) 0.47 (5) 0.54 (3) 0.46 (6) 0.29 (9) 0.52 (4) 0.30 (8) 0.34 (7) 0.04 (10)

Rural Pantanal

10-13 0.57 (2) 0.86 (1) 0.50 (3) 0.50 (3) 0.36 (6) 0.36 (6) 0.07 (9) 0.43 (5) 0.14 (8) 0.00 (10)

14-19 0.65 (2) 0.82 (1) 0.59 (3) 0.29 (4) 0.18 (8) 0.24 (6) 0.12 (10) 0.29 (4) 0.24 (6) 0.18 (8)

Urban Pantanal

10-13 0.51 (3) 0.65 (1) 0.42 (5) 0.28 (6) 0.53 (2) 0.28 (6) 0.47 (4) 0.19 (8) 0.16 (9) 0.05 (10)

14-19 0.84 (1) 0.81 (2) 0.65 (4) 0.65 (4) 0.67 (3) 0.42 (8) 0.58 (6) 0.40 (9) 0.49 (7) 0.09 (10)

Sao Paulo

10-13 0.72 (1) 0.34 (6) 0.36 (5) 0.40 (4) 0.42 (3) 0.51 (2) 0.32 (7) 0.09 (9) 0.21 (8) 0.02 (10)

14-18 0.68 (1) 0.22 (7) 0.51 (2) 0.35 (5) 0.40 (4) 0.51 (2) 0.31 (6) 0.03 (10) 0.20 (8) 0.06 (9)


50

Discussion and conclusions

Cognitive and affective prominence of jaguars was exceptionally strong among the young

people of Brazil, regardless of gender, age or location. Our results suggest that jaguars have a

stronger presence in the hearts and minds of Brazil‟s children and adolescents than does any

other native mammal. Conservation educators should capitalise on this prominence to capture

the attention of a wider audience and improve their own effectiveness. Indeed, the

widespread prominence of the species renders jaguars particularly sensitive and valuable

barometers of perceptions of the natural world among the young people of Brazil.

The high profile of the jaguar was not fully explained by the experiences of the respondents

(and their families), or by their knowledge of the species. Jaguars were particularly prominent

in the thoughts of young people in the Pantanal, where jaguars are more abundant and more

frequently seen than elsewhere, they are considered to be a threat to livestock, and where the

first officially documented unprovoked fatal jaguar attack on a human in Brazil took place in

June 2008. However the children and adolescents of Sao Paulo city were also more

cognitively and affectively aware of jaguars than of other species. The fatal attack in Pantanal

was widely publicised by the local media and might account for the apparent relationship

between reported acquaintance with a victim of jaguar attack and the cognitive prominence of

jaguars there, since young people in the region were evaluated only three months after the

incident. The news of this attack may have had a particular impact on those who believed

they knew another attack victim. Indeed, jaguar attacks on people have a prominent place in

story-telling in rural Brazil and the attack reports provided by our respondents may have been

inflated by cognitive biases such as an availability cascade [i.e. a self-reinforcing process in

which a collective belief gains more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public

discourse (colloquially, "repeat something often enough and it will become fact”)] (Kuran


51

and Sunstein 1999) or the availability heuristic (i.e. answers depend on what is more

available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged episodes

such as a jaguar attack ) (Tversky and Kahneman 1973). Nonetheless, negative experiences

with jaguars, such as livestock predation on their familiy‟s property or personal acquaintance

with a jaguar attack victim, did not have any effect on either the positive or negative affective

prominence (like or dislike) of the species. While jaguar conservation has concentrated on the

concrete experiences that people have with jaguars – notably livestock depredation - our

results emphasise the importance of other factors on empathy or hostility towards jaguars. If

persecution of jaguars is heavily influenced by perceptions and prejudices acquired at an

early age, and at least substantially unrelated to direct experiences, then the capacity for

education to play a major role in jaguar conservation is clear. Despite being the second

largest terrestrial carnivore in the country, causing damage to livestock (Hoogesteijn 2000),

attacking and killing people in Brazil and elsewhere (Quigley and Herrero 2005), and sharing

half its popular name with the jaguar, the puma was surprisingly unimportant in our sample.

The significance of the puma to children and adolescents in Brazil has most likely been

overshadowed by the exceptional prominence of its larger relative, the jaguar.

The jaguar was predominantly perceived as a predator that threatens human safety and

property. Such a perception may elicit feelings of fear and anger. Jaguars are also perceived

as beautiful, and aesthetic appreciation is another emotional response. Emotion-laden

adjectives were far more frequently attributed to the jaguar than were emotionally neutral

ones. This apparent association in young people between key perceptions of jaguars and

emotional responses is also likely to be found, to some extent, in adults. Although most

studies on the human dimensions of wildlife have adopted a cognitive approach to

understanding human behaviour (Manfredo 2008), our results corroborate the notion that


52

emotions may also play a role in determining attraction or hostility towards wildlife, and

large carnivores in particular. Therefore, our understanding of the conflicts between people

and jaguars, and the design of more effective strategies to solve or mitigate them, may be

improved by the understanding of the interrelationships of cognitive concepts such as values,

norms and attitudes with affective concepts such as emotions.

Surprisingly, knowledge about jaguars, concern about their threat to human safety and

property, and attraction to the species did not change significantly over the age range

represented by this study. This suggests that lasting perceptions and prejudices about jaguars

may be acquired before the age of 10, and that without intervention these will persist at least

into early adulthood. Further research should be targeted at children under the age of 10 to

examine the origin and development of their perceptions about jaguars; their education

should then be targeted accordingly. We contend that education and communication

interventions might also be used effectively to increase knowledge and improve perceptions

among older children and adolescents. This could be especially successful if variations in

knowledge and perceptions among genders and locations, and in cognitive prominence with

age, were taken into account. In rural Amazonia, for example, where young people are less

knowledgeable about jaguars than in the Pantanal and knowledge predicts the choice of the

jaguar as the most liked species, information-intensive campaigns may increase knowledge of

and therefore empathy towards the jaguar, especially if children are targeted at 12-13 years

old, the age-group in this study to which jaguars had greatest cognitive prominence.

Increasing knowledge might also contribute to jaguar conservation in rural Pantanal. Many

young people in rural Pantanal will grow up to make decisions about the management of

cattle and natural resources on their household‟s property but, despite being more

knowledgeable about jaguars than other groups in this study, their knowledge about jaguar


53

ecology and predation issues was nevertheless rudimentary. For example, only 17% of young

people from rural Pantanal could distinguish jaguar and puma footprints. Our observations

also suggest that educational interventions in the Pantanal would be more effective if they

addressed fear of jaguars, particularly among girls, and concern about the impact of jaguars

on livestock, and targeted 16 and 17 year olds, amongst whom jaguars had greatest cognitive

prominence and were most likely to be perceived as endangered.

If the future of the jaguar does depend on perceptions of the species among Brazilian children

and adolescents, then advocates for the species should be alert to the influence, identified

here, of television and schools as information sources. It is possible that respondents perceive

television and schools as sources of information in general, rather than specifically about

jaguars, but nevertheless they could serve as useful media for recommendations about

communication interventions. Television might have the greatest potential to influence

perceptions of jaguars among urban children and adolescents. Jaguars have been featured in

only a few documentaries shown on Brazilian television compared to lions, cheetahs, sharks

or crocodiles. Documentaries shown on public television typically emphasize the predatory

behaviour and elusive and mysterious character of the jaguar. Conservation organizations

should consider producing videos that address the importance of the jaguar, clarify its real

impact on human livelihoods, and explain how to minimise this impact. Videos could be

broadcast by local public television networks at relatively low cost in areas where human-

jaguar conflict is an issue.

School-based conservation education might be particularly effective in Brazil because

primary school enrolment rates are relatively high in the country, and a large proportion of

Brazilian children and adolescents could therefore be reached through their schools. Primary


54

school enrolment in Brazil (97%) is greater than in many other countries of conservation

concern, e.g. Ethiopia 45%, Namibia 73%, Bolivia 78%, Zimbabwe 82%, Botswana 85%

(Unesco 2007). In Mato Grosso State, for example, 97.6% of school-age children are enrolled

at a primary school (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics 2007). On the other hand,

the quality of Brazilian schools - in particular the public schools - is considered unsatisfactory

(Unesco 2008), and this might offer another opportunity for conservation. School directors

and teachers generally recognise their human and financial limits to addressing conservation

issues even at local or community scales, and are often willing to cooperate with conservation

organizations. Conservationists could integrate jaguar conservation education into school

curricula by acting as a resource to the school. Providing professional development for

teachers and field experiences for both teachers and students might substantially increase

their willingness to cooperate. Providing resource materials on jaguar conservation might also

help, as biology textbooks convey very little information about jaguars. Zoos emerged as

another important source of information about jaguars among São Paulo students. Despite the

potential role of zoos in education for conservation (Tunnicliffe and Scheersoi 2009), it might

not be cost-effective over most of the species‟ Brazilian range to take school children to see a

jaguar in a zoo because of the large distances involved (Marchini and Luciano 2009).

However, in rural Pantanal and Amazonia where jaguar persecution occurs, the parents

appear to be the most important factor in shaping young peoples‟ perceptions of jaguars. In

these areas jaguars are persecuted by adults, whose influence (along with that of other adults)

over their children contributes to the perpetuation of persecution. Young people‟s views of

the jaguar in rural Brazil are locally constructed, in an informal, family setting, and often

passed orally between generations. Therefore, efforts to improve the accuracy of the

perceptions of rural children and adolescents regarding jaguars in Brazil will ultimately need


55

to be directed through their parents. However, given the low human population density in

rural areas of Brazil, the lack of free time available to many adults, and the resistance of some

landowners to outsiders, schools may also be effective conduits through which to reach

adults. In short, we suggest that students can help educate their parents. Reaching tens of

students in a classroom, or hundreds on the school‟s soccer pitch, might be more cost-

effective than visiting landowners one-by-one at home, providing that students can, in turn,

influence their parents. Children are known to influence their parents‟ purchasing decisions

(Flurry and Burns 2005; Roedder-John 1999) and environmental attitudes (Ballantyne et al.

1998; Duvall and Zint 2007). Adults also hold keen interest and strong feelings (both concern

and attraction) towards jaguars (Cavalcanti et al. 2010), which might enhance inter-

generational learning about jaguar-related issues. An important applied research question,

therefore, is whether, and how most effectively, children can influence their parents‟ attitudes

and behaviour regarding jaguars in rural Pantanal and Amazonia.

.

Chapter 3 – Perceptions behind the conflicts

56

CHAPTER 3

PERCEPTIONS BEHIND THE CONFLICTS BETWEEN

PEOPLE AND JAGUARS IN AMAZONIA AND PANTANAL

Opinion is ultimately determined by the feelings, and not by the intellect

Herbert Spencer

Abstract

In an investigation of the perceptions behind the conflicts between people and jaguars in

Amazonia and Pantanal, we explored how perceptions of the impact of jaguars on

livestock and on human safety vary with region, place of residence, experience of

jaguars (including reported livestock loss), attitudes towards jaguars, knowledge of the

species, and perceptions of changes in jaguar abundance and the regional economic

situation. Livestock loss and threat to human safety were not the only predictors of the

perceived conflict with jaguars. Livestock loss acted in combination with attitudes,

knowledge and perceptions of the economic situation to determine how people perceive

the impact jaguars have on their livelihoods. Attitudes and knowledge, in turn, were

influenced by age, gender and whether respondents lived in urban or rural areas. An

experiment in which respondents were shown photographs of dead livestock and asked

to ascribe the cause of death revealed an interaction between attitudes and knowledge:

of respondents whose knowledge of the species was low, those with negative attitudes

towards jaguars assigned a larger number of photographs to jaguar depredation. Our

evidence suggests that attitudes and knowledge can affect the conclusions a rancher

draws from finding the carcass of a cow, or even from noticing that a cow is missing.

The impact of attitudes and knowledge on perceptions was greatest for smaller

properties. Landowners with smaller holdings had more negative attitudes and poorer

knowledge, and the lack of difference in attitudes between the owners of smaller

holdings where cattle were or were not raised shows that conflict with jaguars on small

properties has less to do with livestock loss than is usually believed. The owners of


57

smaller holdings believed that depredation was more serious on neighbouring properties

than on their own, which suggests that perceptions of conflict with jaguars amongst this

category of landowner were shaped primarily by what is heard from other people, and

not by personal experience.

Introduction

Wherever people and jaguars live in close proximity, they generally come into conflict

(Loveridge et al. 2010). As the largest wild felid in the Western Hemisphere, and an

opportunistic predator, the jaguar poses a direct and recurrent threat to large livestock

and to human safety. The persecution of jaguars is assumed to be a direct response to

these threats. However, the ultimate motivation for persecution may not be the loss of

livestock to jaguars (or attacks on humans – which are very rare), but rather the

perceived potential for these threats and for their impact on human livelihoods

(Cavalcanti et al. 2010). Deep-rooted prejudices, hatred and fear towards jaguars may

affect those perceptions. Distorted perceptions could prove perilous to a threatened

species, exacerbating the risks posed by retribution killing, and rendering irrelevant

many ecologically-based conservation actions and mitigation measures.

Conflicts between ranchers and jaguars over livestock have been documented

throughout the jaguar‟s range, (e.g. Argentina: Schiaffino et al. 2002; Belize:

Rabinowitz 1986; Brazil: Cavalcanti 2008; Costa Rica: Saenz and Carrillo 2002;

Guatemala: Soto 2008; Venezuela: Polisar et al. 2003). Livestock depredation on small

ranches, stocked with small herds of cattle, can be ruinous (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993).

However, livestock losses to jaguar are generally small when averaged over time and

space. Average losses attributed to jaguars in Brazil range from 0.2 - 2.3% of livestock

holdings in the Cerrado (Palmeira 2004), the Atlantic Forest (Conforti and Azevedo


58

2003), southern Amazonia (Michalski et al. 2006), southern Pantanal (Azevedo and

Murray 2007), two ranches in northern Pantanal (Dalponte 2002), and a larger portion

of the northern Pantanal (Zimmermann et al. 2005). Sometimes, a major factor

predisposing a particular herd to jaguar predation is poor husbandry (Azevedo and

Murray 2007; Michalski et al. 2006). While the risk of predation is greater among cattle

left unattended close to forest cover (Azevedo and Murray 2007), documented losses of

cattle to jaguar predation are generally much fewer than those attributable to accident,

snake bite, disease, parturition problems, flood (Azevedo and Murray 2007) and even

theft (R. Hoogesteijn, pers. comm.). Furthermore, on some ranches, livestock

depredation by puma may be more common than depredation by jaguars (Polisar et al.

2003).

As for human fatalities and injuries, in contrast to the historical and contemporary

record of unprovoked attacks on humans by lions (Panthera leo) (Patterson 1907;

Yamasaki et al. 1999; Saberwal et al. 1994), tigers (Panthera tigris) (McDougal et al.

2001), leopards (Panthera pardus) (McDougal 1989), pumas (Puma concolor) (Beier

1991; Deurbrouck and Miller 2001), wolves (Canis lupus) (Linnell et al. 2002; McNay

2002), and bears (Ursus sp). (Herrero and Higgins 1995), attacks by jaguars have been

almost invariably associated with the cornering or injury of hunted jaguars, or the

defence of cubs or carcasses. In Brazil, the only documented, unprovoked, fatal attack

by a jaguar on a human occurred on 24 June 2008, when a young fisherman was killed

by a jaguar while sleeping in his tent on a bank of the Paraguay River in the Pantanal.

One speculation has been that this unique incident was a result of jaguars in that area

becoming habituated to people around baits used to attract jaguars to be photographed

by tourists.


59

Irrespective of the magnitude of damage or threat that they pose, jaguars have been

severely persecuted; killing them indiscriminately is one of the most serious threats to

their survival across Latin America (Zeller 2007). Persecution is the major cause of

jaguar mortality outside of protected areas (Nowell and Jackson 1996) and, due to their

wide-ranging movements, threatens jaguars within protected areas as well (Woodroffe

and Ginsberg 1998). Together with habitat loss, persecution has reduced jaguars to 46%

of their historical range (Sanderson et al. 2002). In Brazil, despite the prohibition of

jaguar hunting in 1967, persecution of jaguars continued and contributed to the species

becoming critically endangered in the Caatinga, endangered in the Cerrado and

vulnerable in the Atlantic Forest (Paula et al. in press), although country-wide their

status is near threatened (Caso et al 2008). Brazil contains more than half of the world‟s

c. 30,000 jaguars (Medellin 2009), and encompasses the two largest strongholds for the

species (Sanderson et al. 2002): the Amazonian rainforests and the wetlands of the

Pantanal. In both Amazonia and the Pantanal, however, jaguars occur mostly outside of

protected areas. Less than 8% of the Brazilian Amazon is formally under full protection

(Instituto Socioambiental 2009) and 95% of the Pantanal is privately owned (Seidl et al.

2001). Most encounters between people and jaguars take place on cattle ranches.

Therefore, the future of jaguars is likely to be tightly linked to the perceptions of

Brazilian ranchers and ranch managers. However, despite the rapid growth of academic

interest in perceptions of wildlife in general (Manfredo 2008) and carnivores in

particular (Baker and Macdonald 2004; Dickman 2008; Kalternborn and Bjerke 2002;

Røskaft et al. 2007; Treves and Karanth 2003), little is known about perceptions of

jaguars and the factors that influence them.


60

The first study on local perceptions of jaguars in Brazil was conducted by Conforti and

Azevedo (2003), who evaluated 72 livestock ranchers around Iguaçu National Park in

southern Brazil. They found that perceptions towards jaguars were not influenced by the

history of predation on the properties surveyed. Likewise, among the 50 landowners

interviewed in northern Pantanal by Zimmermann et al. (2005), attitudes towards

jaguars were more closely related to respondents‟ age and relative wealth than to cattle

losses, with younger and wealthier ranchers holding more positive attitudes towards

them. In southern Amazonia, over half of the 62 ranchers interviewed by Michalski et

al. (2006) were interested in implementing non-lethal methods to control predation

levels on their ranches, but about one third explicitly were not. Palmeira and Barrela

(2007) evaluated 28 householders in a small, traditional, rural community in

southeastern Brazil, where most respondents held negative attitudes towards jaguars and

wished the species would be eliminated. In contrast, the majority of the 1,007 people

interviewed by Santos et al. (2008) in the five biomes of Brazil (i.e. Amazonia,

Pantanal, Atlantic Forest, Cerrado and Caatinga) were in favour of jaguar conservation.

Altogether these studies revealed strong and contradictory attitudes to the species and,

along with our previous results (Cavalcanti et al. 2010), suggest that the perceived

impact of jaguars on human livelihoods may often exceed the evidence.

Except for the work by Santos et al. (2008), the foregoing studies were each conducted

at single sites and evaluated only people who were directly involved in conflict with

jaguars; negative experience with jaguars – specifically, livestock depredation – was

addressed as the predictor of conflict. Attitudes to jaguars and/or jaguar management

have been assessed, but only Zimmermann et al. (2005) have examined the potential

predictors of attitudes, and nobody has reported on any relationship between attitudes


61

and people‟s tendency to kill jaguars. Knowledge about jaguars was assessed by

Conforti and Azevedo (2003), but the influence of knowledge on people‟s perceptions

about jaguars has not been examined.

We assessed peoples‟ perceptions of the impact of jaguars on livelihoods in Amazonia

and the Pantanal, and explored relationships between these perceptions and socio-

economic variables such as age, gender, place of residence (urban/rural) and property

size, plus psychological variables such as experiences, attitudes and knowledge about

jaguars. We hypothesized that perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods are

not explained solely by the loss of livestock to jaguars, or by attacks on humans, but

socio-economic and psychological factors as well. Given the socio-economic and

cultural differences between the Amazon deforestation frontier and the Pantanal (see

below), we expected cattle ranchers in the two study areas to differ in their perceptions

of the impact of jaguars on their livelihoods, irrespective of the damage posed by

jaguars (Hypothesis 1). We also expected that perceptions of the impact of jaguars on

livelihoods and attitudes to jaguars would not differ between cattle ranchers – who are

exposed to both livestock loss and personal damage by jaguars – and farmers - who are

exposed to personal damage but not livestock loss (Hypothesis 2). Furthermore, we

hypothesized that the perceived impact of the jaguar on human safety would not be

necessarily greater among rural residents – who are potentially exposed to the attack by

jaguars – than among urban residents – who are not (Hypothesis 3). We expected

negative experiences with jaguars (i.e. attack of jaguars on livestock and people) to

determine perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and human safety (Hypothesis 4).

However, we hypothesized that attitudes to jaguars and knowledge about the species

would also influence these perceptions (Hypothesis 5). Age, gender and property size


62

were expected to indirectly affect perceptions of impact by their effect on attitudes and

knowledge (Hypothesis 6). To investigate further the role of negative experiences

versus attitudes and knowledge in determining perceptions of jaguar impact on

livestock, we conducted an experiment in which respondents were asked to interpret

photographs of dead cattle and assign the most likely cause of death. We hypothesized

that respondents with stronger negative attitudes to jaguars and less knowledge about

them would assign more photographs to jaguar predation (Hypothesis 7).

Methods

Study areas and participants

This study was conducted in Amazonia and Pantanal (Study Areas, Chapter 1). In

Amazonia we worked in the districts of Alta Floresta and Novo Mundo, on the frontier

of deforestation in the north of the state of Mato Grosso, southern Amazonia. Alta

Floresta was founded in 1976 and colonized by migrant farmers, mostly from southern

Brazil. Properties surveyed in Amazonia were located between 9°23'2.13"S and

9°49'30.86"S and 56°20'25.59"W and 55°25'25.36"W. In the Pantanal, we worked in

the neighbouring districts of Cáceres and Poconé, in the south of the state of Mato

Grosso. The Pantaneiro landowner is typically from long-established, land-owning

dynasties (Barros 1998), and cattle ranching is their main economic activity (Brazilian

Institute of Geography and Statistics 2007). As with the Amazon frontier, northern

Pantanal hosts large cattle herds (around 832,000 and 347,000 head in Cáceres and

Poconé, respectively; Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 2007) and

depredation attributed to jaguars is a major cause of complaint by the local ranchers

(Marchini 2003; Zimmermann et al. 2005). Ranches surveyed in the Pantanal were


63

located between 16°14'54.69"S and 17°26'58.17"S and 58°18'5.40"W and

56°22'28.04"W.

While sharing the characteristic of hosting large population of both cattle and jaguars,

northern Pantanal and southern Amazonia differ in many social and cultural aspects, as

the former is populated by traditional families that have raised cattle there for

generations and southern Amazonia is largely inhabited by recent immigrants who came

from different parts of Brazil (Cavalcanti et al. 2010).

In both study areas, rural and urban residents were surveyed. In rural areas, the sample

unit was the property, with either owner – wife or preferably husband - from each

surveyed (in a few large ranches, the ranch manager was interviewed when neither of

the owners were available). The Association of Rural Workers of Alta Floresta, Cáceres

and Poconé provided a list of members, with landowner‟s name and contact

information, from which we could randomly select ranches. However, the lists were not

comprehensive. The lack of property registers was particularly pronounced in the

settlements around Cristalino State Park in the municipality of Novo Mundo. Therefore,

a combination of techniques was added to ensure randomness and representativeness.

Google Earth imagery (Google Inc. 2009) was used to map all the roads within the

study areas (available road maps do not include minor roads). A systematic sampling

strategy was then used on each road, selecting every other property along the road. In

Amazonia, ranches were easily accessible by land and all interviews were carried out on

site, while in the Pantanal some properties near the Transpantaneira highway could be

visited but many others were inaccessible overland. Hence, many ranchers were

interviewed in their second residences in town. In Amazonia, properties where the main


64

economic activity was non-stock agriculture were also included in the survey. Urban

residents were interviewed in Alta Floresta and Poconé. On the most central streets of

each town, we selected every fifth home or shop until 50 owners in each study area had

been interviewed.

Our intended survey population was the Amazon deforestation frontier and the

Pantanal; our sample frame represented all major interest groups within this (i.e. urban

residents and cattle ranchers in both regions and farmers in Amazonia). Although we

used different sampling methods to reach these target groups, we achieved high

response rates from each group, and results from our survey can be generalized to other

parts of the Amazon deforestation frontier and Pantanal.

Data collection

The study was conducted between March and October 2007 (Amazonia) and between

February and May 2008 (Pantanal). Face-to-face interviews were used. Conflict with

jaguar can be a sensitive issue in rural areas, and some respondents may have held

negative attitudes towards individuals and institutions that advocate wildlife

conservation. Such attitudes can be stronger towards people and institutions perceived

as foreign to the region (Marchini 2003). Therefore, some measures were taken to avoid

response and interviewer biases. All interviews were conducted by SM, who is

Brazilian. SM was always accompanied by a male local field assistant during the

interviews. SM was as objective and neutral in appearance and behaviour as possible.

Survey visits were made using a vehicle marked with the logo of a locally renowned

educational project of Alta Floresta, of which SM is the coordinator. SM introduced

himself as a representative of the educational project, rather than of a conservation or


65

overseas organisation. He explained to respondents that the purpose of the survey was to

collect data on people‟s perceptions of wildlife, and that these would ultimately

contribute to the educational project. The word „jaguar‟ was not mentioned during the

introduction.

We conducted a pilot study using qualitative, semi-structured interviews (Oppenheim

1998) with 130 people (90 rural and urban residents in Amazonia, and 10 ranchers and

30 urban residents in the Pantanal). By listening to people talk freely, we were able to

identify salient beliefs, perceptions, and peculiarities of the local parlance, which were

then used in the design of the questionnaire, and in adjusting our language to the target

groups. During the piloting process, open-ended questions were replaced incrementally

by clear, quantitative questions that would produce data suitable for statistical analysis.

Ultimately we designed a structured interview (Oppenheim 1998) (Appendix II) to

examine the following: (1) perceptions of the impact of jaguars on human livelihood;

(2) experience of jaguars; (3) attitude towards jaguars; (4) knowledge about jaguars and

depredation; (5) socio-demographic variables; and (6) description of the property. Two

elements that emerged from the initial semi-structured interviews were also

incorporated: perceptions of (7) change in jaguar abundance and (8) the regional

economic situation. The variables are described in more detail below.

Perceptions of the impact of jaguars on human livelihood. We asked 8 questions, from

an initial pool of 15 questions, designed to measure perceptions of jaguar impact using a

6-point scoring system that reflected the magnitude of the impact (0 none to 5 very

high). Questions were designed to assess beliefs about past damage and perceptions of

risk of future damage at different geographical (ranch / neighbourhood / district) and


66

demographic (personal / household / community) scales. Questions about the impact of

jaguars on livestock were asked only to cattle ranchers. Responses were summated to

obtain the respondent‟s total score.

Experience of jaguars. Three categories of experience with jaguars were assessed:

livestock loss; acquaintance with injured person; and sighting. The questions were open-

ended: What percentage of your herd was lost to jaguars in the last 12 months? (cattle

ranchers only); How many people do you personally know that have been injured by a

jaguar?; How many times have you seen a live jaguar in the wild?

Attitude towards jaguars. We assessed respondents‟ attitudes towards jaguars,

according to (Ajzen and Fishbein 2000; Ajzen 2001)‟s definition of attitudes, “the

tendencies people have when they view an entity with some degree of favourability or

unfavourability”. Attitudes were measured using a combination of Likert scales (e.g.

strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree) and

semantic differential statements (where respondents are offered a choice of two polar

opposite responses e.g. good-bad) (Oppenheim 1998). Each question consisted of a

statement about jaguars, and two extreme response options describing the potential

range of attitudes to the statement, e.g. very sad – very happy. Respondents were asked

to select a point on a five-point scale between those options that reflected their view.

We coded each answer -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2. Some questions were phrased in favour of

jaguars, and others against, in an effort to balance any potential bias associated with

question direction. However responses that were favourable to jaguars were always

coded positively, and responses that were unfavourable were always coded negatively,

so that we could construct a summated rating scale to summarise an individual

respondent‟s overall attitude towards jaguars. We used Cronbach‟s alpha to improve the


67

internal coherence of the scale by discarding items to maximize the alpha value (Vaske,

2008). Five questions were used so the summated rating scale ranged from -10 to +10.

The questions were as follows: (1) You would like the jaguar population in the region

to: decrease a lot - increase a lot; (2) If all the jaguars disappeared forever from the

region, you would feel: very sad - very happy; (3) What you feel towards jaguars is

better described as: dislike a lot - like a lot; (4) The jaguar has its value, even if it does

not generate any income to you: strongly disagree - strongly agree; (5) If you had to

walk on your own in a forest where there are jaguars, you would feel scared: strongly

disagree - strongly agree.

Knowledge about jaguars and depredation. For knowledge questions all answers were

coded as dichotomous variables, using 1 for a correct answer and 0 for an incorrect

answer and “do not know”. Knowledge was measured by seven questions so that the

scale ranged from 0 (minimum knowledge) to 7 (maximum knowledge). Questions were

posed as statements, three of which were correct and four incorrect. The statements

were: (i) The jaguar generally begins to consume its prey from the front while the puma

consumes the areas from the ribs back (correct); (ii) A jaguar‟s prey is usually hidden

and covered with leaves, while a puma‟s prey isn‟t (incorrect); (iii) The jaguar‟s prey

generally presents a bite mark at the base of the neck, while the puma‟s prey generally

has a bite on the throat (correct); (iv) The jaguar‟s track is longer than wide with thinner

and pointed toes, while the puma‟s track is slightly wider than long, with round toes

(incorrect); (v) A female jaguar produces in average 1 or 2 cubs every other year

(correct); (vi) Black jaguars are more dangerous to cattle than yellow jaguars

(incorrect); (vii) Jaguars kill more people every year in Brazil than do domestic dogs

(incorrect).


68

Perception of change in jaguar abundance. A five-point semantic differential scale was

used to measure belief concerning changes in jaguar abundance: Jaguar abundance on

your property is currently: decreasing a lot (coded as -2) to increasing a lot (coded as 2).

“No opinion” was coded as 0. This question was asked to rural residents only.

Perception of the regional economic situation. Two questions on a five-point semantic

differential scale with answers coded from -2 to 2 were used to measure perception of

economic situation: the economic situation of (respondent‟s main economic activity) in

the region is currently: very bad (-2) to very good (2), and The regional economic

situation is currently: declining fast (-2) to improving fast (2). Responses were

summated to obtain the respondent‟s total score, which ranged from -4 (very bad and

declining fast) to 4 (very good and improving fast).

Socio-demographic and property variables. Data on age, gender and education, and on

property size and land use (rural residents only) were obtained through fill-in-the-blank

questions. Education was coded as follows: illiterate (0); incomplete elementary school

(1); complete elementary school (2); incomplete high school (3); complete high school

(4); and college (5).

Photograph interpretation experiment

In addition to the main interview survey, a stratified random sample of respondents (55

ranchers in Amazonia and 15 in the Pantanal) was asked to interpret a set of 10

photographs of dead cattle. Four of the photographs presented evidence of predation by

jaguar, three presented evidence of predation by puma, and three did not present

evidence of predation by any particular predator (Appendix III). Photographs measured

approximately 13 x 21 cm and were laminated in transparent plastic. They were handed


69

to the respondents one by one in a random order. Respondents were given time to

examine each photograph before being asked the following open-ended question: What

was the cause of the death of this animal? Answers were coded as dichotomous

variables, using 1 for any kind of reference to predation by jaguar and 0 for other causes

and “do not know”. Whether the answer was correct or not was not taken into account,

as the experiment was not intended to measure respondents‟ knowledge about

depredation but rather to explore the effects of experience, attitudes and knowledge on

their interpretation of the photographs.

Data analysis

Statistical analyses were run in SPSS 16. First we used Exploratory Factor Analysis

(EFA) with a varimax rotation, a simple data reduction technique, to reduce the

interview data on perceptions of jaguar impact (8 questions) among cattle ranchers to a

smaller set of variables that explained key themes (represented by factors) in the data.

The meaning of the factors is interpreted by inspecting the pattern of correlations

between the original input variables and the output factors (the factor loadings). We

used the results of the EFA to produce two new „perception of jaguar impact‟ scales and

further refined these for inclusion in analyses. The internal consistency of the two scales

was examined using Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficients. Cronbach‟s alpha

measures the extent to which item responses (i.e. answers to survey questions) correlate

with each other (Cronbach 2004). The statistic can range from 0.00 to 1.00. A

Cronbach‟s alpha of 0.90 implies that scale is 90% reliable. By convention, an alpha of

0.70 is considered an adequate scale in human dimensions research (Vaske 2008).


70

General linear models, post-hoc Tukey tests and χ2 tests were used to examine broad

differences in survey variables between sample group means (Table 3.1). Pearson

correlation coefficients were used to examine the correlations between predictor

variables and perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods among cattle ranchers

in Amazonia and the Pantanal. Next, two sets of General Linear Models (GLM) were

performed to develop a predictive model of perception of jaguar impact on human

livelihoods for ranchers in the two study areas. The first GLM analysis examined the

prediction of perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and human safety. Instead of an

automated stepwise procedure, a structured comparison of specific models defined a

priori based on different explanation of perceptions of impact was carried out.

Sequential sum of squares (type I models) were used so that each effect in an individual

model adjusted only for preceding effects in the model. The following models were

assessed: (Model 1) negative experiences with jaguars: loss of livestock to jaguars and

acquaintance with people who had been injured by a jaguar, (Model 2) significant

predictors of Model 1 plus psychological variables: attitude towards jaguars, knowledge

about jaguars and depredation, sighting of jaguars in the wild, perception of increase in

jaguar abundance and perception of economic situation, and (Model 3) significant

predictors of Model 2 plus socio-economic variables: age, gender, education and

property size. The second set of GLM examined the effect of the socio-economic

variables on the negative experiences and psychological variables that significantly

affected perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods in the first GLM analysis.

General linear models were also used to examine the effect of knowledge, attitudes, and

reported livestock loss on the number of photographs attributed to jaguar depredation in

the photograph interpretation experiment.


71

Results

Characteristics of sample

We conducted a total of 463 interviews including 52 in urban Pantanal, 50 in urban

Amazonia, 48 in rural Pantanal and 313 in rural Amazonia. The rural Amazonia sample

included 92 properties where agriculture was the main economic activity and no cattle

were raised. Table 3.1 presents additional information about the sample characteristics.

Perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods

Refinement of the scales

The exploratory factor analysis extracted two factors from the 8 jaguar impact

statements, explaining 66% of the variance. Table 3.2 displays the factor loadings and

eigenvalues associated with each factor. The variables most strongly correlated with

Factor 1 (factor loadings = 0.45 to 0.83) were four statements on livestock depredation .

Factor 2 was most strongly influenced by four statements relating to impact on human

safety (factor loadings = 0.58 to 0.92). As a result, perception of impact could now be

described using two scales representing „perceived impact on livestock‟ (identified by

Factor 1) and „perceived impact on human safety‟ (identified by Factor 2). Cronbach‟s

alpha reliability coefficients were used to examine the internal consistency of each

scale. The reliability coefficients for the items in each factor were 0.88 (perceived

impact on livestock scale) and 0.86 (perceived impact on human safety scale).


72

Table 3.1. Summary statistics for each socio-economic variable and results of general linear models, Tukey tests and χ2test comparing variables among sample

groups (p < 0.05; groups indicated by the same letter were not significantly different).

Variable (unit or scale)

Group (n)

dffactor dferror F / χ2

Urban Rural

Amazon

(n=50)

Pantanal

(n=52)

Non-ranchers Ranchers

Amazon

(n=92)

Amazon

(n=220)

Pantanal

(n=48)

Age

(years)

Range

Mean ± SD

21 to 74

44.0 ± 13.0a

18 to 66

37.5 ± 10.5a

17 to 77

43.4 ± 13.1a

17 to 82

42.4 ± 13.1a

27 to 77

54.8 ± 11.8b

4 452 10.39

p < 0.001

Gender

(male/female)

Male % 76.0 59.6 72.8 73.3 100.0 4 - 22.98

p < 0.001

Education

(0 to 5)

Range

Mean ± SD

1 to 5

2.68 ± 0.88ac

1 to 4

3.06 ± 0.94a

0 to 3

0.96 ± 0.55b

0 to 5

1.26 ± 0.76b

0 to 5

2.29 ± 1.43c

4 458 87.85

p < 0.001

Property size

(ha)

Range

Mean ± SD

- - 2.4 to 144

33.9 22.9a

2.4 to 21,600

298.8 1,581.1a

750 to 27,000

5,524.0 5,342.4b

2 358 153.77

p <0 .001


73

Table 3.2. Factor loadings and eigenvalues for the two factors extracted using Exploratory

Factor Analysis to describe perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihood. Variables

selected to construct the final scales are shown in bold.

Variable

Factor loadings

Impact on

livestocka

Impact on

human safetyb

1. Damage associated with depredation ever

caused by jaguars to you. 0.83 -0.17

2. Damage associated with depredation ever

caused by jaguars to your neighbours. 0.79 -0.15

3. Risk of any damage associated with

depredation to you in the next 12 months. 0.75 -0.09

4. Risk of any damage associated with

depredation to your neighbours in the next 12

months.

0.71 -0.25

5. Number of people ever hurt by a jaguar in

the neighbourhood.

-0.12 0.92

6. Number of household members ever hurt by

a jaguar.

-0.12 0.87

7. Risk of you being hurt by a jaguar in the

next 12 months.

-0.20 0.74

8. Risk of a household member being hurt by a

jaguar in the next 12 months.

-0.13 0.67

Eigenvalues 3.27 1.83

Percentage of total variance 36.2 29.8

a Perceived impact on livestock: Cronbach‟s alpha = 0.88

b Perceived impact on human safety: Cronbach‟s alpha = 0.86

Perceived impact on livestock and human safety

In support of Hypothesis 1, cattle ranchers in Amazonia and the Pantanal differed in

their perceptions of the impact of jaguars on their livelihoods. Perceived jaguar impact

on livestock was significantly greater among ranchers in the Pantanal than in Amazonia

(Table 3.3). Owners of smaller landholdings (by area) tended to perceive a higher

impact of jaguar predation on their neighbours‟ ranches than they did on their own

ranch. This discrepancy between perceived impacts on neighbours‟ versus own ranch

decreased with increasing property size (Pearson correlation; r = - 0.522, p < 0.001)

(Figure 3.1).


74

Figure 3.1. Perception of jaguar impact on livestock: difference between neighbouring ranches

and own ranch (positive values mean higher impact on neighbouring ranches and zero means no

difference) and property sizes in Amazonia and Pantanal.

Perceived jaguar impact on human safety differed significantly between ranchers in

Amazonia and the Pantanal, with the latter holding the lowest perception of impact

among the five groups (Table 3.3). In rural Amazonia, cattle ranchers and farmers did

not differ in their perception of jaguar impact on human safety, in accordance with

Hypothesis 2. Urban residents in Amazonia had the strongest perceptions of jaguar

impact upon human safety, supporting Hypothesis 3.


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Table 3.3. Summary statistics for perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and human safety and results of general linear models and

Tukey tests comparing these variables among sample groups (p < 0.05; groups indicated by the same letter were not significantly different).


Group (n)

dffactor dferror F α

Urban Rural

Amazon

(n=50)

Pantanal

(n=52)


Amazon

(n=92)

Amazon

(n=220)

Pantanal

(n=48)

Perception of

jaguar impact

on livestock

(0 to 20)

Range

Mean ± SD

- - - 0 to 15

2.52 ± 2.61

2 to 14

7.58 ± 2.89

1 267 142.79

p < 0.001

0.88

Perception of

jaguar impact

on human

safety

(0 to 20)

Range

Mean ± SD

8 to 20

15.84 ± 2.49a

4 to 16

12.23 ± 2.82b

4 to 16

12.59 ± 2.64b

6 to 18

11.82 ± 2.37b

2 to 20

10.29 ± 3.57c

4 458 31.58

p < 0.001

0.86


76

Table 3.4. Summary statistics for experiences, attitudes and knowledge about jaguars, perception of change in jaguar abundance and perception of the

economic situation, and results of general linear models, Tukey tests and χ2test comparing these variables among sample groups (p < 0.05; groups



Group (n)

dffactor dferror F / χ2

Urban Rural

Amazon

(n=50)

Pantanal

(n=52)


Amazon

(n=92)

Amazon

(n=220)

Pantanal

(n=48) α

Experience: Livestock

loss

(% of holdings)

Range

%

- - - 0 to 10

0.87

0 to 10

2.21

1 267 31.19

p < 0.001

Experience:

Acquaintance with

injured person (yes/no)

Yes % 4.0 9.6 8.7 8.6 55.0 4 - 0.012

p < 0.001

Experience: Sighting

(yes/no)

Yes% 8.0 19.2 14.1 24.0 89.6 4 - p < 0.001

Attitude

(-10 to 10)

Range

Mean ± SD

-2 to 10

3.72 ± 2.62a

-4 to 10

4.35 ± 3.06a

-2 to 8

2.37 ± 2.12b

-10 to 9

1.82 ± 3.12b

-5 to 8

2.83 ± 3.32b

4 458 10.64

p < 0.001

0.92

Knowledge

(0 to 7)

Range

Mean ± SD

1 to 6

2.51 ± 1.05a

1 to 4

2.06 ± 0.78ab

1 to 6

1.86 ± 1.17b

1 to 7

3.30 ± 1.22c

3 to 7

5.51 ± 0.87d

4 458 99.74

p <0 .001

0.76

Perception of change

in jaguar abundance

(-2 to 2)

Range

Mean ± SD

- - -2 to 0

-1.18 ± 0.37a

-2 to 1

-0.72 ± 0.44b

0 to 2

1.32 ± 0.69c

2 358 480.68

p < 0.001

Perception of the

economic situation

(-4 to 4)

Range

Mean ± SD

- - -2 to 2

-0.03± 0.54a

-3 to 2

-0.58 ± 1.08b

-4 to 4

-1.22 ± 2.54c

2 358 14.04

p < 0.001

0.81


77

The effect of region, land use, and place of residence

Negative experiences with jaguars

Reported livestock loss was greater in the Pantanal (2.2% of cattle holdings; Table 3.4) than

in Amazonia (0.9%). Not all of the reported livestock loss to jaguars was associated with

depredation. Twelve per cent of the ranchers in Poconé believed that jaguars caused cattle to

die by scaring them out of the „capões‟ (dry forest patches where cattle find refuge during

floods), into flooded areas, where they either drowned or became stuck in the mud

and starved to death. This purported indirect jaguar-induced mortality of livestock was not

confirmed by field observation.

Accounts of people who had been injured by a jaguar were most frequent in the Pantanal

(Table 3.4). Fifty five percent of the ranchers in the Pantanal claimed to know personally

someone who had been injured by a jaguar, against 8.6 and 8.7% of the ranchers and farmers

in Amazonia, respectively. Among urban residents, 9.6% in the Pantanal had acquaintance of

an injured person against 4% in Amazonia. It seemed that the great majority of accounts

referred to just one particular story of injury caused by a jaguar in each study region, both

happened over 5 years earlier. In Amazonia, the victim would have been attacked during the

night, while sleeping in his hammock, whereas in the Pantanal he would have been attacked

when unwittingly approaching a carcass upon which the jaguar was feeding. SM personally

met and interviewed the two victims who confirmed the stories.

Psychological variables

Table 3.4 displays the differences in experiences, attitudes and knowledge about jaguars, as

well as perception of change in jaguar abundance and perception of the economic situation

across groups. Attitudes towards jaguars differed significantly between places of residence,


78

with urban citizens having more positive attitudes towards the species. In rural Amazonia,

ranchers and farmer did not differ in their attitudes to jaguars, in support of Hypothesis 2.

Ranchers in the Pantanal knew more about jaguars and depredation than did ranchers in

Amazonia. Amazon ranchers were, in turn, more knowledgeable about jaguars and

depredation than farmers in the same region. Urban residents in Amazonia and the Pantanal

had lower levels of knowledge than ranchers and did not differ from each other in their levels

of knowledge.

A far greater percentage of people reported seeing a jaguar in the wild in rural Pantanal

(90%) than anywhere else. More urban residents in the Pantanal had seen a jaguar than had

urban residents in Amazonia. In rural Amazonia, more ranchers had seen a jaguar in the wild

than farmers. While 27% of the cattle ranchers in the Pantanal had lost count of the number

of times they had seen a jaguar, 82% of those people in other groups who had ever seen a

jaguar, had seen one only once (and typically only a glimpse). Sighting was therefore recoded

into a binary variable.

Perceptions regarding both changes in jaguar abundance and the regional economic situation

differed significantly across the three rural groups. Cattle ranchers in the Pantanal reported

the largest increases in jaguar numbers and the gloomiest economic situation, whereas

Amazon farmers held the least negative perceptions of the economic situation and believed

that jaguar numbers were declining in the region.

Socio-economic variables

As shown in Table 3.1, the sample of Pantanal ranchers differed from the other groups for


79

being older and composed exclusively by men. In contrast, in urban Pantanal more than 40%

of the respondents were female. Urban residents had higher levels of education than rural

residents. Ranchers in the Pantanal were more educated than ranchers in Amazonia. In rural

Amazonia, ranchers and farmers did not differ significantly in their levels of education.

Property size varied greatly across groups: the average ranch in the Pantanal was much larger

than the average ranch in Amazonia, which in turn was larger than the average farm in the

region.

Predicting perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihood

Ranchers in Amazonia

Table 3.5 shows that, as expected, reported livestock loss was a significant predictor of

perceived impact of jaguars on livestock (Model 1). In support of Hypothesis 4, cattle

ranchers who reported higher losses of cattle to jaguars held stronger perceptions of the

impact of jaguars on livestock. However, in accordance with Hypothesis 5, the inclusion of

psychological variables (Model 2) accounted for 25% of the variation (R2 = 0.444 against

0.188) over and above reported livestock loss. Attitude to jaguars and knowledge about

jaguars and depredation emerged as significant predictors of perception of jaguar impact on

livestock. Respondents who had more positive attitudes to jaguars and were more

knowledgeable about the species perceived a lower impact of the jaguar on livestock.

Attitudes interacted with knowledge in their effect on perception of jaguar impact on

livestock: the higher the knowledge score, the smaller the effect of attitude on the perception.

At higher knowledge scores (>5), attitudes did not predict perceived impact on livestock

(GLM; β = -0.08, p = 0.399). Figure 3.2 illustrates the interaction between attitudes and

knowledge at lower knowledge levels. Table 3.5 also shows that socio-economic variables

were not significant predictors of perception of jaguar impact on livestock and their inclusion


80

to the model (Model 3) accounted for only 0.6% of the variation in perception.

Figure 3.2. Relationship between perception of jaguar impact on livestock and attitudes to jaguars at

different levels of knowledge (scores 1 and 2: R2 = .460 and scores 3 and 4: R

2 = .198) among cattle

ranchers in Amazonia. The relationship was not significant for knowledge scores 5 to 7.

Table 3.5. General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on livestock in Amazonia.

Results shown in bold are significant.

Model Predictor included R2 B SE t p

1 Reported livestock loss 0.188 1.393 0.196 7.110 < 0.001

Acquaintance with injured people -0.044 0.566 -0.078 0.938

2 Reported livestock loss 0.444 0.833 0.175 4.764 <0.001

Attitude -0.674 0.100 -6.704 <0.001

Knowledge -0.559 0.136 -4.115 <0.001

Attitude x knowledge 0.106 0.031 3.475 0.001

Sighting -0.245 0.318 -0.770 0.442

Perception of change in abundance 0.283 0.306 0.924 0.356

Perception of economic situation -0.023 0.124 -0.184 0.854


Attitude -0.658 0.100 -6.581 <0.001

Knowledge -0.557 0.139 -3.996 <0.001


Age 0.010 0.011 0.922 0.358

Gender 0.208 0.312 0.668 0.505

Education 0.184 0.182 1.012 0.313

Property size <-0.001 <0.001 -0.017 0.987


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As displayed in Table 3.6, negative experiences did not affect perception of jaguar impact on human

safety in Amazonia (Model 1), in contrast to Hypothesis 4. Perception of jaguar impact on human

safety was predicted only by attitude and knowledge (Model 2): the more negative the attitudes

towards jaguars and the lower the knowledge about jaguars and depredation, the stronger the

perception of the impact of jaguars on human safety, in support of Hypothesis 5. Socio-economic

variables were not significant predictors of the perception of jaguar impact on human safety and their

inclusion to the model (Model 3) accounted for only 0.2% of the variance in perception.

Table 3.6. General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on human safety in Amazonia.



1 Reported livestock loss 0.011 0.241 0.197 1.221 0.223

Acquaintance with injured people 0.521 0.569 0.915 0.361

2 Attitude 0.110 -0.221 0.111 -1.984 0.049

Knowledge -0.352 0.152 -2.311 0.022


Sighting 0.199 0.365 0.546 0.586

Perception of change in abundance 0.352 0.352 -0.124 0.902

Perception of economic situation 0.135 0.142 0.948 0.344

3 Attitude 0.112 -0.191 0.051 -3.757 <0.001

Knowledge -0.332 0.137 -2.415 0.017

Age -0.010 0.012 -0.821 0.412

Gender -0.200 0.357 -0.559 0.577

Education -0.157 0.207 -0.759 0.448

Property size <0.001 <0.001 0.387 0.699

Nonetheless, Table 3.7 shows that the socio-economic variables age, gender and property size

were significant predictors of attitude and knowledge, supporting Hypothesis 6. Younger

respondents held more positive attitudes towards jaguars, and male respondents who owned

larger properties had more knowledge about jaguars and depredation.


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Table 3.7. General linear models of the effect of socio-economic variables on the factors that

significantly affected perceptions of the impact of jaguars on human livelihoods in Amazonia. Results

shown in bold are significant.

Dependent

variable

Predictor R2 B SE t p

Reported

livestock loss

Age 0.036 0.004 0.004 0.970 0.333

Gender 0.069 0.129 0.537 0.592

Education 0.105 0.075 1.404 0.162

Property size <0.001 <0.001 0.496 0.620

Attitude Age 0.061 -0.054 0.016 -3.313 0.001

Gender 0.728 0.484 1.541 0.125

Education -0.488 0.278 -1.792 0.074

Property size <0.001 0.000 0.575 0.566

Knowledge Age 0.176 -0.006 0.006 -0.935 0.351

Gender 0.694 0.173 4.0.24 <0.001

Education 0.032 0.101 0.317 0.752

Property size <0.001 <0.001 5.148 <0.001

Ranchers in the Pantanal

As expected, livestock loss significantly affected perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock

also in the Pantanal (Model 1; Table 3.8). Perceived impact of jaguars on livestock was

stronger among ranchers who had reportedly lost more cattle to jaguars, which supports

Hypothesis 4. However, attitude and perception of economic situation emerged as significant

predictors of perception of jaguar impact on livestock, in accordance with Hypothesis 5.

Attitude and perception of economic situation (Model 2) accounted for 40.6% of the variation

in perception (R2 = 0.668 against 0.262) over and above reported livestock loss. The inclusion

of age, education and property size (Model 3) accounted for only 0.6% of the variation in

perception of jaguar impact on livestock and none of the socio-economic variables was a

significant predictor of perception.


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Table 3.8. General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on livestock in the Pantanal.






Attitude -0.285 0.088 -3.256 0.002

Knowledge 0.114 0.309 0.370 0.713

Sighting 0.859 0.893 0.961 0.342




Attitude -0.237 0.098 -2.425 0.020



Age 0.031 0.025 1.213 0.232

Education 0.072 0.188 0.385 0.703

Property size <-0.001 <0.001 -0.273 0.786

Regarding the perceptions of jaguar impact on human safety, negative experiences with jaguars were

not significant predictors (Model 1; Table 3.9), in contrast to Hypothesis 4. The only significant

predictor among the psychological variables was knowledge about jaguars and depredation (Model 2).

In partial support for Hypothesis 5, ranchers who were more knowledgeable about jaguars perceived a

lower impact of jaguars on human safety. Socio-economic factors (Model 3) did not affect perceptions

of the impact of jaguars on human safety. However, in partial support of Hypothesis 6, age affected

attitude to jaguars (Table 3.10): older respondents had more negative attitudes towards jaguars.


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Table 3.9. General linear model predicting perception of jaguar impact on human safety in the

Pantanal. Results shown in bold are significant.


1 Reported livestock loss 0.005 -0.054 0.495 -0.109 0.914


2 Attitude 0.412 -0.186 0.142 -1.307 0.198

Knowledge -1.981 0.501 -3.956 <0.001

Sighting -1.161 1.443 -0.804 0.426


Perception of economic situation 0.301 0.204 1.472 0.148

3 Knowledge 0.416 -2.249 0.504 -4.462 <0.001


Age 0.049 0.036 1.365 0.180

Education 0.359 0.302 1.919 0.241

Property size <0.001 <0.001 0.344 0.732

Photograph interpretation experiment

In the Pantanal, respondents assigned between four and eight of the ten photographs to jaguar

depredation (mean 5.53 ±SD 1.187, n = 15), while in Amazonia, respondents assigned

between zero and ten photos (mean 5.07 ±SD 1.704, n = 56). The number of photographs

assigned to jaguar predation in the Pantanal was not predicted by reported livestock loss,

attitudes towards jaguars, or knowledge of the species. In contrast, in Amazonia, while the

number of photographs was also not predicted by livestock loss (β = .015, p = 945, Eta =

.000) or knowledge (β = .055, p = .764, Eta = .002), it was predicted by attitudes (β = -.47, p

< .001) [Adj. R2 = .31, F = 7.201]. Respondents who had more negative attitudes towards

jaguars assigned a larger number of photographs to jaguar predation. There was a significant

interaction between attitudes and knowledge in Amazonia (β = .047, p = .046); the effect of

attitude on the number of photographs assigned to jaguar predation was stronger when

knowledge about jaguar and depredation was lower, with attitudes influencing the number of

photographs assigned to jaguar depredation for knowledge scores 1 and 2 only.


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Table 3.10. General linear models of the effect of socio-economic variables on the factors that

significantly affected perceptions of the impact of jaguars on human livelihoods in the Pantanal.


Dependent variable Predictor R2 B SE t p

Reported livestock loss Age 0.004 -0.017 0.014 -1.258 0.215

Education -0.065 0.113 -0.571 0.571

Property size <-0.001 0.000 -1.173 0.247

Atttitude Age 0.057 -0.095 0.038 -2.489 0.017

Education 0.117 0.322 0.364 0.717

Property size 0.000 0.000 1.869 0.058

Knowledge Age 0.003 0.006 0.011 0.515 0.609

Education 0.028 0.091 0.306 0.761

Property size <0.001 0.000 1.538 0.131

Perceptions of change in

jaguar abundance

Age 0.007 -0.002 0.009 -0.257 0.798

Education 0.022 0.074 0.298 0.767

Property size <-0.001 0.000 -0.627 0.534

Perceptions of economic

situation

Age 0.000 -0.030 0.031 -0.968 0.338

Education -0.048 0.262 -0.181 0.857

Property size 0.000 0.000 1.728 0.091


We examined the drivers of perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihood and identified

two distinct dimensions in our sample: impact on livestock and impact on human safety.

These can best be addressed separately. We found that perceived jaguar impact on human

livelihoods are hugely influenced by region and place of residence, with perceived impact on

livestock being greater in the Pantanal, and perceived impact on human safety being greater

in the Amazon, and in urban than rural areas. Reported livestock loss is not the only predictor

of perceived jaguar impact on livestock. Rather, experience of losses may act in combination

with attitudes, knowledge and perceptions of the economic situation, to determine how

people perceive the impact that jaguars have on their livestock. Perhaps surprisingly,

professed acquaintance with somebody injured by a jaguar was not a factor in perceptions of

jaguar impact on human safety, and urban residents were more afraid of jaguars than ranchers


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and farmers. Again perceptions of impact were governed by knowledge about jaguars and

depredation and by attitudes towards the species.

In some cases, a negative impact or threat is perceived even in the absence of any livestock

loss to jaguars or jaguar attack on people. Attitudes and knowledge, in turn, are influenced by

a person‟s age, gender, property size (reflecting relative wealth), and place of residence. This

is evidence that ecological, cultural and socio-economic context all play roles in the

relationships between reality and perceptions behind the conflicts between people and

jaguars.

As expected, perception of jaguar impact on livestock was predicted by livestock loss.

However, the perceptions held by ranchers regarding trends in jaguar abundance and in the

regional economic situation were also related to their perception of jaguar impact on

livestock in the Pantanal. According to Crawshaw (2002), jaguar abundance has increased in

the Pantanal since the 1980s, following the retraction of cattle ranching in areas that were

recurrently hit by severe floods that began in 1974. Hearing that jaguar numbers are growing,

and perhaps even seeing evidence of them more frequently, is likely to cause ranchers to

perceive an increasing threat to their cattle. As for the perceived decline in the regional

economic situation, over recent decades, growing competition within the cattle industry,

higher taxes, and generational land-splitting have rendered cattle-ranching less profitable in

the Pantanal. A perceived decline in the financial margins of profits from cattle ranching may

decrease ranchers‟ tolerance of jaguar depredation on their cattle.

Attitudes to jaguars were important predictors of conflict over livestock in both Amazonia

and Pantanal, whereas knowledge appeared to be relevant in Amazonia only. While it is


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obvious that livestock loss to jaguars is likely to engender negative attitudes towards the

species, our photograph interpretation experiment indicated that, in Amazonia, attitudes

towards jaguars, and poor levels of knowledge about them, prejudice subsequent judgments

in ways that have the potential to become self-reinforcing. Ranchers who had more negative

attitudes towards jaguars and less knowledge about them ascribed jaguar depredation as the

cause of death to a larger number of photographs, strongly suggesting that their judgments

would be similarly prejudiced in the field. Such a phenomenon could in turn affect the

number of reports of livestock lost to jaguars, leading to a vicious circle of exaggerated

perceptions. An interesting question might be whether this could work the other way round, if

conservation-minded people underestimated depredation.

The owners of smaller properties in Amazonia had worse attitudes towards and poorer

knowledge about jaguars and these in turn affected their perceptions of jaguar impact on both

livestock and on human safety. The hostility might be partly attributable to smaller holdings

having more marginal economic viability, but the finding that attitudes did not differ between

small landowners who did or did not raise cattle suggests that their heightened hostility is

more likely associated with their poorer education. Furthermore, the owners of small

properties tended to believe that depredation problems were more serious on neighbouring

ranches than on their own. In a landscape dominated by small properties, a patchy

distribution of depredation may give disproportionate weight to rumours, especially if a few

properties may be severely and repeatedly affected. Certainly, the impact of a few episodes

that take on widespread perceptions was vividly illustrated in the context of the threat posed

by jaguars to human safety: in each study region there was one instance of a (non-fatal)

jaguar attack – in both cases more than five years earlier – and these were repeatedly cited as

the basis of negative perceptions. Macdonald (1987) describes similarly how accounts of


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serious attacks by foxes, Vulpes vulpes, on lambs in the north of England often turned out to

refer to the folkloric experiences of other people long ago. In sum, perceptions of conflict

with jaguars on small properties are shaped primarily by what is heard from other people and

not by personal experience.

By contrasting Amazonia and Pantanal, rural and urban residents, cattle ranchers and crop

farmers, and by surveying a wide range of property sizes, this study is the first attempt to

understand what is universal in human-jaguar relationships and what is context-specific.

Attitudes to jaguars, for instance, affected perceptions of human-jaguar conflict in both

Amazonia and the Pantanal, while perceptions of the economic situation were relevant only

among ranchers in the Pantanal. Insights of this sort can guide conservation policy regarding

the likelihood that interventions found to be successful in one region or socio-economic and

cultural context are likely to be transferable elsewhere.

Further implications for conservation

Efforts to protect jaguars have generally been based on the assumption that people are

motivated to kill jaguars in retaliation for livestock-raiding. According to this rationale, if

ways could be found effectively to reduce jaguar predation on cattle (e.g., adoption of certain

husbandry practices, use of electric fences, aversive conditioning and translocation), then

persecution by cattle ranchers should subsequently decline (Hoogesteijn 2000). Interventions

to decrease depredation combined with monetary compensation to ameliorate the financial

costs of lost livestock, are intended to alleviate the economic burden imposed on ranchers by

sharing the land with jaguars. The assumption is that this compensation will reduce the

motivation for ranchers to kill them. However, the finding that perceived impact of jaguars on

human livelihood is neither always nor only determined by livestock loss, and that opinions


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are much influenced by attitudes towards jaguars and knowledge of the species, suggest that

conservation interventions should not assume a simple cause and effect relationship. Hitching

conservation interventions too simply to the logic of a financial cost-benefit analysis may

miss the deep-seated, and sometimes prejudiced, human dimension. Kruuk (2002) suggests

that hatred of big predators has an evolutionary basis, and it is clear that people worldwide

invest disproportionately to both the costs and the evidence in killing predators worldwide.

Fox control on British farms seems to be related to historical damage, fears of what might

happen if control ceased, and tradition, rather than to recent losses to foxes (Macdonald

1984). A study of mounted foxhunting in Wiltshire, United Kingdom, found widespread

belief among farmers that foxes should be controlled everywhere, because they were too

numerous, even among farmers for whom the fox was not a personal pest (Baker and

Macdonald 2000). In the case of cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, in Namibia, for example, the

numbers killed by farmers were reduced markedly by both mitigation and education, but they

nonetheless persisted in killing some (Marker et al. 2010). Macdonald et al. (2010) review

cases of deep-seated and often misplaced loathing of big cats, and Dickman (2008) explores

the consequences for conservation of cultural relativism. Our results add to the evidence that

conservation interventions should take account of these human dimensions. The social

sciences offer various techniques for understanding these human dimensions (discussed by

Macdonald et al. 2010). For example, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB – Ajzen 1985)

and attitude-to-behavioural process models (ABPMs – Fazio et al. 1982) have been proposed

to explain these relationships (see CHAPTER 4).

This study reveals the relatively great importance of attitudes and knowledge in the perceived

conflict with jaguars on smaller properties (where owners are generally poorer and less


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educated). Small properties have been relatively overlooked in jaguar research and

conservation in Brazil. Approximately two thirds of publications on jaguar ecology and

conservation produced in Brazil report studies conducted in the Pantanal, where the average

ranch is several thousand hectares in size. In Amazonia, however, properties up to 100

hectares are responsible for 30% of the deforestation (Fernside 2003). Small landowners in

Amazonia are likely less prone to comply with the law that prohibits the clearance of more

than 20% of the property area. Collectively, small properties form expanses of highly

degraded jaguar habitat, where low availability of native prey and high human density can

increase the chances of a jaguar taking cattle or encountering people, which enhances the

perception of conflict (and certainly decreases the jaguar‟s prospects of survival). These

landscapes merit higher priority in conservation strategy, and would benefit particularly from

education campaigns focusing on the realities of risk and using the leverage of influential

community institutions and informal social networks – in short, the very conduits through

which inaccurate perceptions of jaguars are currently fuelled.

Chapter 4 – From perceptions to persecution

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CHAPTER 4

FROM PERCEPTIONS TO PERSECUTION: CONFLICTS

BETWEEN PEOPLE AND JAGUARS

All human actions have one or more of these seven causes: chance, nature, compulsions,

habit, reason, passion, desire.

Aristotle

Abstract

The killing of jaguars by ranchers in Amazonia and the Pantanal is a major threat to the

species. We used the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Ajzen 1985) to examine the role of

ranchers‟ perceptions, norms, attitudes and intentions concerning jaguar killing, in

determining their jaguar-killing behaviour. We also investigated the influence of: 1)

descriptive norm and social identity on ranchers‟ intention to kill jaguars on their properties;

and 2) the effect of perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihoods (livestock and human

safety), and of property size, on the variables that influence intention to kill. Results based on

interviews with 268 cattle ranchers indicated that the perceived impact of jaguars on livestock

is not the only predictor of a rancher‟s intention to kill jaguars. Fear, personal and social

motivations, and internal and external barriers to killing jaguars can also influence jaguar

killing. The relative importance of these factors in determining intention to kill varies with

region and affluence. We recommend ways of deterring jaguar killing behaviour through

communication interventions. In addition to the economic and legal incentives that have

already been considered, effective strategies to protect jaguars on privately owned land will

need to address the social and psychological factors that determine the killing of jaguars by

ranchers. Conservationists need to find and support ways to make jaguar killing not only

unprofitable and illegal, but also socially and personally unacceptable.


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Introduction.

The most urgent issue in jaguar (Panthera onca) conservation is the killing of jaguars by

humans (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Zeller 2007). Because jaguars are renowned for preying

on livestock (Hoogesteijn 2000), one might assume that people kill jaguars in an effort to

reduce economic losses associated with livestock predation. Conservationists have

approached jaguar killing within the framework of human-wildlife conflicts (Rabinowitz

2005) and to date research and conservation efforts have focused on the ecological (Azevedo

and Murray 2007; Cavalcanti 2008) and economic (Silveira et al. 2006) dimensions of the

conflict respectively. Little has been done to understand the link between jaguars killing

livestock and people killing jaguars. The killing of jaguars may not be strictly retaliatory and

might have motivations besides the economic. If we are to curb the killing of jaguars, first we

have to understand the underlying causes of this behaviour. We used an approach that went

beyond the usual human-wildlife conflict framework to examine the reasons – both related

and not related to perceived direct impacts – for ranchers killing jaguars in Amazonia and

Pantanal.

Investigations of human-wildlife conflict from a human perspective have focused mainly on

attitudes (Karlsson 2007; Manfredo 2008). Attitude studies are popular because they are

relatively easy to conduct and interpret, and they help anticipate behaviour and identify tools

for changing it. Unfortunately, in a review of 19 papers on this topic, Browne-Nuñez and

Jonker (2008) found only one that met their criteria for professionalism, which included

defining the attitude concept, describing a theoretical framework to explain the relationship

of attitudes to behaviour, and addressing the reliability and validity of the findings, and only

nine papers reported a pre-test of the instrument. The few studies that have attempted to

address human-jaguar conflict from the human side have assessed attitudes towards jaguars


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among people that were directly involved in conflict with jaguars over livestock (Conforti

and Azevedo 2003; Palmeira and Barrela 2007; Zimmermann et al. 2005). However, the

relationship between attitudes and behaviours may not always be strong or direct.

Researchers attempting to use attitudes to predict and prevent unwanted behaviours often do

so without considering exactly how attitudes relate to behaviours (McCleery et al. 2006).

Moreover, by limiting the study of attitudes to the context of human-wildlife conflict, factors

involved in the decision to kill a certain species, but not directly related to the impact of that

species on human livelihood, may be overlooked. Theoretical frameworks have been

developed by social scientists to predict human behaviour from attitudes (Ajzen 1985; Fazio

1986; Fishbein and Ajzen 1975), and these could provide a useful structure for studying the

killing of jaguars. Key aspects of such an approach are the proper measurement of attitudes

and inclusion of additional explanatory variables. In this study, we develop a framework

based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen 1985) to explore the relationships

between landowners‟ perceptions of jaguar impact on human livelihood and their own jaguar

killing behaviour. We incorporate factors not related directly to the impact of jaguars on

human livelihood, such as social motives for killing jaguars and perceived barriers to doing

so.

Linking attitudes to behaviour: the Theory of Planned Behaviour

The TPB proposes that human behaviours are governed not only by personal attitudes, but

also by social pressures and perceived control over one‟s own behaviour. According to the

TPB, the most proximal determinant of a person‟s behaviour is their intention to engage in

that behaviour (Figure 4.1). In turn, behavioural intentions are influenced by three main

factors: attitudes towards the behaviour, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control

(PBC). Attitude scores reflect an individual‟s overall positive or negative evaluation of


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performing the behaviour. Subjective norms represent an individual‟s perception of whether

people important to them would approve of them performing the behaviour. Perceived

behavioural control reflects the extent to which an individual perceives the behaviour to be

under their volitional control. Thus, according to TPB, people who have positive attitudes

towards killing jaguars, think that there is normative support for killing jaguars, and perceive

that they can easily kill jaguars (or pay someone else to do it for them), should have strong

intentions to kill jaguars. In addition, to the extent that PBC is a proxy for the actual control

(accurately accounts for both the internal factors [e.g. knowledge, skills, courage] and

external factors [e.g. legal barriers, money, equipment, help from others]) needed to perform

the behaviour, it may also have a direct impact on behaviour (dotted arrow in figure 4.1).

While the great majority of attitudinal studies conducted in wildlife or conservation research

have assessed attitudes about the species in question (Bath et al. 2008; Bruskotter et al. 2007;

Lindsey et al. 2005), the TPB recognizes that attitudes will not predict behaviour unless they

are measured with corresponding levels of specificity: attitudes about objects (such as

jaguars) will not necessarily predict behaviours (such as killing jaguars). In order for attitudes

to predict behaviour, the attitude and behaviour must correspond on four levels of specificity:

action, target, context and time. In this study, attitudes (and other TPB variables) are related

to the specific rancher‟s behaviour of killing (action) jaguars (target) on their properties

(context) in the near future (time). Attitude specificity has arguably been one of the most

significant refinements in improving the applicability of the attitude concept (Manfredo,

2008).

A multitude of variables can be related to or influence attitude, subjective norm and PBC:

personality, mood, emotions, general attitudes, age, gender, education, socio-economic status,


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nationality, religion, knowledge, past experience and so forth. The TPB recognises the

potential significance of such background factors (Figure 4.1). Inclusion of additional

influential variables may complement the TPB model, thereby deepening our understanding

of what determines performance of a particular behaviour. However, there is a vast array of

potentially relevant background factors, making it difficult to know which should be included

in the model without a theory to guide selection in the behavioural domain of interest.

Figure 4.1. Diagrammatical representation of the Theory of Planned Behaviour.

Extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Although reviews and meta-analyses have demonstrated broad support for the basic TPB

(e.g., Armitage and Conner 2001), it is acknowledged that for some behaviours and contexts,

the inclusion of other variables may increase the predictive utility of the model. Descriptive

norms and social identity are examples of such variables.

Descriptive norms reflect an individual‟s perception of whether other people perform the

behaviour in question (Cialdini et al. 1990). Descriptive norms describe what is typical or

normal, and motivate action by indicating what is likely to be effective, adaptive, and

appropriate action (White et al. 2009). For instance, a rancher who believes that all his


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neighbours kill jaguars will feel motivated to do the same. In contrast, the subjective norm

component of the TPB is a social injunctive norm, reflecting an individual‟s perceptions of

whether significant others approve of the individual performing the behaviour – in other

words, social pressure. Social injunctive norms motivate action by offering potential social

rewards or punishments for either engaging or not engaging in a particular behaviour.

Social identity is that component of an individual‟s concept of himself that is derived from

his knowledge of group membership, and the value and emotion attached to that membership

(Tajfel 1981). According to the social identity theory, people define and evaluate themselves

in terms of distinct social categories (e.g. rancher, pantaneiro). By allocating himself a

particular social identity an individual is encouraged to accentuate both the similarities

between himself and other group members, and the differences between himself and people

outside the group (Fielding et al. 2008). A social identity approach assumes that if a certain

behaviour, for example killing a jaguar, is centrally linked to a social identity, then that

behaviour will be influenced by the norms of that social group rather than by the expectations

and desires of generalized others.

To date, the TPB and extensions of the model have been used successfully to understand the

factors involved in producing a range of behaviours such as recycling (e.g., Cheung et al.

1999), composting (Taylor and Todd 1995), energy conservation (Harland et al. 1999), water

conservation (Harland et al. 1999), adoption of sustainable agriculture practices (e.g., Beedell

and Rehman 2000; Fielding et al. 2005, 2008) and sport hunting (Hrubes et al. 2001).

However, to our knowledge there has been no research employing the TPB to understand the

determinants of persecution in a human-wildlife conflict context.


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Modelling jaguar persecution

This study assessed an extended TPB model as a framework for understanding and predicting

the intention to kill jaguars among livestock owners on the Amazon deforestation frontier and

in the Pantanal. We assessed perceptions of conflict with jaguars, and the standard TPB

constructs of attitude, subjective norm and PBC - all in relation to killing jaguars. Then we

examined their effect on the decision to kill jaguars. Perceptions of conflict with jaguars

(more specifically, perception of jaguar impact on livestock, and on human safety), were

expected to affect intention: people who perceive that their livestock, or safety, is threatened

by jaguars are more likely to intend to kill jaguars (Hypothesis 1). However, we hypothesized

that the killing of jaguars by ranchers is not strictly retaliatory, and that by taking into

account factors that are not related directly to livestock depredation, or threat to human safety

(i.e. subjective norm and PBC), the TPB would offer a more predictive model of intention to

kill jaguars (Hypothesis 2).

During the preliminary stages of this study we gathered anecdotal evidence of a social

dimension to jaguar killing. Evidence included photographs of hunted jaguars and jaguar paw

trophies displayed prominently in ranchers‟ living rooms, boastful stories told by ranchers

about their bravery in hunting jaguars, and repeated mention that killing jaguars is something

that everybody does, or have done for generations, as an important element of the local

tradition. Therefore, including descriptive norm and group identity in the model was expected

to increase significantly the predictive utility of the TPB model (Hypothesis 3): ranchers who

believe that other ranchers kill jaguars and identify themselves with those ranchers will have

stronger intentions to kill jaguars themselves.


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Attitude towards a particular behaviour is measured using experiential items (i.e. how it feels

to perform the behaviour e.g. unpleasant-pleasant) and instrumental items (i.e. whether the

behaviour achieves something e.g. detrimental-beneficial and worthless-useful) (Ajzen and

Fishbein 1980). Retaliatory killing of jaguars is instrumental in nature: it is expected to bring

the benefit of decreased livestock loss or increased human safety. Therefore, we predicted

that attitudes towards killing jaguars would be affected by perceptions of jaguar impact on

livestock and on human safety. Indeed, in the TPB, background factors are assumed to

influence intentions and behaviour indirectly by affecting attitude, norms and PBC: we

predicted therefore that perceptions of conflict with jaguars would influence jaguar

persecution indirectly by affecting attitude towards the killing of jaguars (Hypothesis 4).

Commercial, sport, and recreational hunting are prohibited in Brazil. In 1998 the killing of

jaguars was rendered a crime under Brazil‟s Environmental Crimes Act. Nonetheless, in

remote areas of rural Amazonia and Pantanal people do not expect to be penalised for

breaking the law. None of the respondents in this study had ever heard of a case of

prosecution for killing jaguars. Expectation of law enforcement and perceived risk associated

with breaking the law are probably lower among large, affluent, and consequently, more

influential ranchers. Furthermore, jaguars are more likely to be present on larger properties

and their landowners more likely to have the resources for killing jaguars. In summary, the

larger the property the more volitional control its owner should have over killing jaguars.

Therefore, we hypothesized that perceived behavioural control increases with property size

(Hypothesis 5).

While hosting relatively large populations of both cattle and jaguars (Cavalcanti et al. 2010),

the two study areas differ distinctly in some socioeconomic aspects. The Amazon frontier


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was colonized recently, starting at most 35 years ago, by people from different parts of

Brazil, including areas where jaguars had long been extirpated. Small family-owned farms

coexist with large commercial cattle ranches on the Amazon frontier. In contrast, Northern

Pantanal is home to a few traditional families that own large ranches and have been raising

cattle in the region for generations. In communities where residents come from different parts

of a country, for example, in frontier areas or along the forest margins, there may be no

consensus on what are acceptable or unacceptable behaviours towards wildlife. In other

words, descriptive norms are unclear. Even if there is some agreement, many people may not

care about the opinions of others, and so the subjective norm and group identity are less

likely to influence behaviour. In contrast, where traditional communities are intact and there

is collective thinking and articulation about what constitutes acceptable practice, subjective

norms and group identity may be sufficiently powerful to maintain practices that are illegal

but socially encouraged. Therefore, we hypothesized that the relative importance of the social

determinants of jaguar killing and perceived control over this behaviour would differ between

Amazonia and Pantanal (Hypothesis 6).

Methods

Study areas and participants

The Amazonia survey was carried out in Alta Floresta, in the north of the State of Mato

Grosso. The Pantanal study was conducted in the districts of Cáceres and Poconé, also in the

State of Mato Grosso.

The sample unit was the property, with either owner – but preferably the husband - from each

surveyed (in a few large ranches, the ranch manager was interviewed when neither of the

owners was available). The association of rural workers of Alta Floresta, Cáceres and Poconé


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provided a list of members, with landowners‟ names and contact information, from which we

could randomly select ranches. However, the lists were not comprehensive, so we used a

combination of sample selection techniques to maximise randomness and representativeness.

Google Earth imagery (Google Inc 2009) was used to map all roads within the study areas

(available road maps do not include minor roads). Then we used a systematic sampling

strategy, selecting every other property along randomly chosen roads. In Amazonia, ranches

were easily accessible by land and all interviews were carried out on site. In the Pantanal

some properties near the Transpantaneira highway could be visited but many others were

inaccessible overland and so some Pantanal ranchers were interviewed in their second

residences in town.

Procedures and measures

Interviews were conducted between March and October 2007 in Amazonia and between

February and May 2008 in the Pantanal. The killing of jaguars is illegal and can be a sensitive

issue for some ranchers. Therefore, some measures were taken to avoid response and

interviewer biases. All interviews were conducted by SM, who is Brazilian and acquainted

with the local culture and parlance in both study areas. SM was always accompanied by a

male local field assistant during the interviews. SM was as objective and neutral in

appearance and behaviour as possible. We anticipated that some ranchers would feel inclined

to omit their negative perceptions, attitudes, intentions and behaviours towards jaguars. Given

that people attempt to provide answers consistent with the ones they have already given in the

survey (Sudman et al. 1996; Tanur 1992), questions were asked in the order in which we

expected the likelihood of a deceiving answer to increase: questions of perceptions and

attitudes first, then intention and, finally, behaviour. All TPB components were measured

according to the recommendations of Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and Ajzen (1985). Where a


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TPB component was assessed using multiple questions, we created average scales to

summarise that component. The variables used in the analyses are described in more detail

below.

Socioeconomic variables. Data on age and property size were obtained through fill-in-the-

blank questions. Property size served as a proxy for affluence. Gender was also recorded.

Perceived impact of jaguars. Perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and on human safety

were each measured using four questions. Responses to each question were recorded on a 6-

point scale coded 0 to 5 (no impact to high impact) according to the size of the impact.

Questions were designed to assess beliefs about past damage and perceptions of the risk of

future damage at different scales (i.e. ranch, neighbourhood, district, and personal,

household, community). Perceived impact on livestock was assessed by the questions

„Damage associated with depredation ever caused by jaguars to you‟, „Damage associated

with depredation ever caused by jaguars to your neighbours‟, „Risk of any damage associated

with depredation to you in the next 12 months‟, and „Risk of any damage associated with

depredation to your neighbours in the next 12 months‟ and perceived impact on human safety

by the questions „Number of people ever hurt by a jaguar in the neighbourhood‟, „Number of

household members ever hurt by a jaguar‟, „Risk of you being hurt by a jaguar in the next 12

months‟ and „Risk of a household member being hurt by a jaguar in the next 12 months‟. We

summed the response scores for each of the jaguar impact scales („perceived impact on

livestock‟ and „perceived impact on human safety‟) for each respondent separately, thus

producing two impact scores ranging from 0 to 20 for each respondent.


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Attitude to jaguar killing. Respondents‟ attitudes towards killing jaguars were assessed by

asking them to indicate their attitude towards killing the next jaguar that appeared on their

properties, using five-point evaluative semantic differential scales. Five items were used

(bad-good; beneficial-harmful; useless-useful; exciting-boring; unenjoyable–enjoyable). We

coded each answer -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2. Some questions were phrased in favour of jaguar

killing, and others against, in an effort to balance any potential bias associated with question

direction. However responses that were favourable to jaguar killing were always coded

positively, and responses that were unfavourable were always coded negatively, so that we

could construct a summated (averaged) rating scale to summarise an individual respondent‟s

overall attitude towards jaguar killing. The attitude scale, therefore, ranged from -2 to 2.

Subjective norms. Four questions and statements were used to assess subjective norms: „How

many of the people important to you would disapprove of you killing jaguars?‟ (1-5, none to

all); „Most people important to me think that killing jaguars is admirable‟ (1-5, strongly

disagree to strongly agree); „Among your neighbours, how much agreement would there be

that it is a good thing to kill jaguars?‟ (1-5, none to total); „In your household, how much

agreement would there be that it is a good thing to kill jaguars?‟ (1-5, none to total).

Descriptive norms. Descriptive norms were assessed using two measures („How many of

your neighbours do you think kill jaguars?‟ (1-5, none to all); „Think of the landowners in

Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé - what percentage of them do you think kill jaguars?‟ (1-5,

none to all).

Group identification. Three items assessed group identification: „How much do you identify

with the landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?‟ (1-5, not at all to completely); „How


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much do you feel strong ties with the other landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?‟ (1-

5, not at all to very much); „In general, how well do you feel you fit into the group of

landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?‟ (1-5, not at all to very well).

Perceived behavioural control (PBC). We used three statements to assess perceived

behavioural control in relation to killing jaguars: „Whether I kill the next jaguar that appears

on my property is up to me‟ (1-5, completely false to completely true); „For me, to kill the

next jaguar that appears on my property would be:‟ 1-5 (very difficult to very easy); „The

number of factors outside my control which could prevent me from killing the next jaguar

that appears on my property are‟; 1-5 (very many to none). We also asked the respondent to

list the factors that could prevent them from killing the next jaguar to appear.

Behavioural intention. Intention to kill jaguars was measured using two statements („I intend

to kill the next jaguar that appears on my property‟ and „If a jaguar appears on my property, I

will try to kill it‟, both 1-5 (very unlikely to very likely)). We explained clearly to the

respondents that by killing jaguars we meant using any of the methods and approaches used

to kill jaguars in Amazonia and Pantanal (e.g. finding and pursuing a jaguar using dogs,

creating a baiting station at which to shoot a jaguar, poisoning, and acting either alone or with

others including hired professional hunters).

Behaviour. Three approaches were used to assess jaguar-killing behaviour: (i) respondents

were asked if they had ever killed a jaguar and, if so, when they had last done this; (ii)

respondents were asked to say which of their neighbours had killed jaguars within the

previous 5 years); and (iii) in Amazonia, two independent local informants – a professional

hunter and a veterinarian - indicated ranchers who were believed to have killed jaguars in the


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previous 5 years. One year after the main survey we conducted a follow-up survey in

Amazonia; we: 1) revisited a randomly-selected sub-sample of 40 respondents to ask them

whether they had killed any jaguar since our last visit; and 2) asked the informants whether

any of the study participants were supposed to have killed jaguars during the year since the

survey. We used three different approaches (self-reporting, neighbour reporting and

informant reporting) to guard against the likelihood that some respondents would fail to

report their own killing behaviour and, to a lesser degree, that of their neighbours.

Data analysis

All analyses were conducted in SPSS, version 16. We used general linear models (GLM) to

examine broad differences between Amazonia and Pantanal. For each study area separately

we used χ2 tests to test for a relationship between recent jaguar killing and intention to kill

jaguars in the future (intention was recoded as a binary variable for this analysis, using 0 for

no intention to kill jaguars and 1 for any level of intention). This provided a way of validating

the measurement of intention. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to examine

correlations between predictor variables. The internal consistency of scales was examined

using Cronbach‟s alpha reliability coefficients (Vaske 2008). Two sets of GLMs were

performed to develop a predictive model of jaguar persecution for each study area. The first

GLM analysis examined the prediction of intention to kill jaguars. Instead of an automated

stepwise procedure, we carried out a structured comparison of specific models defined a

priori based on different explanations of jaguar persecution. Because the models included

multiple predictors that were somewhat correlated, we used sequential sum of squares (type I)

models so that each effect in an individual model adjusted only for preceding effects in the

model. The following models were assessed: (Model 1) perceptions of jaguar impact on

livestock and on human safety; (Model 2) TPB variables; (Model 3) significant predictors of


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the TPB plus descriptive norm and group identity; and (Model 4) significant predictors of the

extended TPB plus perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock and on human safety. We

compared Models 1 and 2 to test the hypothesis that the TBP offers a more predictive model

for jaguar persecution than the usual approach that assumes strictly retaliatory killing. By

comparing Models 2 and 3 we examined whether adding descriptive norm and group identity

to the TPB resulted in an increase in the predictive utility of the model. Finally, by

contrasting Models 3 and 4 we assessed the contribution of the perceptions of conflict to the

extended TPB. The second GLM analysis examined the effect of certain background factors

((i) perceived impact of jaguars on livestock, (ii) perceived impact of jaguars on human

safety and (iii) property size) on those variables from the extended TPB that significantly

affected intention to kill jaguars in the first GLM analysis.

Results

Differences between Amazonia and Pantanal

On average, respondents in the Pantanal (n=48) were older (mean = 54.8 years, SD = 11.8,

range = 27-77) than those in Amazonia (n=220, mean 42.4 years, SD = 13.1, range = 17-82)

(GLM; β = -12.313; SE = 2.048, p < 0.001). In the Pantanal, all respondents were male,

whereas 26.7% of Amazonian respondents were female. Table 4.1 presents additional

information about the variables used in the analyses and comparisons between Amazonia and

Pantanal. All variables differed significantly between the two regions, except for attitudes

towards killing jaguars. The perceived impact of jaguars on human safety was greater in

Amazonia, whereas perceived impact on livestock, subjective norm and descriptive norm

(both regarding killing jaguars), perceived behavioural control, group identity, and intention

to kill jaguars, were greater in the Pantanal. The proportion of respondents intending to kill

the next jaguar that appeared on their property was greater in the Pantanal (46%) than


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Amazonia (15%) (Tables 4.8 and 4.9).

Table 4.1. Comparison of variables between Amazonia and Pantanal; means, standard deviations (SD)

and GLM results.

Variable Amazonia Pantanal

F SE p Mean SD Mean SD

Property size (ha) 298.8 1,581.1 5,524.0 5,342.4 209.30 368.63 < 0.001

Perceived impact on livestock

(0-20)

2.52 2.61 7.58 2.89 127.79 0.43 < 0.001

Perceived impact on human

safety (0-20)

11.82 2.37 10.29 3.57 13.54 0.42 < 0.001

Attitude (-2 - +2) 0.25 0.91 0.42 1.24 1.10 0.16 0.296

Subjective norm (1-5) 1.85 0.71 2.70 0.91 50.30 0.12 < 0.001

Perceived behavioural control

(1-5)

2.26 1.13 4.09 0.73 116.22 0.17 < 0.001

Descriptive norm (1-5) 2.17 0.78 3.98 0.67 223.57 0.12 < 0.001

Group identity (1-5) 1.88 0.96 3.50 0.95 130.93 0.15 < 0.001

Intention (1-5) 2.40 1.13 3.47 1.25 33.92 0.18 < 0.001

Predicting intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia

Table 4.2 displays correlations between variables. Intention to kill jaguars was positively

correlated with perceived impact of jaguars on livestock and on human safety and also with

attitude towards killing, perceived behavioural control and descriptive norm. Subjective norm

was not correlated with the other variables. Attitude, perceived behavioural control and

descriptive norm were positively correlated with each other. Perceived behavioural control, in

turn, was greater among large ranchers, whereas group identity was stronger among small

landowners.


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Table 4.2. Pearson correlations between variables and Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients (shown on main

diagonal) for respondents in Amazonia. Results shown in bold are significant.* p 0.05; ** p ≤ 0.01.

NB: A= Cronbach‟s alpha not computed (single measurement).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1. Perceived impact on

livestock (0-20)

(0.80)


human safety (0-20)

0.129 (0.86)

3. Attitude (-2 - +2) 0.350**

0.372**

(0.90)

4. Subjective norm (1-5) 0.012 -0.023 0.001 (0.85)

5. Perceived behavioural

control (1-5)

0.038 0.097 0.161* 0.030 (0.88)

6. Descriptive norm (1-5) 0.119 0.173* 0.217

** 0.028 0.213

** (0.90)

7. Group identity (1-5) -0.163* 0.065 0.080 0.026 -0.265

** -0.063 (0.76)

8. Property size (ha) -0.059 -0.041 -0.085 0.014 0.158* -0.013 -0.132

* A

9. Intention (1-5) 0.228**

0.257**

0.437**

0.016 0.243**

0.330**

0.086 -0.043 (0.92)

As shown in Table 4.3, both perceived impact of jaguars on livestock and on human safety

were significant predictors of behavioural intention (Model 1). In support for Hypothesis 1,

landowners who perceived a greater impact of jaguars on their livestock or their safety were

more likely to intend to kill jaguars. However, in support for Hypothesis 2, the TPB model

(Model 2) explained over twice as much of the variation in intention (R2

= 0.22 compared

with 0.10), even though subjective norm did not emerge as a significant predictor in the

analysis. Landowners with more positive attitudes towards killing jaguars and a greater sense

of control were more likely to intend to kill jaguars on their properties. In support of

Hypothesis 3, the addition of descriptive norm (Model 3) accounted for a further 4.5% of the

variation in intention to kill jaguars, over and above that explained by attitude, subjective

norm and PBC. Respondents who perceived that other landowners killed jaguars had stronger

intentions to kill jaguars.


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Neither perceived impact on livestock nor perceived impact on human safety had a

significant impact on intention to kill jaguars in the extended TPB model (Model 4), and

inclusion of these variables accounted for only 1% of the variation in intention. Nonetheless,

both perceived impact on livestock and on human safety had a significant effect on attitude

(Table 4.4), and therefore an indirect effect on intention to kill jaguars. These two findings

provide support for Hypothesis 4: the perceived impact of jaguars on livestock and on human

safety determine intentions indirectly by affecting attitude towards the killing of jaguars.

Table 4.3. Results of GLM predicting intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia.

Model Predictor included R

2 B SE p

1 Perceived impact on livestock 0.105 0.083 0.027 0.002

Perceived impact on safety 0.110 0.031 <0.001

2 Attitude 0.222 0.510 0.076 <0.001

Subjective norm 0.016 0.096 0.865

Perceived behavioural control 0.178 0.061 0.004

3 Attitude 0.267 0.458 0.075 <0.001


Descriptive norm 0.322 0.088 <0.001

Group identity 0.008 0.075 0.911

4 Attitude 0.278 0.389 0.084 <0.001


Descriptive norm 0.305 0.088 0.001

Perceived impact on livestock 0.033 0.026 0.207

Perceived impact on human safety 0.039 0.030 0.198


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Table 4.4. Results of GLM examining the effect of perceived impact of jaguars on livestock, and on

human safety, and of property size, on the extended TPB variables that influenced intention to kill

jaguars in Amazonia.

Dependent variable Predictor R2 B p

Attitude Perceived impact on livestock 0.234 0.101 <0.001

Perceived impact on safety 0.126 <0.001

Property size 0.000 0.375

Perceived behavioural

control


Perceived impact on safety 0.047 0.142


Descriptive norm Perceived impact on livestock 0.039 0.028 0.148



Property size was a significant predictor of perceived behavioural control (Table 4.4). In

support of Hypothesis 5, ranchers who owned large properties had a stronger sense of control

over killing jaguars on their land. The main barriers to killing jaguars pointed out by the

small landowners who perceived that killing jaguars was not under their volitional control

were: fear of jaguars (43%); lack of skills (31%); lack of equipment (15%); and illegality

(10%).

The above findings are summarised in Figure 4.2. Landowners within the Amazon

deforestation frontier were more likely to intend to kill the next jaguar that appeared on their

property if they: 1) had more positive attitudes towards killing jaguars; 2) had a greater sense

of control over their jaguar-killing behaviour; and 3) perceived that other landowners killed

jaguars. Landowners with stronger perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock, or on human

safety, had more positive attitudes towards killing jaguars. Larger landowners had a greater

sense of control over their own jaguar-killing behaviour.


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Figure 4.2. Final model showing intention to kill jaguars in the Amazonia deforestation

frontier.

Predicting intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal

Intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal was positively correlated with perceived impact of

jaguars on livestock, attitude, subjective norm, descriptive norm and group identity (Table

4.5). Perceived impact of jaguars on human safety and on property size were not correlated

with the other variables. Property size and perceived impact on human safety were not

correlated with the other variables. Attitude, subjective norm, and intention were positively

correlated with one another, as were subjective norm, descriptive norm, group identity, and

intention.


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Table 4.5. Pearson correlations between variables and Cronbach‟s alpha coefficients (shown on main

diagonal) for respondents in the Pantanal. Results shown in bold are significant.* p 0.05; ** p ≤

0.01. NB: A= Cronbach‟s alpha not computed (single measurement).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


livestock (0.80)


human safety -0.080 (0.75)

3. Attitude 0.376**

0.242 (0.88)

4. Subjective norm 0.380**

0.191 0.408**

(0.81)

5. Perceived

behavioural control 0.215 -0.052 0.287

* 0.189 (0.95)

6. Descriptive norm 0.179 -0.015 0.114 0.340* 0.092 (0.79)

7. Group identity 0.180 0.220 0.237 0.575**

0.178 0.320* (0.77)

8. Property sizea -0.067 -0.085 -0.238 -0.151 0.207 -0.090 -0.026 A

9. Intention 0.410**

0.145 0.554**

0.676**

0.250 0.522**

0.645**

-0.232 (0.90)

As shown in Table 4.6, perceived impact of jaguars on livestock was a significant predictor

of intention to kill jaguars (Model 1). Perceived jaguar impact on human safety had no

significant impact on intention. In partial support for Hypothesis 1, landowners who

perceived a greater impact of jaguars on livestock had stronger intentions to kill jaguars. The

TPB (Model 2) offered a more predictive model, in support of Hypothesis 2. Even without a

significant effect of perceived behavioural control, the TPB accounted for 55% of the

variation in intention to kill jaguars. Ranchers with more positive attitudes towards killing

jaguars and a greater perception of others‟ approval of jaguar-killing behaviour had a stronger

intention to kill the next jaguar that appeared on their properties. Descriptive norm and group

identity (Model 3) emerged as significant predictors of intention, in support for Hypothesis 3.

Ranchers who perceived that other ranchers killed jaguars and identified themselves with the

other ranchers were more likely to engage in jaguar killing. Descriptive norm and group

identity accounted for an additional 17% of the variation (over and above attitude and


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subjective norm), providing support for the inclusion of these variables in the model (Model

3). Including perceived impact on livestock and perceived impact on human safety in the

extended TPB model (Model 4) did not improve the model significantly further (accounting

for just 0.8% more of the variation in intention), and their effect on intention was not

statistically significant. However, perceived impact of jaguars on livestock did have a

significant effect on both attitude and subjective norms (Table 4.7), and therefore an indirect

effect on intention to kill jaguars. Perceived impact of jaguars on livestock seems indirectly

to determine intention by affecting attitude (and subjective norms), which supports

Hypothesis 4.

Table 4.6. Results of GLM predicting intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal.

Model Predictor included R2 B SE p

1 Perceived impact on livestock 0.200 0.193 0.061 0.003

Perceived impact on safety 0.063 0.047 0.187

2 Attitude 0.552 0.323 0.115 0.007



3 Attitude 0.722 0.345 0.089 < 0.001




4 Attitude 0.730 0.330 0.096 0.001





Perceived impact on safety -0.014 0.031 0.645


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Table 4.7. Results of GLM examining the effect of perceived impact of jaguars on livestock, and on

human safety, and of property size, on the extended TPB variables that influenced intention to kill

jaguars in the Pantanal.

Dependent variable Predictor R2 B p

Attitude Perceived impact on livestock 0.251 0.172 0.005


Property size -0.001 0.152

Subjective norm Perceived impact on livestock 0.205 0.129 0.006



Descriptive norm Perceived impact on livestock 0.038 0.042 0.250

Perceived impact on safety -0.002 0.957


Group identity Perceived impact on livestock 0.088 0.068 0.176



Figure 4.3 summarizes the above findings. Intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal was

greater among ranchers who: 1) had more positive attitudes towards killing jaguars; 2)

believed there was normative support for performing such behaviour; 3) perceived that other

ranchers killed jaguars; and 4) identified themselves with the other ranchers. Ranchers who

had a stronger perception of the impact of jaguars on livestock also had more positive

attitudes towards killing jaguars and a stronger sense of social pressure to kill them.


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Figure 4.3. Final model showing intention to kill jaguars in the Pantanal.

Relationship between intention and behaviour

No jaguar kills were observed or reported during the 12 months following the survey.

However, by cross-referencing information provided by landowners and by independent

informants, we identified 11 landowners in the Amazonia sample who had killed at least one

jaguar on their property in the previous five years (six of these landowners had not reported

these kills). This information was used to examine the relationship between landowners‟

declared intention to kill jaguars and their past jaguar-killing behaviour. Most of the

landowners that were confirmed to have killed jaguars in the previous five years said that

they intended to kill the next jaguar that appeared on their property, whereas most of those

that had not killed jaguars recently did not intend to do so in future (χ2= 40.5, df: 1, p < 0.001,

Table 4.8). This relationship between measured behavioural intention and actual past

behaviour suggests that intention to kill jaguars may be a valid proxy for future killing

behaviour in Amazonia.


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Table 4.8. Proportion of Amazonia respondent who had and had not killed jaguars in the previous five

years, who did and did not intend to kill them in the future.

Intended

to kill

Did not intend

to kill Total % (n)

Past killing not confirmed (%) 11% 89% 95% (209)

Past killing confirmed (%) 82% 18% 5% (11)

Total % (n) 15% (33) 85% (187) 100% (220)

All seven ranchers in the Pantanal that reported killing at least one jaguar on their property in

the previous five years said that they intended to kill the next jaguar that presented a similar

opportunity. In contrast most of those that had not killed jaguars did not intend to do so in

future (2= 8.9, df: 1, p = 0.003, Table 4.9).

Table 4.9. Proportion of Pantanal landowners who had and had not killed jaguars in the previous five

years, who did and did not intend to kill them in the future.

Intended

to kill

Did not intend

to kill Total % (n)

Past killing not confirmed (%) 36% 64% 85.4% (41)

Past killing confirmed (%) 100% 0% 14.6% (7)

Total % (n) 46% (22) 54% (26) 100% (48)


This study shows that the perceived impact of jaguars on livestock is not the only predictor of

a cattle rancher‟s intention to kill jaguars. Intention to kill jaguars is also determined by fear,

personal and social motivations, and internal and external barriers to killing jaguars. The

relative importance of these factors in determining intention varies with region and affluence.

Conservation measures that aim to decrease jaguar persecution by ranchers will be more

effective if these factors are taken into account.


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Fear is an important factor in determining Amazonian landowners‟ intentions to kill jaguars.

Fear affects intention through two distinct and opposing mechanisms. On one hand, fear of

jaguar impact on human safety can increase the likelihood of a positive attitude towards

killing jaguars, while, on the other, fear arising from landowners‟ own inability to kill jaguars

(poor perceived behavioural control) may act as an internal barrier that limits their intention

to engage in jaguar killing. A fear of jaguars is indeed common among the Amazonian

frontiersmen (see Chapter 3), who are largely immigrants with little experience of jaguars and

the forest, but fear of jaguars was also reported by some ranchers in the Pantanal. Jaguars are

potentially dangerous to people, and a phobic response to the species might be instinctive. It

has been argued that our evolutionary roots were shaped by a world in which humans were

primarily a prey species, mostly to lions and tigers (Hart and Sussman 2009). Anti-predator

adaptations to large cats may have been selected for in humans as a direct result of the threat

which they present to human survival; this may account in part for fear of jaguars among

humans. However, fear of jaguars varies with knowledge. The better informed people are

about jaguars the less they fear them (Chapter 3). After all, the strong fear of jaguars among

Amazonian ranchers is not grounded in fact. Attacks on people by jaguars are extremely rare

and have occurred almost invariably either when hunted jaguars are cornered or injured, or

when jaguars are defending cubs or carcasses. The only documented, unprovoked, fatal attack

by a jaguar on a human in Brazil occurred on 24 June 2008, when a young fisherman was

believed to have been killed by a jaguar while sleeping in his tent on a bank of the Paraguay

River in the Pantanal. This unique incident may have occurred as a result of jaguars

becoming habituated to people around baits used to attract them to be photographed by

tourists.


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Attitude towards killing jaguars predicts landowners‟ intention to kill them in both Amazonia

and the Pantanal. Attitude towards killing jaguars is shaped by both instrumental and

experiential expectations. For example, landowners may favour killing jaguars because they

consider such behaviour beneficial and useful, as well as exciting and enjoyable. The thrill of

the hunt may be an important additional motivation for retaliatory killing and may in some

situations be the only reason for killing jaguars. Indeed before hunting was prohibited

(Brazilian Wildlife Protection Act 1967) and jaguars listed in the Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) in 1973, hunting jaguars for sport was popular in the

Pantanal (Almeida 1978; Roosevelt 1914; Siemel 1953). Ranch hands that do not own

livestock are known to kill jaguars on other people‟s ranches in the Pantanal, where absent

owners have specifically banned the practice (Cavalcanti 2008). This provides further

evidence that jaguar killing may be explained by personal motivations unrelated to the impact

of jaguars on human livelihoods.

Social motivations are important determinants of the intention to kill jaguars in both

Amazonia and the Pantanal. In the Pantanal, some ranchers justified their perception of the

social approval of jaguar killing on the grounds of tradition. Ranchers in the region often

refer, with apparent pride, to the „Pantaneiro culture‟ and the conviction that jaguar hunting

has been passed from generation to generation as an element of that culture. The subjective

norm among Pantanal landowners is affected by their perception of jaguar impact on

livestock; ranchers who perceive a strong impact of jaguars on livestock also perceive a

strong peer pressure to kill jaguars. The economic and cultural centrality of cattle ranching in

the region doubtless accounts for the correlation observed here between these factors (and

between perceived jaguar impact on livestock and attitude towards jaguar killing). It is widely

perceived that jaguar killing is common in both Amazonia and the Pantanal, and the




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perception that neighbours often kill jaguars (descriptive norm) encourages landowners to

intend to do the same. Despite it being an illegal practice, jaguar killing is not something

people strive to keep secret. On the contrary, some perpetrators talk openly with other

ranchers, about killing jaguars, often with the support of photographs of the hunt. Jaguar

hunting is a favoured topic of conversation among ranchers; stories of jaguar hunting spread

quickly among the community, are told repeatedly, and are often remembered vividly as a

consequence. The ease with which stories of jaguar hunting are brought to mind among

landowners could account for the strong descriptive norm concerning jaguar killing (Tversky

and Kahneman 1974). A vicious circle may exist in which hunts are readily remembered and

repeated, often reaching other landowners, and creating the perception that jaguar killing is

common and acceptable, which in turn causes more jaguars to be killed. Finally, social

identity (group identity) also influences jaguar killing in the Pantanal. In our Amazon sample,

many small landowners were settlers belonging to small, organized communities. Although

group identity was greater among smaller settlers than among large landowners in the region,

jaguar killing was not perceived to be an in-group behaviour, and so group identity did not

affect their intention to kill jaguars in Amazonia. In contrast, ranchers in the Pantanal have a

strong group identity and perceive that jaguar killing is part of Pantaneiro culture. If

perceived association of jaguar killing with in-group members is coupled with a perceived

association of jaguar conservation with out-group members, conservation efforts considered

to emanate from outside the group may be poorly accepted. The role of conflicts between

human groups in resolving human-jaguar conflicts (Herda-Rapp and Goedeke 2005) deserves

further investigation.


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Limitations

This study has two major limitations. First, it adopts a strictly cognitive model to explain

jaguar killing. In the TPB, behaviour is held to be thoughtfully planned, based on one‟s

attitudes toward the behaviour, in a deliberative process. However, some incidences of jaguar

killing do not result directly from a plan or intention. A couple of respondents reported killing

a jaguar in an unexpected, close encounter. In such cases jaguar killing behaviour results

from a spontaneous process in which thoughtful evaluations of the personal and social

outcomes of performing the behaviour (attitudes and social norms concerning the killing of

the jaguar, respectively) play no role. For such situations, Fazio‟s (1986) model of the

attitude-to-behaviour process may offer a more predictive model. Fazio (1986, 1990)

distinguishes between attitudes towards objects or targets, and attitudes toward behaviours,

arguing that the former are important in determining behaviour via spontaneous processing.

People that have negative attitudes towards jaguars, and a firearm at hand, are more likely to

kill them in the improbable event of an unexpected encounter.

A second limitation is that current behaviour could not be measured. Consequently, the utility

of the model to predict future behaviour could not be verified. Jaguar killing is a particularly

difficult behaviour to measure for two reasons: (i) it is illegal and therefore some respondents

might fail to report it; and (ii) it depends upon a contextual factor that is highly variable in

time and space: an encounter with a jaguar. While most behaviours that have been addressed

in TPB studies can be observed on a daily basis (e.g. exercising, recycling) or every month at

most (e.g. reducing energy use), killing jaguars is something a rancher typically does when

the opportunity arises, i.e. when a jaguar appears, e.g. a few times in one year and then not

for several more years. Robust validation of the intention-behaviour relationship would

require the measurement of behaviour either over several years for individual ranchers, or


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over larger areas encompassing a larger number of ranches than surveyed in this study.

However this study provides some evidence that our measurement of intention to kill jaguars

was valid: (i) observed relationships between intention and its predictors were consistent with

expectations based on theory (Vaske 2008); and (ii) there was a significant relationship

between intention to kill jaguars and recent past killing behaviour. Meta-analyses of the TPB

indicate that intentions and perceived behavioural control account for 34% of the variation in

behaviour (Sutton 1998). Given that the model proposed in this study includes additional

explanatory variables, it might explain a greater proportion of actual jaguar killing by

ranchers. While the percentage of variance explained may give an overly pessimistic view of

the utility of our model, we propose that this model can make a substantial contribution to the

design of strategies to prevent jaguar killing.

Implications for conservation

Our model is not only useful to the extent that it can predict jaguar killing. It can also be used

to assess the relative importance of the different factors that motivate or deter such behaviour.

Efforts to increase people‟s tolerance of jaguars and discourage jaguar killing have focused

largely on economic incentives (e.g., monetary compensation for livestock loss; Silveira et al.

2006) and legal prohibitions and sanctions (e.g. establishment of protected areas). The role

and importance of social and psychological factors have been far less considered. This study

proposes a broader approach for understanding and preventing the killing of jaguars, an

approach that goes beyond the usual framework of human-jaguar conflicts, and considers all

the motivations and barriers – social and psychological as well as legal and economic -

concerning jaguar killing.


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Human behaviour is partly determined by external, contextual factors (Clayton and Myers

2009). The measures mentioned above aim to prevent jaguar killing behaviour by changing

the economic and legal contexts. Our findings, however, highlight the importance of social

context. Social norms (descriptive norm and subjective norm) and social identity also affect

jaguar killing and should be taken into account by conservationists. A number of techniques

can be used to change social context. For instance, a persuasive communication campaign

using models, case studies and examples of coexistence with jaguars, combined with

information about the negative consequences of killing them, might help to create or redefine

a social norm by explaining that the community condemns rather than accepts the killing of

jaguars. Arranging for conspicuous and respected group members or community institutions

(e.g. cooperatives and rural schools) to promote tolerance of jaguars may be one way to

influence other group members. Communicating information about the behaviour and

practices of group members via informal social networks is another possible strategy. Our

findings also suggest that recommendations that are seen to come from within the group may

be more readily accepted than those that stem from outside the group. Social marketing can

offer other useful tools, i.e. using commercial marketing techniques to promote an idea or

behaviour that benefits either the individual or society. Examples of social marketing tools

include obtaining a commitment, prompts, personalized communication, norm appeals, word-

of-mouth and feedback (McKenzie-Mohr and Smith 1999). Each of these tools is associated

with an extensive literature suggesting that they may help to change behaviour; combinations

of these tools may be more effective than any one in isolation (McKenzie-Mohr and Smith

1999).

Human behaviour is also determined by internal, psychological factors (Clayton and Myers

2009). This study revealed the importance of perceptions, knowledge, skills, attitudes and


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emotions such as fear and excitement in inciting the killing of jaguars. Education and

information-intensive campaigns might be used to influence these factors in order to deter

jaguar killing. The role of information in changing behaviour is complex. While researchers

agree that information alone will not motivate someone to adopt a new behaviour (e.g. to

tolerate jaguars) (Hungerford and Volk 1990; Stern 2000), it is equally clear that a lack of

information can be a barrier to changing behaviour (Schultz 2002; Kaplan 2000; DeYoung

2000). Education campaigns addressing livestock predation by jaguars might help ranchers

correctly to identify a depredation event, implement preventive measures, and adjust

exaggerated perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock to reality. Campaigns conveying the

true probability of a jaguar attack on humans might be particularly effective in preventing

jaguar killing among small landowners in Amazonia. In the longer term, formal and informal

education could help to accelerate the current shift away from traditional materialist values

(focused on physical security and economic well-being, and use and management of wildlife

for human benefit) towards post-materialist values (focused on quality of life, self-expression

and self-esteem, and mutualistic attitudes towards wildlife) that has been observed in western

societies (Inglehart 1990; Manfredo et al. 2003). A shift from utilitarian to mutualistic

attitudes towards jaguars would mean fewer people deriving pleasure from recreational

hunting or supporting the lethal control of livestock-raiding jaguars, and more people

supporting and enjoying coexistence with the species.

In neither Amazonia nor Pantanal would it be possible to construct an effective jaguar

protection strategy based on a single field of influence. Jaguar killing results from the

interplay between external incentives (economic/market, legal/administrative/coercive, and

social/normative) and internal influences (such as knowledge, skills, emotions, norms,

attitudes and intentions), and effective strategies to prevent jaguar killing should therefore be


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based on the social and psychological aspects of human-jaguar relationships as well as on

legal and economic considerations. Conservationists need to find and support ways to make

jaguar killing not only illegal and unprofitable, but also socially and personally unacceptable.

Chapter 5 – Improving perceptions

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CHAPTER 5

SCHOOL-BASED APPROACHES FOR IMPROVING

PERCEPTIONS OF JAGUARS AMONG CHILDREN AND THEIR

FATHERS ON THE AMAZON DEFORESTATION FRONTIER

People must learn to hate, and if they can learn to hate, they can be taught to love, for love

comes more naturally to the human heart than its opposite

Nelson Mandela

Abstract

Landowners in Amazonia are more likely to kill jaguars if they approve of the behaviour and

believe that their neighbours commonly kill jaguars. These attitudes and social norms are

affected by perceived impact of jaguars on human livelihoods, and ultimately by attitudes

towards, and knowledge of, the species. We conducted a school-based experiment on the

Amazon deforestation frontier to examine the effects of information and elaboration on these

psychological measures among pupils, and the effects of information (communicated via

printed materials including children‟s homework) on these measures among pupil‟s fathers.

We found that school-based communication interventions can have a powerful effect on

perceptions of jaguars among pupils, and that pupils can effectively transfer that effect to

their fathers. Books distributed via local schools successfully decreased fathers‟ perceptions

of descriptive norms, but the same books distributed via a conservation organisation did not.

This suggests that fathers were influenced not only by the information explicitly conveyed in

the content of books and their children‟s homework, but also by the implicit message that

jaguar conservation was supported by a community institution (e.g. the local school), and

probably also therefore by other community members. Information alone caused significant

positive changes in knowledge, attitudes and perceptions among pupils and fathers, but some

of those changes were not enduring. Elaboration alone produced more persistent effects, but

negative attitudes towards jaguars were reinforced, even among pupils who had been exposed


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to information about jaguars. Information and elaboration combined created stronger and

more enduring effects than either intervention alone. These findings may be important in

designing conservation communication interventions for jaguars and other charismatic

species worldwide.

Introduction

The killing of jaguars by farmers and ranchers in rural Amazonia is determined by their

attitudes towards jaguar killing and their perceptions of how common such behaviour is

among their neighbours (Chapter 4). Attitudes towards jaguar killing are affected by

perceptions of the impact of jaguars on human livelihoods (Chapter 4), which are in turn

affected by attitudes towards jaguars and knowledge about the species (Chapter 3).

Interventions designed to deter jaguar killing can be directed at one or more of these

determinants. Changes in these factors should produce changes in the intention to kill jaguars

and, given adequate control over the behaviour, the new intention (i.e. to tolerate jaguars

instead of persecute them) should be carried out under appropriate circumstances (Ajzen

1985). The extensive literature on education, communication and persuasion (Jacobson et al.

2006; Monroe 2003; Petty and Cacioppo 1996) presents numerous approaches that have been

used successfully to increase knowledge, change social norms and improve attitudes.

Reaching landowners in rural Amazonia and effectively improving their perceptions of

jaguars, however, remains a challenge. As well as economic incentives (e.g. monetary

compensation for livestock loss; Silveira et al. 2006) and legal prohibitions and sanctions

(e.g. establishment of protected areas) to dissuade people from killing jaguars, there have

been a few attempts elsewhere to foster tolerance to the species by increasing knowledge or

changing attitudes and social norms. These efforts have focused on providing landowners

with factual information – mostly through printed manuals (e.g., Hoogesteijn 2000; Leite-

Pitman et al. 2002; Marchini and Luciano 2009a) – on the importance of jaguar conservation


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and on how to prevent predation problems. However, the cost-effectiveness of a

communication campaign based on print media is limited in Amazonia because of the low

human density, difficulty of access due to poor road conditions, high cost of printing

attractive communication materials, illiteracy and the resistance of some landowners to

outsiders. A communication strategy whereby school children act as catalysts of perception

change among their parents and other community members could be an effective means of

improving tolerance of jaguars in rural Amazonia. In this study, we examined a school-based

approach to change perceptions of jaguars among pupils and their parents on the Amazon

deforestation frontier. We conducted an in-classroom experiment to compare the effect of

information versus elaboration on the perceptions of jaguars among 5th

and 6th

graders (11-15

year olds), and investigated whether, and how most effectively, school children can influence

their parents‟ perceptions of jaguars.

Changing perceptions: information and elaboration

Information

In the context of human-wildlife conflicts, information can improve perceptions of the

species in question in a number of ways, by: 1) changing the values people place on the

species (Kellert 1996); 2) reducing to more realistic levels their perceptions of the threat

posed by the species (Marker et al. 2003); and 3) empowering them to cope with any damage

caused and to find guidance on conflict mitigation. However, there have been cases in which

information-based interventions aimed at improving attitudes toward predators, by increasing

knowledge, proved ineffective, sometimes even reinforcing negative attitudes among those

already holding strong views (Hook and Robinson 1982; Kellert 1986). Knowledge of

jaguars is poor among children (and adults alike) in rural Amazonia, where the jaguar is

predominantly perceived as threatening (Chapter 2), although jaguar attacks on people are


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extremely rare and have occurred almost invariably when hunted jaguars are cornered or

injured, or when jaguars are defending cubs or carcasses. In this study we provided school

pupils with information (lectures, activity books) about the jaguar (its ecological, economic

and cultural importance, its impact on human livelihoods in relation to how it has been

affected by human actions such as deforestation and persecution, and how to prevent

livestock depredation problems).We predicted that by providing such information we would

significantly increase pupils‟ knowledge of the species, decrease their perceptions of the

impact of jaguars on their livelihoods, and improve their attitudes towards jaguars.

Elaboration

Traditional school lessons allow teachers to disseminate large amounts of pre-planned

information with minimal effort. At least until recently this has been the favoured method of

teaching from primary schools right through to universities across the world. In a typical

classroom setting, students are involved only passively in learning, e.g. listening to the

teacher and reading the blackboard or text book when required. Analysis of the research

literature (Bonwell and Eison 1991; Chickering and Gamson 1987), however, shows that

such passive involvement in education generally leads to limited retention of information,

and suggests that in order to learn well students need to be actively involved during a lesson,

e.g. writing, discussing, or solving problems. The more elaborate mental processing

associated with active learning makes novel information both easier to remember and more

personally meaningful (Bonwell and Eison 1991). In a similar vein, Petty and Cacioppo

(1996) propose that attitude change depends upon the amount of thoughtful consideration

(cognitive elaboration) that occurs in response to a persuasive communication. According to

their Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion (ELM), there are two types of attitude

change: 1) central route; and 2) peripheral route attitude change. These two routes of attitude


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change differ in the amount of elaboration involved. Central route attitude change can occur

when there is significant cognitive elaboration (high elaboration likelihood), whereas

peripheral route attitude change can occur in the absence of cognitive elaboration (low

elaboration likelihood). Central route attitude change requires the motivation, and the ability,

to process cognitively a persuasive communication. For example, a person‟s attitudes are

more likely to change by the central route if they are presented with new information on a

subject they find stimulating, and this is done in a thought-provoking way. Attitudes are more

likely to change by the peripheral route if new information is presented on a subject they find

uninspiring, and without their active involvement. Central route attitude change is more

difficult to achieve than peripheral route change, but it also lasts longer, influences behaviour

more, and is more resistant to counter-persuasion than peripheral route change.

Jaguars have a stronger presence in the hearts and minds of Brazil‟s children and adolescents

than does any other native mammal, generally eliciting strong, but mixed, feelings (the

cognitive and affective prominence of the jaguar is highest among 12 and 13 years old, for

this reason we selected 5th

and 6th

graders as subjects in this study) (Chapter 2). Many pupils

find classes more interesting and enjoyable when they include active learning experiences

(Murray 2002). Therefore, we expected that children would be motivated to engage in a

discussion about jaguar issues and to process cognitively the related information. Lack of

knowledge about jaguars, however, could hinder their ability to elaborate. We predicted,

then, that elaboration would cause a greater impact on pupils who had been provided with

information about the species.


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Disseminating perceptions: intergenerational learning and modelling

Jaguars are generally killed by adult male landowners (Chapter 4). Therefore any school-

based approach to jaguar conservation will be effective only if pupils can influence

perceptions among their fathers or other men in the community. Children are known to share

environmental learning and attitudes with parents (Ballantyne et al. 2001) and to influence

their parents‟ environmental attitudes (Ballantyne et al. 1998; Duvall and Zint 2007). Men in

rural Amazonia and elsewhere in the jaguar‟s range tend to have strong feelings towards the

species (Chapter 3 and 4), which might enhance intergenerational learning about jaguar-

related issues. We predicted that pupils participating in a jaguar education programme at

school would transfer to their fathers knowledge gained from lectures and educational

materials and, in so doing, cause a change in their father‟s perceptions of jaguars.

Another way schools might contribute to conservation is by acting as a conduit for the

distribution of communication materials. Communication effectiveness depends on the

credibility and trustworthiness of the information source (Petty and Cacioppo 1996).

Community institutions such as schools, cooperatives and church are arguably more credible

and trustworthy to rural Amazonians than are outside institutions. As a result they can act as

role models by demonstrating attitudes and behaviours which the community can readily

identify with and imitate (Bandura 1997). We predicted that communication material – more

specifically an illustrated book on jaguar ecology and predation problems – would be more

effective in changing landowners‟ perceptions of jaguars if it reached landowners through the

local school, with clear endorsement by the school, rather than through a non-governmental

conservation organization.


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Methods

Experimental design

This study was conducted in Alta Floresta, on the deforestation frontier in northern Mato

Grosso (southern Amazonia). This experiment tested ways of improving perceptions of

jaguars among rural Amazonians. The work took place at six rural public schools and was

divided into two parts: I) influencing school pupils‟ perceptions directly via information and

elaboration interventions; and II) influencing fathers‟ perceptions indirectly via school-based

communication interventions with their children.

Part I. Influencing school pupils‟ perceptions via information and elaboration interventions

At four of the six schools (schools 1 to 4; Figure 1), one fifth of all pupils in the 5th

and 6th

grades (ages 11 to 14) were randomly assigned to one of the following treatments: 1) control;

2) information; 3) elaboration; and 4) information plus elaboration. The remaining fifth of

pupils were assigned to Part II („book via school‟ treatment) (Figure 1). The information

treatment consisted of three 90-minute lectures (one per week over three weeks), about jaguar

issues. Lectures were based on two activity books (Appendix IV) and covered topics such as

jaguar ecology, impact of jaguars on human livelihoods, jaguar conservation status, reasons

to conserve jaguars, and measures to minimise the impact of jaguars on livestock. Lectures

and activity books focused on factual knowledge and did not attempt to convey ideas on

whether certain attitudes or behaviours towards jaguars would be morally right or wrong. For

each lecture, some sections of the activity books were assigned as homework. The lectures

were given by a local teacher (who had taught previously at one of the participating schools)

under the supervision of SM. The elaboration treatment consisted of a structured group

discussion in which pupils raised, shared and debated all their beliefs and perceptions relating

to jaguars (Appendix V). The discussion was approximately 2 hours long and was moderated


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by SM with the assistance of the same local teacher that taught the lectures for the

information treatment. SM and his assistant were as objective and neutral in appearance and

behaviour as possible and did not provide pupils with any factual or judgemental information

about jaguars during the discussion. Pupils in the „elaboration‟ treatment of Part I did not use

activity books, and were not assigned homework. Pupils in the information and elaboration

group were given their third lecture one week before taking part in the elaboration exercise.

Pupils in the control group continued their education as usual.

Part II. Influencing fathers‟ perceptions indirectly via school-based communication

Apart from the fathers of children participating in the elaboration treatment of Part I, fathers

received information about jaguars from one or both of two sources (Figure 1): their

children‟s homework and the book „People and Jaguars: a Guide for Coexistence’ (Marchini

and Luciano 2009a) (Appendix VI). Pupils involved in the information treatment (and

attended lectures) of Part I were instructed to ask their fathers to sign their homework. Their

fathers received a letter from the school‟s director explaining that the school was

implementing a jaguar education programme directed at pupils, parents and community

members.

A Guide for Coexistence is an easy-to-read, highly illustrated colour book. It is divided into

the following sections: „Jaguars; what they are and how they live‟, „Jaguars: are they a

problem for us?‟, „People and jaguars: when we are the problem‟, „Reasons to coexist with

jaguars‟, „How to coexist with jaguars‟ and „Beyond coexistence: learning more about and

enjoying jaguars‟. As with the activity books, the guide focuses on factual information and

does not convey opinions about what may be morally right or wrong in the relationships

between people and jaguars. Fathers received the book directly from their children, together


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with an endorsement letter from the school explaining that the book was part of broader

jaguar education programme. Another group of fathers, randomly selected from a list of

fathers of 5th

and 6th

graders at two other schools (schools 5 and 6; Figure 5.1), received the

book from SM or his assistant instead of their children. SM and his assistant visited each of

these fathers at home, introduced themselves as representatives of a local non-governmental

conservation organization (Fundação Ecológica Cristalino - FEC), interviewed the father

(see below), and handed him one copy of the book on behalf of FEC. These fathers were not

informed about the involvement of their children‟s school in providing parents‟ contact

details for the study.

Figure 5.1. Diagram showing assignment of pupils and fathers to experimental treatments (and sample

sizes). Dashed lines indicate that fathers were not aware of the involvement of their children‟s school

in the study.

Measurement of knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions

Pupils were evaluated three times: before and immediately after exposure to the treatment

(pre-test and post-test, respectively) and again three months later (delayed post-test) to test


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for retention of treatment effects. Fathers were evaluated using a pre-test and a post-test only.

The experiment was conducted between July and November 2009.

Pupils were evaluated in class by the means of self-completion questionnaires. SM

introduced himself and his assistant as representatives of an educational project from outside

the school and gave the students a brief introduction. The introduction was devoid of value

statements and merely invited them to participate in a project involving questions about their

opinions about wildlife. SM stressed that there were no right or wrong answers, that no grade

would be assigned, and therefore pupils could feel at ease about offering their views

transparently. SM also emphasised the importance of each pupil completing their

questionnaires individually. Teachers were given the choice of staying or leaving the room; a

few stayed but did not interfere with the survey. Questionnaires and pencils were distributed

and questions were read out one at a time. We checked that students understood each

question and numbered their responses correctly. This approach allowed us to repeat

questions and provide further explanations where necessary. Questionnaires were completed

in approximately 30 minutes and returned directly to SM.

Fathers were evaluated at home using face-to-face interviews conducted by SM. SM was

always accompanied by a local field assistant during the interviews. SM and his assistant

were as objective and neutral in appearance and behaviour as possible. SM introduced

himself to the fathers of pupils in schools 1 to 4 as a representative of an educational project,

rather than a conservation organisation. SM introduced himself to the fathers contacted

through schools 5 and 6 as a representative of Fundação Ecológica Cristalino. He explained

to respondents that the purpose of the survey was to collect data on people‟s perceptions of

wildlife, and that these would ultimately contribute to a conservation project.


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Separate questionnaires were designed for evaluating pupils and fathers but both types

examined the following: (1) knowledge about jaguars and depredation problems; (2) attitude

towards jaguars; (3) perception of the impact of jaguars on human safety; (4) perception of

the impact of jaguars on livestock; (5) attitudes towards killing jaguars; (6) descriptive norm

regarding the killing of jaguars (Appendix II). The variables are described in more detail

below.

Knowledge about jaguars and livestock predation. For knowledge questions all answers were

coded as binomial variables, using 1 for a correct answer and 0 for an incorrect answer or “do

not know”. Knowledge was measured by ten questions so that the scale ranged from 0

(minimum knowledge) to 10 (maximum knowledge) and had a reliability (Cronbach‟s alpha)

of 0.77. Questions were posed as statements, five of which were correct and five incorrect.

The statements were: (i) The jaguar generally begins to consume its prey from the front while

the puma consumes the areas from the ribs backwards (correct); (ii) A jaguar‟s prey is usually

hidden and covered with leaves, while a puma‟s prey isn‟t (incorrect); (iii) The jaguar‟s prey

generally presents a bite mark at the base of the neck, while the puma‟s prey generally has a

bite on the throat (correct); (iv) The jaguar‟s footprint is longer than wide with thinner and

pointed toes, while the puma‟s footprint is slightly wider than long, with round toes

(incorrect); (v) A female jaguar produces on average 1 or 2 cubs every other year (correct);

(vi) Black jaguars are more dangerous to cattle than yellow jaguars (incorrect); (vii) The

heaviest jaguar ever captured weighed approximately 150 kilos (correct); (viii) Jaguars kill

more people every year in Brazil than do domestic dogs (incorrect); (ix) Where cattle are

more abundant than native prey, jaguars take more cattle than native prey (correct); (x)

Calves kept closer to the forest edge have in general a smaller chance of being killed by

jaguars (incorrect).


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Attitude towards jaguars. We assessed respondents‟ attitudes towards jaguars, according to

(Ajzen and Fishbein 1980; Ajzen 1985)‟s definition of attitudes, “the tendencies people have

when they view an entity with some degree of favourability or unfavourability”. Attitudes

were measured using a combination of Likert scales (e.g., strongly disagree, disagree, neither

agree nor disagree, agree, strongly agree) and semantic differential statements (where

respondents are offered a choice of two polar opposite responses e.g. good-bad) (Oppenheim

1998). Each question consisted of a statement about jaguars, and two extreme response

options describing the potential range of attitudes to the statement, e.g. very sad – very

happy. Respondents were asked to select a point on a five-point scale between those options

that reflected their view. We coded each answer -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2. Some questions were

phrased in favour of jaguars, and others against, in an effort to balance any potential bias

associated with question direction. However responses that were favourable to jaguars were

always coded positively, and responses that were unfavourable were always coded

negatively, so that we could construct a summated rating scale to summarise an individual

respondent‟s overall attitude towards jaguars. Five questions were used so the summated

rating scale ranged from -10 to +10 (Cronbach‟s alpha = 0.89). The questions were as

follows: (1) You would like the jaguar population in the region to: decrease a lot - increase a

lot; (2) If all the jaguars disappeared forever from the region, you would feel: very sad - very

happy; (3) What you feel towards jaguars is better described as: dislike a lot - like a lot; (4)

The jaguar has its value, even if it does not generate any income to you: strongly disagree -

strongly agree; (5) If you had to walk alone in a forest where there are jaguars, you would

feel scared: strongly disagree - strongly agree.

Perception of jaguar impact on human safety and livestock. Perceptions of jaguar impact on

livestock and on human safety were each measured using two questions. Responses to each


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question were recorded on a 6-point scale coded 0 to 5 (no impact to high impact) according

to the size of the impact. Perceived impact on livestock was assessed using the questions

„How would you rate the damage associated with predation ever caused by jaguars to your

father‟ and „How would you rate the risk of any damage associated with predation to your

father in the next 12 months (pupils only), „How would you rate the damage associated with

predation ever caused by jaguars to you‟ and „How would you rate the risk of any damage

associated with predation to you in the next 12 months (fathers only). Perceived impact on

human safety was assessed using the questions „Number of people ever hurt by a jaguar in the

neighbourhood‟ and „How would you rate the risk of you being hurt by a jaguar in the next

12 months‟. We summed the response scores for each of the jaguar impact scales („perceived

impact on livestock‟ and „perceived impact on human safety‟) for each respondent separately,

thus producing two impact scores ranging from 0 to 10 for each respondent (Cronbach‟s

alpha = 0.83 and 0.91).

Attitude towards jaguar killing. Respondents‟ attitudes towards killing jaguars were measured

using five-point evaluative semantic differential scales. Two items were used (useless-useful

and exciting-boring). We coded each answer -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2. One question was phrased in

favour of jaguar killing, and the other against, in an effort to balance any potential bias

associated with question direction. However responses that were favourable to jaguar killing

were always coded positively, and unfavourable responses were coded negatively, so that we

could construct a summated rating scale to summarise an individual respondent‟s overall

attitude towards jaguar killing. The attitude scale, therefore, ranged from -4 (most

unfavourable of jaguar killing) to 4 (most favourable of jaguar killing) (Cronbach‟s alpha =

0.87).


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Social norm concerning jaguar killing. Descriptive norms were assessed using two measures:

„How many of your neighbours do you think kill jaguars?‟ (0-4, none to all); „Think of the

landowners in Alta Floresta - what percentage of them do you think kill jaguars?‟ (0-4, none

to all). The descriptive norm scale ranged from 0 (perception that no landowner in Alta

Floresta kills jaguars) to 8 (perception that all landowners in Alta Floresta kill jaguars)

(Cronbach‟s alpha = 0.80).

The above tests and treatments were conducted in the following sequence: 1. Pre-test of all

pupils and fathers; 2. Book via school and book via NGO (fathers); at least two weeks until

next step; 3. Post-test of fathers (book via school and book via NGO); 4. Information (pupils)

and child‟s homework (fathers); 5. Post-test of fathers (child‟s homework and control); 6.

Elaboration (pupils); 7. Post-test of pupils; three months until next step; 8. Delayed post-test

of pupils.

Data analysis

All analyses were conducted in SPSS, version 14. We used paired sample t-tests to compare

the six composite measures – knowledge about jaguars and predation problems, attitude

towards jaguars, perception of the impact of jaguars on human safety, perception of the

impact of jaguars on livestock, attitudes towards killing jaguars and descriptive norm

regarding the killing of jaguars – between pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test. General

Linear Model (GLM) was used to examine possible interactions between the treatments.

Results

A total of 151 pupils (68 females and 83 males) completed both pre and post-tests, 145 of

which also completed the delayed post-test, and 172 fathers were interviewed (Figure 5.1).


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Mean pupil age was 12.63 years (SD = 1.18, range = 11-18) and mean father age was 46.38

year (SD = 5.89, range = 36-63).

Information and elaboration

Both information and elaboration had significant effects on pupils (Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2).

The comparison between pre and post-tests showed that information alone significantly

improved knowledge about jaguars, improved attitudes towards them, reduced the

perceptions of their impacts on both human safety and livestock, and made people less

favourable towards jaguar killing. Only descriptive norm was not affected by information.

Elaboration alone changed attitudes to jaguars, perceived impact on human safety and

attitudes to jaguar killing. Combined, information and elaboration significantly changed

knowledge, attitudes to jaguars, perceived impact on human safety and livestock and attitudes

to killing. However, the delayed post-test revealed that some of these effects were not

completely retained. Comparisons between post and delayed post-tests showed that

knowledge, attitudes to jaguars and perceived impacts on human safety and livestock among

pupils who had been exposed to information alone, and knowledge and perceived impact on

human safety among pupils who had been exposed to information and elaboration combined,

changed in the opposite direction than in the pre-post-test comparison (nonetheless,

differences between pre-test and delayed post-test were still significant). The effect of

elaboration alone on perceived impact on safety and attitudes to killing was retained and for

attitudes to jaguars it significantly increased between post and delayed tests.


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Table 5.1. Mean scores standard deviations for, and paired t-tests between, pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test on pupils‟ perceptions of jaguars.

Pre-Post Post-Delayed Pre-Delayed

Treatment Measure Pre Post t df p Delayed t df P t df p

Control Knowledge 4.07±1.12 3.82±1.06 1.42 27 0.165 4.00±1.19 -0.895 27 0.379 0.348 24 0.731

Attitudes to jaguars 2.68±2.31 2.75±2.06 -0.348 27 0.731 2.82±1.96 -0.372 27 0.713 -0.583 24 0.565

Perception of impact on safety 4.79±1.68 5.11±1.42 -1.880 27 0.071 5.11±1.22 0.000 27 1.000 -1.560 24 0.130

Perception of impact on livestock 1.03±0.88 1.07±0.85 -0.297 27 0.769 1.11±0.83 -0.273 27 0.787 -0.626 24 0.537

Attitudes to killing -0.64±1.97 -0.54±1.86 -1.000 27 0.326 -0.41±1.84 1.544 27 0.134 0.528 24 0.602

Descriptive norm 5.11±1.31 5.14±1.43 -0.328 27 0.745 5.07±1.33 -0.626 27 0.537 0.570 24 0.573

Information Knowledge 4.08±1.38 6.63±1.19 -11.129 39 <0.001 6.00± 1.24 4.038 39 0.000 -7.980 38 <0.001

Attitudes 2.55±2.49 3.62±2.15 -4.611 39 <0.001 2.97±2.57 2.579 39 0.014 -3.597 38 0.001

Perception of impact on safety 4.67±1.84 1.72±1.34 15.312 39 <0.001 2.50±1.80 -3.740 39 0.001 9.618 38 <0.001

Perception of impact on livestock 1.05±1.21 0.37±0.92 4.970 39 <0.001 0.67±0.92 -2.762 39 0.009 2.564 38 0.014

Attitudes to killing -0.35±1.96 -1.77±1.74 8.924 39 <0.001 -1.65±1.76 -1.403 39 0.168 9.313 38 <0.001

Descriptive norm 4.95±1.93 5.05±1.62 -1.071 39 0.291 5.05±1.83 0.255 39 0.800 -1.356 38 0.183

Elaboration Knowledge 3.91±1.04 3.96±1.11 -0.298 44 0.767 4.13±1.16 -1.034 44 0.307 -1.279 42 0.208

Attitudes 2.60±2.05 3.22±3.67 -2.213 44 0.032 3.56±3.53 -2.236 44 0.030 -3.473 42 0.001


Perception of impact on livestock 1.11±1.19 1.18±1.28 -0.684 44 0.497 1.11±1.17 0.596 44 0.554 0.000 42 1.000

Attitudes to killing -0.27±1.65 -0.71±2.31 2.379 44 0.022 -0.84±2.35 1.633 44 0.110 2.857 42 0.007

Descriptive norm 4.80±1.87 4.69±1.86 1.530 44 0.133 4.82±2.02 -1.354 44 0.183 -.330 42 0.743

Information

+

elaboration

Knowledge 3.95±1.27 7.08±1.38 -12.493 37 <0.001 6.63±1.42 2.340 37 0.025 -8.889 37 <0.001

Attitudes 2.82±2.29 4.52±4.00 -4.865 37 <0.001 4.68±3.76 -1.356 37 0.183 -5.676 37 <0.001


Perception of impact on livestock 1.18±1.13 0.24±0.63 7.267 37 <0.001 0.26±0.53 -0.329 37 0.744 6.034 37 <0.001

Attitudes to killing -0.50±1.75 -1.66±1.88 7.333 37 <0.001 -1.81±1.95 1.639 37 0.110 6.963 37 <0.001

Descriptive norm 4.60±2.04 4.71±2.15 -0.813 37 0.422 4.71±2.05 0.000 37 1.000 -1.434 37 0.160


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Figure 5.2. Variation in pupils‟ perceptions of jaguars between pre-test, post-test and delayed

post-test in response to the following treatments: control (◊), information (●), elaboration

(▲), and information plus elaboration (■). * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p <0.01.


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As shown in figure 5.3, the direction of the effect of elaboration on attitudes to jaguars and

attitudes to jaguar killing depended on pupils‟ initial attitudes. The interaction between

attitudes to jaguars and test (pre versus post) was significant for elaboration alone (GLM: F =

17.236, df = 1, p < 0.001) and elaboration and information combined (GLM: F = 19.738, df =

1, p < 0.001). The interaction between attitudes to jaguar killing and test was significant for

elaboration alone (GLM: F = 4.190, df = 1, p = 0.047), but not for elaboration and

information combined (GLM: F = 0.780, df = 1, p = 0.383). Among pupils who had positive

attitudes towards jaguars (attitude scores 1 or above; mean±SD = 3.15±1.27) in the pre-test,

attitudes became significantly more positive after elaboration alone (mean±SD = 4.12±2.62)

(t = -3.723, df = 39, p = 0.001), or information and elaboration combined (pre-test: mean±SD

= 3.35±1.63; post-test: mean±SD =5.50±2.83) (t = -6.977, df = 33, p < 0.001). Among pupils

who had neutral or negative attitudes towards jaguars (attitude scores 0 or below; mean±SD =

-1.80±1.79) in the pre-test, attitudes became more negative after exposure to elaboration

alone (mean±SD = -4.00±2.74) (t = 4.491, df = 4, p = 0.011), or elaboration and information,

although this latter change was not significant (pre-test: mean±SD = -1.75±2.06; post-test:

mean±SD =-3.75±2.75) (t = 2.828, df = 3, p = 0.066).

Likewise, in pupils who had negative attitudes to jaguar killing (attitude scores 0 or below;

mean±SD = -1.14±1.41) in the pre-test, attitudes became significantly more negative after

elaboration alone (mean±SD = -1.83±1.65) (t = 3.839, df = 28, p = 0.001), or information and

elaboration combined (pre-test: mean±SD = -1.22±1.55; post-test: mean±SD =-2.40±1.52) (t

= 6.150, df = 26, p < 0.001). However, among pupils who had positive attitudes to jaguar

killing (attitude scores 1 or above; mean±SD = 1.31±0.45) in the pre-test, attitudes did not

change after exposure to elaboration alone (mean±SD = 1.31±1.96) (t = 0.000, df = 15, p =


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1.000), and became less positive after exposure to information and elaboration combined pre-

test mean±SD = 1.27±0.47; post-test: mean±SD =0.18±1.33) (t = 3.833, df = 10, p = 0.003).

Inter-generational learning

Fathers were affected significantly both by books and by their children (Table 5.2 and Figure

5.4). Books alone increased fathers‟ knowledge and decreased their perception of the impact

of jaguars on human safety, regardless of the means through which they received the book i.e.

from an NGO or the local school. However, the significance of the effect was greater among

those who received the book from the school (p < 0.001 against 0.036 for knowledge and p =

0.006 against 0.026 for perception of impact on human safety). Besides, books received from

the local school caused a decrease in fathers‟ perception of descriptive norm related to jaguar

killing. Children‟s homework improved their fathers‟ attitudes towards jaguars and decreased

their perception of descriptive norm, but did not significantly affect other variables. In

contrast receiving the book from the school combined with seeing their child‟s homework

increased fathers‟ knowledge, improved their attitudes towards jaguars, decreased their

perceptions of the impact of jaguars on both human safety and livestock, and decreased their

perception of descriptive norm. Only attitude towards killing remained unaffected – and this

was the main metric which it would be good to change.


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Figure 5.3. Variation in attitudes towards jaguars and jaguar killing between pre-test and

post-test among pupils exposed to elaboration alone (▲ and Δ) and elaboration and

information combined (■ and □). Solid shapes denote positive initial attitudes while hollow

shapes denote neutral and negative initial attitudes. * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p <0.01.


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Table 5.2. Mean scores standard deviation for, and paired t-tests between, pre-test and post-

test on fathers‟ perceptions of jaguars.

Treatment Dependent variable Pre Post t df p

Control Knowledge 5.07±1.65 5.03±1.63 0.297 29 0.769

Attitudes to jaguars 1.70±1.93 1.63±1.85 1.000 29 0.326

Perception of impact on safety 3.63±1.79 3.60±1.85 0.441 29 0.662

Perception of impact on livestock 1.20±1.06 1.30±1.09 -1.140 29 0.264

Attitudes to killing -0.43±2.02 -0.30±1.90 -1.439 29 0.161

Descriptive norm 5.63±1.40 5.60±1.30 0.297 29 0.769

Book via

conservation

organization

Knowledge 5.10±1.60 5.42±1.52 -2.177 39 0.036

Attitudes to jaguars 1.75±1.86 1.85±1.76 -1.433 39 0.160


Perception of impact on livestock 1.22±1.05 1.27±1.11 -0.628 39 0.534

Attitudes to killing -0.17±1.93 -0.30±1.71 1.152 39 0.256

Descriptive norm 5.10±1.90 5.15±1.80 -0.495 39 0.623

Book via

school

Knowledge 4.90±1.51 6.00±1.69 -5.284 39 <0.001

Attitudes to jaguars 1.95±2.26 2.20±2.14 -1.818 39 0.077


Perception of impact on livestock 1.20±0,92 1.00±0.93 1.433 39 0.160



Child‟‟s

homework

Knowledge 4.97±1.24 5.03±1.24 -0.701 29 0.489

Attitudes to jaguars 1.43±4.85 2.57±4.14 -4.753 29 <0.001


Perception of impact on livestock 1.20±0.66 1.13±0.94 0.626 29 0.536

Attitudes to killing -0.30±2.19 -0.43±2.06 1.000 29 0.326


Book via school +

Child‟s

homework

Knowledge 4.8±11.73 6.28±2.05 -6.679 31 <0.001

Attitudes to jaguars 1.43±3.20 4.15±2.54 -8.718 31 <0.001

Perception of impact on safety 3.97±1.38 2.75±1.52 4.978 31 <0.001

Perception of impact on livestock 1.22±0.83 0.50±0.76 5.578 31 <0.001


Descriptive norm 5.28±1.90 2.84±1.87 7.012 31 <0.001


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Figure 5.4. Variation in fathers‟ perceptions of jaguars between pre-test and post-test in

response to the following treatments: control (◊), book via conservation organization (○),

book via child‟s school (●), child‟s homework (▲), and book via child‟s school plus child‟s

homework (■). * denotes p < 0.05, ** denotes p <0.01


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This study shows that school-based education and communication interventions can have a

powerful impact on pupil‟s perceptions of jaguars, and those of their fathers; this process

could be used to positive conservation effect. The finding that pupils can influence their

fathers‟ perceptions of jaguars suggests that conservationists can use rural schools to reach at

once tens of students in a classroom, or hundreds on the school‟s soccer pitch, who will in

turn transfer the conservation message to their fathers. Given the logistical challenge of

visiting landowners one-by-one at home in rural Amazonia, this strategy might be relatively

cost-effective. The exceptionally strong prominence of the jaguar in people‟s hearts and

minds (Chapter 2), combined with the relatively high rate of primary school enrolment in

Brazil (97.5%) (Unesco 2007) and the willingness of public school directors and teachers to

cooperate with conservationists, renders school-based intergenerational learning a

particularly promising approach for jaguar conservation.

Attitudes and descriptive norms related to jaguar killing are the most immediate determinants

of jaguar killing behaviour among farmers and ranchers in Amazonia (Chapter 4). Therefore

perhaps the most relevant effect detected among fathers in this study was the decrease in their

perceptions of how common the killing of jaguars is among their neighbours.

Conservationists have used education and communication to increase knowledge and

improve attitudes among target stakeholders and, in so doing, change stakeholders‟

behaviours for the benefit of conservation (Jacobson et al. 2006). However, attempts to

influence social norms regarding conservation-orientated behaviours have been far less

considered. We found that books distributed via local schools changed descriptive norms

among fathers, while [the same] books distributed via a conservation organisation did not.

This result suggests that parents‟ perceptions can be influenced not only by the information


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explicitly conveyed in the content of books and their children‟s homework, but also by the

implicit message that a community institution (and therefore other community members)

supports jaguar conservation more than they had realised. The use of role-models, case

studies, and examples of coexistence with jaguars, could conceivably enhance the power of

school-based communication campaigns to create or redefine social norms concerning

conservation-orientated behaviours.

This study also demonstrated the potentially detrimental effect of prejudiced communication

compounding negative attitudes towards species involved in human-wildlife conflict. Pupils‟

attitudes towards jaguars – both positive and negative – were reinforced by the elaboration

exercise; even the negative attitudes held by a few pupils, towards jaguars, were

strengthened. Possible explanations for this polarisation of attitudes are learning, self-

persuasion and reactance. Pupils may have learned selectively the new information raised and

shared by the group, about the benefits and drawbacks of coexisting with jaguars, to support

their schemas concerning the species, i.e. pre-existing biases that provide a framework or

structure for their beliefs regarding jaguars (Brewer 1981). Attitudes can also become more

extreme or polarized as a result of thinking, a phenomenon called self-persuasion. The

attitude change that occurs is not the result of information that originates externally but rather

the result of thoughts, ideas and arguments generated within oneself (Petty and Cacioppo

1996). Finally, reactance might also account for our results. During the elaboration

intervention, pupils were encouraged to share their opinions with the rest of the group

without knowing that they would subsequently have to justify their views. Only a few pupils

in each group expressed negative opinions about jaguars and their views were challenged by

the majority of their classmates. By defending their opinions under peer pressure, those

pupils became more convinced that they were right or developed even more extreme views, a


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phenomenon known as the boomerang effect or reactance (Brehm 2000). Reactance can

occur in anyone who believes that his or her freedom to choose freely how to think, feel, or

act may be or has been limited. Conservationists should become acquainted with

stakeholders‟ views and attitudes, and consider carefully the implications of exposing or

challenging them, for fear of causing an unintended, perverse strengthening of a negative

view. Failure to consider reactance can cause communication interventions to backfire,

producing the opposite effect to that intended. Where group identity is strong, as is the case

among landowners in organized settlements on the Amazon deforestation frontier (Chapter

4), reactance is likely to be enhanced if the persuasive message is seen to stem from outside

the group. When reactance is likely to be an issue, communication campaigns would arguably

be more effective if they rely on descriptive norms (involving perceptions of which

behaviours are typically performed) rather than injunctive norms (involving perceptions of

which behaviours are typically disapproved of) (Cialdini 2003), and strive to promote

positive conduct (with prescriptive messages) rather than demote negative conduct (with

proscriptive messages) (Winter et al. 2000).

Information alone significantly improved knowledge, attitudes towards jaguars, and

perceptions of jaguar impacts on human safety and livestock among pupils and fathers.

However some of these changes did not endure. Because knowledge of jaguars among

children and adults in rural Amazonia is typically poor, and most people in the region over-

estimate the real impact of jaguars on human livelihoods (Chapters 2 and 3), information-

based interventions (e.g. lectures and books) were indeed expected to improve knowledge

and perceptions regarding the species. Although such interventions did improve pupils‟

knowledge, attitudes and perceptions in post-tests conducted immediately afterwards, these

effects (while still significantly different) were not sustained at the same level three months


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later. Information and elaboration together had a stronger effect than information alone on

knowledge, attitudes towards jaguars and perceived impact on livestock. As expected, these

changes were more enduring than those produced by knowledge alone. Information may have

moderated the effect of elaboration on pupils‟ attitudes towards killing jaguars: while positive

attitudes towards killing remained unchanged after elaboration alone, they decreased

significantly when elaboration was preceded by information. In contrast, however, the same

moderating effect of information was not observed on pupils‟ negative attitudes towards

jaguars per se. This finding suggests that attitudes towards jaguars as a species are less

rational, and may be more entrenched, than attitudes towards killing them. While attitudes

towards killing jaguars may be manipulated using information-based interventions, education

and communication approaches aimed at ameliorating strongly negative attitudes towards

jaguars themselves may be more effective if they capitalise particularly on the strong, mixed

emotions elicited by the species (Chapter 2).

Chapter 6 – Summary and recommendations

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CHAPTER 6

GENERAL SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE

RESEARCH

In the end we will conserve only what we love,

we love only what we understand, and we will understand only what we are taught

Baba Dioum

This study has provided new insights into the human dimensions of conflicts between people

and jaguars, exploring approaches to understand, predict and influence people‟s perceptions

of jaguars in the species‟ two largest strongholds, namely the Pantanal and Amazonia.

Negative perceptions about jaguars ultimately lead to jaguar killing, and killing jaguars is a

major threat to the species. Therefore understanding perceptions regarding jaguars among

landowners in the Pantanal and Amazonia, and identifying effective interventions to improve

them, are key elements to the future safeguarding of jaguar populations.

Findings

Our study showed that perceptions behind human-jaguar conflicts in Brazil are more strongly

related to social and psychological factors than previously understood, and may therefore be

more readily influenced through communication and education than has been thought. While,

not surprisingly, we found that perceptions of the impact of jaguars on livestock are

important elements in human-jaguar conflict, they are not the only predictors of the intention

to kill jaguars. Fear, personal and social motivation, and internal and external barriers to

killing jaguars can also influence jaguar killing behaviour. The relative importance of these

factors in determining intention to kill varies with region and affluence. Livestock loss acts


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in combination with attitudes, knowledge and perceptions of the economic situation to

determine how people perceive the impact of jaguars on their livelihoods. Attitudes and

knowledge, in turn, are influenced by age, gender and whether respondents live in urban or

rural areas.

Our study also revealed that jaguars are the most prominent of all native mammals in the

perceptions of young Brazilians. This prominence can not be fully explained by knowledge

about jaguars or by direct experiences with the species, such as household livestock predation

problems. Young people predominantly perceive the jaguar as threatening, but also as

beautiful and endangered. Indeed, most adjectives attributed to jaguars are emotive. Drawing

on these findings, we designed communication and education tools, including an illustrated

manual and activity books, to improve perceptions of jaguars among school children and their

fathers on the Amazon deforestation frontier. We found that school-based communication

interventions can have a powerful effect on perceptions of jaguars among pupils, and that

pupils can successfully transfer that effect to their fathers. In our communication experiment,

fathers were influenced not only by the information conveyed explicitly in the content of

books and their children‟s homework, but also by the implicit message that a community

institution (i.e. the local school) - and therefore other community members - support jaguar

conservation more than they may have realised.

Implications

Most research, policies and programs related to jaguar conservation have focused narrowly

on the biology of the species or the immediate economic losses caused by jaguars to people

through livestock predation. Technical solutions for the problem of livestock predation

(Hoogesteijn 2000) have received considerable attention, and efforts to increase people‟s


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tolerance of jaguars and discourage jaguar killing have focused largely on economic

incentives (e.g., monetary compensation for livestock loss; Silveira et al. 2006) and legal

prohibitions and sanctions (e.g., establishment of protected areas). The role and importance of

social and psychological factors have been far less considered.

Our findings, however, highlight the importance of social factors in jaguar killing. Social

norms (descriptive norm and subjective norm) and social identity affect jaguar killing

behaviour and should be taken into account by conservationists. A number of techniques can

be used to change social incentives and barriers. For instance, the use of role-models, case

studies and examples of coexistence with jaguars, combined with information about the

negative consequences of killing them, might help to create or redefine a social norm by

explaining that the community condemns rather than condones or glamorises the killing of

jaguars. Arranging for conspicuous and respected group members or community institutions

(e.g., cooperatives and rural schools) to promote tolerance of jaguars may be one way of

influencing other group members. Communicating information about the behaviour and

practices of group members via informal social networks is another possible strategy.

Conservation communicators should draw upon the exceptional social significance of the

jaguar, and the current societal shift in values from materialism (focused on the use and

management of wildlife for human benefit) toward post-materialism (focused on mutualistic

orientations towards wildlife) (Inglehart 1990; Manfredo et al. 2003), to promote the social

benefits of protecting, rather than killing, jaguars. Brazilian society is becoming increasingly

environmentally conscious. As a result people associated with conservation efforts enjoy

increased status, especially when these involve charismatic species, such as jaguar, or

habitats of worldwide concern, such as those of the Pantanal and Amazonia.


153

This study also revealed the importance of perceptions, knowledge, skills, attitudes and

emotions such as fear and excitement in inciting the killing of jaguars. Education and

information-intensive campaigns might be used to influence these factors in order to deter

jaguar killing. Education campaigns addressing livestock predation by jaguars might help

ranchers to identify correctly a predation event, implement preventive measures, and adjust

exaggerated perceptions of jaguar impact on livestock to realistic levels. Campaigns

conveying the true probability of a jaguar attack on humans might be particularly effective in

preventing jaguar killing among small landowners in Amazonia. Knowledge of jaguars

among children and adults in rural Amazonia is typically poor, and most people in the region

over-estimate the real impact of jaguars on human livelihoods. Therefore information-based

interventions should significantly improve knowledge, attitudes towards jaguars, and

perceptions of jaguar impacts on human safety and livestock, as they did among the school

pupils and fathers that participated in our education experiment. The educational effects of

information in our experiment were more persistent when combined with thoughtful

consideration about the messages conveyed, i.e. cognitive elaboration. Therefore in order to

achieve more powerful and enduring results, conservationists should consider using a

combination of passive and active learning techniques, while being aware of the fact that

elaboration can reinforce pre-existing negative attitudes. In our experiment, strong pre-

existing negative attitudes towards jaguars among pupils were reinforced by the elaboration

exercise. A possible explanation for this observation is „reactance‟, a phenomenon in which a

person, who believes that his or her freedom to choose freely how to think, feel, or act may

be or has been limited, becomes more convinced that he or she is right, or develops even

more extreme views (Brehm 2000). When reactance is likely to be an issue, communication

campaigns would arguably be more effective if they relied on descriptive norms (involving

perceptions of which behaviours are typically performed) rather than injunctive norms


154

(involving perceptions of which behaviours are typically disapproved of) (Cialdini 2003).

Such campaigns should strive to promote positive conduct (with prescriptive messages)

rather than demote negative conduct (with proscriptive messages) (Winter et al., 2000).

Because jaguar killing results from the interplay between external incentives

(economic/market, legal/administrative/coercive, and social/normative) and internal

influences (such as knowledge, skills, emotions, norms, attitudes and intentions), effective

strategies for preventing jaguar killing must be based on the social and psychological aspects

of human-jaguar relationships as well as on legal and economic considerations.

Conservationists need to find and support ways of making jaguar killing not only unprofitable

and illegal, but also socially and personally unacceptable. In order to do so, we will have to

broaden our scope and look beyond the biology of jaguars and the short-term economics of

livestock predation on individual ranches.


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Future directions: zooming out for a broader perspective

Jaguars versus pumas

Future studies on people‟s perceptions of jaguars should also address the puma. Like jaguars,

pumas are big cats known for causing damage to livestock (Mazzolli et al. 2002) and

attacking and killing people (Quigley and Herrero 2005). In Brazil, the two species have the

same popular name, onça. The distinction between them is made by the second part of their

compound names: onça-pintada (spotted onça) for jaguar and onça-parda (brown onça) for

puma. This biological and etymological proximity can lead people to think of jaguars and

pumas as the same animal, or at least to confuse them, transferring attributes from one

species to the other. There is indeed room for confusion, more so in Brazil than anywhere

else, and this has important implications for research and management. For instance, when a

landowner says onça in his answer to a survey question, he can be referring to the jaguar, to

the puma or to both. Likewise, the loss of livestock to pumas can be used to justify the

retaliatory killing of jaguars and vice-versa. Nonetheless, the close association between

jaguars and pumas may offer a unique opportunity for researchers to investigate the role of

perceptions in the conflicts between people and big cats. Despite the similarity between the

two species, jaguars have a much greater cultural, social and psychological significance than

pumas. Witness the conspicuous occurrence of the jaguar in art, literature and folklore in

Brazil, as opposed to the scant presence of the puma [for instance, the jaguar features as the

main character in more books for children and adolescents than any other native species

while the puma is virtually absent from children‟s books (Appendix I)], and the prominence

of jaguars relative to pumas in the hearts and minds of young people (Chapter 2). The

significance of the puma has most likely been overshadowed by the exceptional prominence

of the jaguar. This difference may affect the way people relate to the two species. Comparing

information about the real impact of jaguars versus pumas on human livelihoods, and


156

examining differences in the way people react to those impacts might help to disentangle

rational, objective reasons for lethal control from emotional, deep-seated motivations for

persecution.

Conflicts between humans over jaguars

Conflicts involving wildlife are, ultimately, often conflicts between groups of people with

different views on how wildlife should be managed (Madden 2008; Marshall et al. 2007).

When people feel that their own needs are being subordinated to those of wildlife, or that

wildlife conservationists exclude them from decisions that affect their interests, they may

retaliate against or reduce cooperation with conservation organisations and authorities. The

influence of group identity on people‟s intention to kill jaguars, identified in our study,

reveals the potential for conflicts between human groups over jaguars. If there is a perceived

association between jaguar killing and in-group members (i.e. ranchers), and this is coupled

with a perceived association between jaguar conservation and out-group members, then two

results may occur. First conservation efforts considered to emanate from outside the group

may be poorly accepted, and second conflict between ranchers and jaguars may be replaced

by conflict, about jaguars, between ranchers and conservationists. Conflicts between people

over jaguars can be aggravated by the urban-rural divide. There is an exceptionally high rate

of urbanisation (1.8%) among the world‟s already highly urbanised countries, and Brazil is

among these, with 86% of the total population living in urban areas (CIA World Factbook).

Ranchers and farmers are a minority group in Brazil, and their numbers are dwindling. As a

result they may associate jaguar conservation with urban values that are increasingly imposed

on them, and might view the continuation of jaguar killing as part of their resistance to this

and their struggle to preserve their rural heritage. The recent growth of jaguar-based tourism

in the Pantanal also warrants attention. Differing views between wildlife biologists and


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tourist operators on jaguar management in the region have been aggravated by the first-ever

documented, unprovoked, fatal attack by a jaguar on a human in Brazil. This occurred on 24th

June 2008, when a young fisherman was killed by a jaguar while sleeping in his tent on a

bank of the Paraguay River in the Pantanal. One speculation is that this unique incident

occurred because jaguars in the area had become habituated to people by the use of baits to

attract jaguars for photo-tourism. If local landowners fail to distinguish between the interests

of wildlife biologists and tourist operators, the negative impacts of poorly planned tourism

may damage the credibility and trustworthiness of jaguar conservation organisations among

them. If effective jaguar management strategies are to be identified and met, we need first to

understand the social relationships behind jaguar-related conflicts.

From biological to multidisciplinary to interdisciplinary approaches

Conservation problems are caused by human behaviour. Human-Wildlife Conflicts (HWC)

are conservation problems that have their human element explicitly acknowledged in their

name. Despite the diversity of situations and species that spawn HWC, there is one common

thread: the thoughts and actions of humans ultimately determine the course and resolution of

the conflict. Because humans are the constant in HWCs, approaches that aim at

understanding and influencing human behaviour at both individual and group levels are

critical for dealing with them. Nonetheless, efforts to understand and resolve HWC have

focused mainly on biological issues, rather than on psychological, anthropological,

sociological, educational and communication perspectives. Our finding that social and

psychological factors may be important in determining people‟s perceptions of jaguars

corroborates the view that resolving human-jaguar conflicts requires input from both the

natural and social sciences. In this research, we explored human-jaguar conflict from a

cognitive psychology perspective.


158

Cognitive psychology draws on psychology and neuroscience. Both cognitive psychologists

and conservationists are interested in the practicalities of effecting changes in human

behaviour. Therefore conservationists may have more in common with cognitive

psychologists than they do with branches of social science that are preoccupied only with

understanding human behaviour. In order to understand and change the way people relate to

jaguars, the following challenges are faced: 1) engaging social scientists in jaguar research

and conservation; 2) overcoming the traditional lack of communication and mutual

understanding between natural and social scientists (Mascia et al. 2003; Campbell 2005); and

in so doing, 3) setting the stage for a shift from the broader, plural perspectives of a

multidisciplinary approach to the common ground achieved by the integration of knowledge

and techniques from multiple disciplines that characterises true interdisciplinarity

(Kokelmanns 1979).

From ranch to region to range

Jaguar conservation has been implemented or at least considered at difference spatial scales,

ranging from a single ranch to the entire species‟ range (Silveira et al. 2006; Rabinowitz and

Zeller 2010). Concrete efforts to resolve human-jaguar conflicts specifically, however, have

concentrated mostly on individual ranches. The emphasis on technical solutions to livestock

predation problems, and compensation schemes to alleviate jaguar-livestock conflict, explain

this focus on the ranch as the unit of analysis and intervention. The use of electric fencing,

aversive conditioning, changes in livestock husbandry practices (Hoogesteijn 2000), and

small-scale compensation programmes (Silveira et al. 2006), are examples of ranch-scale

interventions. However it is increasingly acknowledged that analysis and interventions should

be implemented at broader scales. For instance, Cavalcanti (2008) suggests that in the

Pantanal tax benefits and special credit agreements for ranchers are required, together with a


159

regional increase in beef prices to compensate for losses associated with grazing cattle in an

area of high jaguar density. Rabinowitz and Zeller (2010) propose a holistic model to identify

least-cost corridors connecting the 90 known jaguar populations across its range. Our study

revealed the centrality of perceptions in conflicts between people and jaguars, and our

understanding of perceptions of jaguars may require three levels of analysis: ranch, region

and range. At the level of individual ranches, the analysis focuses on potentially relevant

psychological attributes of landowners such as knowledge, skills, attitudes and feelings, and

on local contextual factors such as livestock losses to jaguars. Information obtained at the

ranch level suggests how to influence the behaviour of ranchers to the benefit of jaguar

conservation. Regional level analysis addresses the social phenomena that influence people‟s

perceptions of jaguars, such as social norms and social identity. Information obtained at the

regional scale can contribute to the design of effective communication interventions. Finally,

range-level factors account for differences in perceptions across social and cultural

conditions. At the range-scale, we examine the similarities and differences between countries

or regions in order to assess the degree to which findings from one place may be extrapolated

to others, or what is culture-specific in people‟s perceptions of jaguars (Manfredo 2004).

After all, can people and jaguars coexist?

The quotation at the beginning of this chapter comes from a speech made by the Senegalese

environmentalist Baba Dioum in 1968, in New Delhi, to the general assembly of the

International Union for Conservation of Nature. We use Dioum‟s quotation to structure the

answer to the question above.

In the end we will conserve only what we love

Manfredo (2008) places emotions at the heart of human attraction to, and conflict over,

wildlife. This component of human-wildlife interactions has largely been neglected, probably


160

because conservationists emphasise rationality as a means of combating emotional

arguments, and because, for academics, emotions are both difficult to measure and

conceptually complex. Emotion and cognition involve different parts of the brain, but interact

in decision-making. Following this argument, we will coexist with jaguars only if we „love‟

them. But according to Maslow (1954), love is a higher order emotion most fully expressed

when more basic needs (for safety, shelter and sustenance) have already been met. Unlike

wolves and bears in Europe and North America, jaguars share the land mostly with people

whose basic needs have not been met, and who are likely therefore to be more concerned

with their own physical security and economic well-being than with the status of jaguar

populations. Whether people will love and conserve jaguars, or hate and kill them, depends to

a great extent on the prospects for socioeconomic development and poverty reduction in rural

Latin America.

We love only what we understand

People will „love‟ more than „hate‟ jaguars when they understand their true value. The

aesthetic value of the jaguar is already widely recognized. Science will be crucial in revealing

and quantifying the jaguar‟s ecological and economic values, as well as the cost-effectiveness

of coexisting with jaguars by contrasting its economic value with the costs associated with

livestock predation. Coexistence between people and jaguars is more likely to be achieved,

though, when the social, cultural and emotional values of the jaguar are also fully

appreciated. However, the value people place on jaguars will depend upon their own values.

[Rohan (2000) draws a distinction between the term value when used as a verb (assigned on

the basis of meaning, goodness and worth) and as a noun (a stable and enduring cognitive

measure), such that the process of valuing (verb) something is based on the enduring values

(noun) that a person holds.] Coexistence between people and jaguars may depend not only on

http://everything2.com/title/Maslow%2527s+Hierarchy+of+Needs


161

the effectiveness of economic instruments that make people value (verb) them more, but also

on the speed with which the luxury of post-materialist values (noun) (basically, quality of life

and mutualistic orientations towards wildlife; Inglehart 1990) are distributed among those

who share the land with jaguars.

We will understand only what we are taught

Most of what we know about and feel towards wildlife is learned. Jaguars may elicit

instinctive, genetically determined fear and aggression. Hart and Sussman (2009) argue that

our evolutionary roots were shaped by a world in which humans were primarily a prey

species (mostly to lions and tigers) and the threat to survival imposed by large cats would

have selected for anti-predator adaptations in humans. Shepard (1973) proposes that the

desire to hunt and pursue animals is an innate characteristic of our species and Wilson‟s

biophilia hypothesis (1984, 1993) posits that humans have innate tendencies to focus on and

respond positively to natural objects, including wildlife. Nonetheless, it is clear that whether

we love animals, kill them, or both, in specific contexts represents an interaction of our

evolved tendencies and learned thoughts and behaviours (Manfredo 2008). While there is

nothing we can do about our genetic heritage, we can influence values, attitudes, feelings and,

ultimately, behaviours, especially of young people, through education. Whether people and

jaguars can coexist in the longer term will depend, more than anything else, on our ability to

educate the younger generation of Brazil and Latin America.

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Appendix I – Jaguars in books for children and adolescents

172

APPENDIX I

THE JAGUAR IN BOOKS FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

IN BRAZIL

The number of books for children or adolescents with selected animal names in the title and

available from one of Brazil‟s largest book sellers (Livraria Cultura). These were identified

using a search on the bookstore‟s website (www.livrariacultura.com.br) on 2nd April 2010.

Search criteria were: (i) children‟s book + Portuguese language + animal synonyms; and (ii)

books for adolescents + Portuguese language + animal name. Taxa that are not

representatived in the Brazilian fauna are shown in italics.

Domestic animal Wildlife in general Brazilian Wildlife: top 10

Animal Children‟s

books

Books for

teenagers

Animal Children‟s

books

Books for

teenagers

Animal Children‟s

books

Books for

teenagers

Cat 176 37 Bear 117 4 Monkey 85 5

Dog 130 8 Lion 81 16 Bird 59 11

Duck 123 4 Wolf 75 16 Fish 64 3

Rabbit 112 1 Monkey 85 5 Turtle 41 1

Chicken 73 5 Bird 59 11 Butterfly 32 8

Cow 53 5 Fish 64 3 *Jaguar 33 5

Pig 56 0 Elephant 58 8 Ant 30 1

Horse 39 6 Turtle 41 1 Caiman 27 2

Donkey 22 1 Butterfly 32 8 Bee 26 0

Goat 14 0 Jaguar 33 5 Snake 19 2

Sheep 11 1 Fox 35 1 Dolphin 19 1

Ant 30 1

Caiman 27 2

Bee 26 0

Giraffe 19 3

Tiger 17 5

Snake 19 2

Dolphin 19 1

Zebra 18 1

Cicada 18 1

Armadillo 18 0

Whale 14 4

Hippo 12 1

Rhinoceros 9 0

Cockroach 7 1

Deer 7 0

Beetle 6 0

Maned-

wolf

5 1

Anteater 4 0

Tapir 2 0

Giant river

otter

2 0

Leopard 2 0

Coati 2 0

Sloth 1 0

Puma 0 0

* The word jaguar refers to a

single species, while the other

names on this list refer to taxa

with multiple species

Appendix II – Questionnaires and interview schedule

173

APPENDIX II

Questionnaire used to evaluate children and adolescents (Chapter 2)

1. Name: __________________________________________ 2. Date: ____/_____/_____

3. Sex: male ( ) female ( ) 4. Age: _______ years old.

5. School: __________________________________________ 6. Grade: __________

7. Place of residence: rural ( ) urban ( )

Cognitive and affective prominence

8. Cite three animals that you know to occur in the nearest forest:

1.______________________________________________

2.______________________________________________

3.______________________________________________

9. What animal do you like most?_____________________________________________________

10. What animal do you dislike most? __________________________________________________

Experience of jaguars

11. Has your family (i.e. household) ever lost livestock to jaguars? No ( ) Yes ( )

When did that happen?_____________________________________________________________

12. Do you personally know anyone who has been injured by a jaguar? No ( ) Yes ( )

Who was it and how did that happen?____________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________

13. Have you ever seen a live jaguar in the wild? No ( ) Yes ( )

Where? ________________________________________________________________________

Knowledge about jaguars and depredation

Corr

ect

Inco

rrec

t

Do n

ot

know

14. The jaguar generally begins to consume its prey from the front while the

puma consumes the areas from the ribs back.

15. A jaguar‟s prey is usually hidden and covered with leaves, while a

puma‟s prey isn‟t.

16. The jaguar‟s prey generally presents a bite mark at the base of the neck,

while the puma‟s prey generally has a bite on the throat.

17. The jaguar‟s track is longer than wide with thinner and pointed toes,

while the puma‟s track is slightly wider than long, with round toes.

18. A female jaguar produces in average 1 or 2 cubs every other year.

19. Black jaguars are more dangerous to cattle than yellow jaguars.

20. Jaguars kill more people every year in Brazil than do domestic dogs.


174

General perception about jaguars

21. Complete the sentence:

“Of all the animals, the jaguar is the most_______________________________________________”.

Concern for safety/property and attraction towards jaguars

22. If I had to walk in the forest, I would be afraid of encountering a jaguar

strongly disagree( ) disagree( ) neither disagree nor agree( ) agree( ) strongly agree( )

23. I would feel more comfortable if there were no jaguars in the region.


24. I would have concerns about sharing the land with jaguars because they attack people.


25. I would have concerns about sharing the land with jaguars because they kill livestock.


26. I am afraid of jaguars.


27. It would be fun if jaguars were seen more often.


28. Jaguars are interesting animals.


29. I am not interested in knowing anything more about jaguars.


Source of information about jaguars

30. What I know about jaguars I have learnt mostly from:

( ) Magazines

( ) Zoos

( ) Internet

( ) Books

( ) Teachers/school

( ) Nature/travel

( ) Friend/neighbour

( ) Television

( ) Parents

( ) Other


175

Interview schedule (Chapters 3 and 4)

1. Questionnaire# 2. Date 3. Interviewer [4. Name of property]

5. Location

GPS: S___________ W___________ District:

Interviewee and property.

6. Name 7. Owner/Employee:

O( ) E( )

8. Sex 9. Age 10. Place of birth 11. Length of time lived in:

M ( ) F ( ) the property:_____ years

the region:______years

12. Formal education

None ( ) Incomplete

primary ( )

Primary

( )

Incomplete

secondary ( )

Secondary

( )

University

or above ( )

13. Property size: 14. Number of people/kinship living in the property

__________ alq ( ) ha ( )

15. Economic activity Main Other Details

Cattle ranching: calving ( ) ( )

Cattle ranching: rearing and fattening ( ) ( )

Cattle ranching: dairy ( ) ( )

Crop growing ( ) ( )

Ecotourism ( ) ( )

Other ( ) ( )

16. Herd size 17. Smallstock 18. Pets

Cattle: Horse/Donkey: Pig: Poultry: Other: Dog: Other:

Perception of the regional economic situation.

19. The economic situation of (respondent‟s main economic activity) in the region is

currently:

very bad( ) bad( ) neither bad nor good( ) good( ) very good( ) no opinion( )

20. The regional economic situation is currently:

declining fast( ) declining( ) stable( ) improving( ) improving fast( ) no opinion( )

Perception of the impact of jaguars on human livelihood.

No

ne

Ver

y l

ow

Lo

w

Med

ium

Hig

h

Ver

y h

igh

No

op

inio

n

21. Damage associated with depredation ever caused by

jaguars to you.


jaguars to your neighbours.


jaguars in the district.

24. Risk of any damage associated with depredation to

you in the next 12 months.


176


your neighbours in the next 12 months.


anyone in the district in the next 12 months.

27. Number of people ever hurt by a jaguar in the

neighbourhood.

28. Number of family members ever hurt by a jaguar. 29. Risk of you being hurt by a jaguar in the next 12

months.

30. Risk of a family member being hurt by a jaguar in the

next 12 months.

Experience of jaguars.

Comments

31. What percentage of your herd was lost to jaguars in the last

12 months? (cattle ranchers only);

32. How many people do you personally know that have been

injured by a jaguar?

33. How many times have you seen a live jaguar in the wild?

Knowledge about jaguars and depredation.

Corr

ect

Inco

rrec

t

Do n

ot

know



35. A jaguar‟s prey is usually hidden and covered with leaves, while a puma‟s

prey isn‟t.



37. The jaguar‟s track is longer than wide with thinner and pointed toes, while

the puma‟s track is slightly wider than long, with round toes.




Perception of change in jaguar abundance.

41. Jaguar abundance on your property is currently:

decreasing a lot( ) decreasing( ) stable( ) increasing( ) increasing a lot( ) no opinion( )

42. Jaguar abundance in the region is currently:

decreasing a lot( ) decreasing( ) stable( ) increasing( ) increasing a lot( ) no opinion( )

Attitude towards jaguars.

43. You would like the jaguar population in the region to:

decrease a lot ( ) decrease ( ) remain unchanged ( ) increase ( ) increase a lot ( )

44. If all the jaguars disappeared forever from the region, you would feel:

very sad ( ) slightly sad ( ) indifferent ( ) slightly happy ( ) very happy ( )


177

45. What you feel towards jaguars is better described as:

dislike a lot ( ) dislike ( ) indifferent ( ) like ( ) like a lot ( )

46. The jaguar has its value, even if it does not generate any income to you:


47. If you had to walk on your own in a forest where there are jaguars, you would feel

scared:


Attitudes towards jaguar killing

In your opinion, jaguar killing is something:

48. very bad( ) bad( ) neither bad nor good( ) good( ) very good( )

49. very beneficial( ) beneficial( ) neither beneficial nor harmful( )

harmful( ) very harmful( )

50. very useless( ) useless( ) neither useless nor useful( ) useful( ) very useful( )

51. very exciting( ) exciting( ) neither exciting nor boring( ) boring( ) very boring( )

52. very unenjoyable( ) unenjoyable( ) neither unenjoyable nor enjoyable( )

enjoyable( ) very enjoyable( )

Subjective social norms re. jaguar killing.

53. How many of the people important to you would disapprove of you killing jaguars?

none( ) few( ) about half( ) many( ) all( )

54. Most people important to me think that killing jaguars is admirable.


55. Among your neighbours, how much agreement would there be that it is a good thing to

kill jaguars?

none( ) little( ) medium( ) much( ) total( )

56. In your family, how much agreement would there be that it is a good thing to kill

jaguars?

none( ) little( ) medium( ) much( ) total( )

Descriptive social norms re. jaguar killing

57. How many of your neighbours do you think kill jaguars?


58. Think of the landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé, what proportion of them do

you think kill jaguars?

none( ) less than half( ) about half( ) more than half( ) all( )

Social group identification.

59. How much do you identify with the landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?‟

not at all( ) little( ) medium( ) much( ) completely( )

60. How much do you feel ties with the other landowners in Alta Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?

not at all( ) little( ) medium( ) much( ) very much( )

61. In general, how well do you feel you fit into the group of landowners in Alta

Floresta/Cáceres/Poconé?

very well( ) fairly well( ) medium( ) little( ) not at all( )

Perceived behavioural control re. jaguar killing.

62. Whether I kill the next jaguar that appears on my property is up to me.

completely false( ) mostly false( ) neither false nor true( )

mostly true( ) completely true( )


178

63. For me, to kill the next jaguar that appears on my property would be:

very easy( ) easy( ) neither easy nor difficult( ) difficult( ) very difficult( )

64. The number of factors outside my control which could prevent me from killing the next

jaguar that appears on my property are:

none( ) few( ) medium( ) many( ) very many( )

65. What factors prevent you from killing the next jaguar that appears in you ranch?

Behavioural intention re. jaguar killing.

66. I intend to kill the next jaguar that appears on my property

very unlikely( ) unlikely( ) maybe( ) likely( ) very likely( )

67. If a jaguar appears on my property, I will try to kill it,

very likely( ) likely( ) maybe( ) unlikely( ) very unlikely( )

Behaviour: jaguar killing.

68. Have you ever killed a jaguar? No( ) Yes( ).

If so, when have you last done this?

69. Has any of your neighbours killed jaguars in the last 5 years? No( ) Yes( ).

If so, which of them?


179

Questionnaire used to evaluate pupils and their fathers (Chapter 5)

1. Name: ________________________________________________ 2. Date: ____/_____/_____

3. Sex: male ( ) female ( ) 4. Age: _______ years old.

5. School: ________________________________________________ 6. Grade: __________

Knowledge about jaguars and depredation

Co

rrec

t

Inco

rrec

t

Do

no

t

kn

ow



8. A jaguar‟s prey is usually hidden and covered with leaves, while a puma‟s

prey isn‟t.



10. The jaguar‟s track is longer than wide with thinner and pointed toes,

while the puma‟s track is slightly wider than long, with round toes.




14. The heaviest jaguar ever captured weighed approximately 150 kilos

15. Where cattle are more abundant than native prey, jaguars take more cattle

than native prey

16. Calves kept closer to the forest edge have in general a smaller chance of

being killed by jaguars

Attitudes towards jaguars

17. You would like the jaguar population in the region to:

decrease a lot ( ) decrease ( ) stay the same ( ) increase ( ) increase a lot ( )

18. If all the jaguars disappeared forever from the region, you would feel:

very sad ( ) sad ( ) indifferent ( ) happy ( ) very happy ( )

19. What you feel towards jaguars is better described as:

dislike a lot ( ) dislike ( ) indifferent ( ) like ( ) like a lot ( )

20. The jaguar has its value, even if it does not generate any income to you:


21. If you had to walk alone in a forest where there are jaguars, you would feel scared:



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Perception of jaguar impact on human safety and livestock

22 (pupils only). How would you rate the damage associated with predation ever caused by jaguars to

your father?

none ( ) very small ( ) small ( ) medium ( ) high ( ) very high ( )

23 (pupils only). How would you rate the risk of any damage associated with predation to your father

in the next 12 months. (pupils only)


22 (fathers only). How would you rate the damage associated with predation ever caused by jaguars to

you? (fathers only)


23 (fathers only). How would you rate the risk of any damage associated with predation to you in the

next 12 months (fathers only).


24. Number of people ever hurt by a jaguar in the neighbourhood

none ( ) one ( ) two ( ) three ( ) four ( ) five or more ( )

25. How would you rate the risk of you being hurt by a jaguar in the next 12 months.

none ( ) very low ( ) low ( ) medium ( ) high ( ) very high ( )

Attitudes towards jaguar killing

In your opinion, jaguar killing is something:

26. very useless( ) useless( ) neither useless nor useful( ) useful( ) very useful( )

27. very exciting( ) exciting( ) neither exciting nor boring( ) boring( ) very boring( )

Social norm

28. How many of your neighbours do you think kill jaguars?


29. Think of the landowners in Alta Floresta - what proportion of them do you think kill jaguars?

none( ) less than half( ) about half( ) more than half( ) all( )

Appendix III – Photographs of dead livestock

181

APPENDIX III

PHOTOGRAPHS OF DEAD LIVESTOCK

These photographs1 were used in the photograph interpretation experiment.

1 Most of the photographs belong to Rafael Hoogesteijn, who kindly authorized their use.

Appendix III – Photographs of dead livestock

182

Appendix IV – Activity books

183

APPENDIX IV

A GUIDE FOR COEXISTENCE: ACTIVITY BOOKS


184


185


186


187


188


189


190

Appendix V – Elaboration exercise

191

APPENDIX V

ELABORATION EXERCISE

Schedule

1) Chairs were rearranged in the classroom to form a circle so that pupils could face each

other; pupils were given paper and pencil.

3) Each pupil wrote down the name of the animal he/she disliked most and, one by one,

showed and spoke to the group his/her choice and one reason for choosing it.

4) The group was divided into two sub-groups: the ones who disliked jaguars and the others

(most of whom disliked snakes, so they all represented snakes thereafter).

5) Each sub-group listed on a flipchart all the possible arguments to support their choice; as a

way of motivation, SM announced that the sub-group that raised the largest number of

arguments would win that stage of the game.

6) Sub-groups presented their results to each other; all the members of the sub-group stood

beside the flipchart and one or two representatives of the sub-group presented the results

orally; SM encouraged the debate between sub-groups by disputing some of the arguments;

group debated.

8) Sub-groups switched sides: the sub-group that had raised arguments against snakes had to

add arguments to the list of arguments against jaguars and vice-versa; as a way of motivation,

SM announced that the sub-group that raised the largest number of additional arguments

would win that stage of the game.

10) Sub-groups presented the results to each-other; SM encouraged the debate between sub-

groups by disputing some of the arguments: group debated.

11) Pupils returned to their chairs; SM presented to the group the flipchart with all the

arguments against jaguars and orally synthesized the results.

12) SM invited the pupils for an exercise of imagination: “Imagine that you have the power to

make all the jaguars disappear forever by simply pressing a button. Would you press that

button?”.

13) Pupils answered individually by writing yes or no on a piece of paper; one by one, they

showed and spoke to the group their decision and explained why.

14) The group was divided into two sub-groups: the ones who would press the button and the

ones who would not.

15) Each sub-group listed on a flipchart all the possible benefits they would derive from

maintaining or exterminating the jaguars; as a way of motivation, SM announced that the

sub-group that raised the largest number of arguments would win that stage of the game.

16) Sub-groups presented their results to each other and debated.

17) Pupils were given the chance of switching sides.

Appendix VI – A guide for coexistence

192

APPENDIX VI

PEOPLE AND JAGUARS: A GUIDE FOR COEXISTENCE


193


194


195


196


197


198


199


200


201


202


203

Appendix VII – Jaguars, livestock and people

204

APPENDIX VII

JAGUARS, LIVESTOCK AND PEOPLE IN BRAZIL: REALITIES

AND PERCEPTIONS BEHIND THE CONFLICT.

Sandra Cavalcanti*, Silvio Marchini*,

Alexandra Zimmermann, Eric M. Gese and David W. Macdonald

In: Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids. Editors: D.W. Macdonald and A. Loveridge.

Oxford Press, UK. 2010.

* Sandra Cavalcanti and Silvio Marchini are joint first authors


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Introduction

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is the largest predator in the Neotropics and arguably the most

charismatic species for conservation in Central and South America. Regrettably, the jaguar is

also the carnivore that is least compatible with humans in 21st century Brazil. The

fundamental incompatibility is the jaguar‟s need for abundant, large prey, as well as

expansive, undisturbed habitat. Humans - also large, top predators - have competed directly

with jaguars for food for as long as they have co-existed (Jorgenson and Redford 1993), and

lately threaten them directly and indirectly through deforestation and habitat fragmentation.

Moreover, jaguar predation on livestock – particularly cattle – provokes retaliatory

persecution by humans.

Persecution looms as the coup de grace to jaguar populations outside of protected areas

(Nowell and Jackson 1996) and, due to their wide-ranging movements, threatens jaguars

within protected areas as well (Ginsberg and Woodroffe 1998). Although disentangling the

contributions of persecution and habitat loss may be difficult, jaguar distribution (Figure 1)

and abundance have drastically declined in recent decades. Our case study focuses on Brazil,

where the jaguar is a threatened species (Machado et al. 2005), although internationally it is

classed as near-threatened (i.e., it may be threatened with extinction in the near future) (Cat

Specialist Group 2002).

Efforts to protect jaguars by curbing persecution by humans have been based on what might

be termed a “bio-rational” understanding of the problem. Insofar as the root of the problem is

livestock-raiding then, so this rational goes, if we can find ways to effectively reduce jaguar

predation on cattle (e.g., use of electric fences, aversive conditioning, translocation), then

persecution by cattle ranchers should subsequently decline (Hoogesteijn 2000, Cavalcanti

2003). Mitigative actions combined with monetary compensation to ameliorate the financial

costs of lost livestock, are aimed at alleviating the economic burden on ranchers imposed by

having jaguars, on the assumption this will reduce the motivation for ranchers to kill them.

Although this bio-rational thinking may be plausible to a scientifically trained

conservationist, we hypothesized that human persecution of jaguars may be less related to

livestock depredation than previously believed, and the economic justification for killing

jaguars may be equally unclear. We argue that the ultimate motivator of retaliatory

persecution may not be the actual impact of jaguars on human safety or livestock, but rather

the cultural and social perceptions of the potential threat of jaguars attacking humans and

killing livestock. In conflicts between people and carnivores, the perceived impacts often

exceed the actual evidence (Conover 2001, Chavez et al. 2005, Chavez and Gese 2005, 2006,

Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2007). In addition, factors not directly related to the jaguars impact on

human livelihoods (e.g., perceived social status in the community, thrill of the chase) may

also be involved in the persecution of jaguars, making evaluations for the economic rationale

for killing jaguars more unclear. Such imprecise linkages between reality and perception

could prove perilous to a threatened species, adding a potentially lethal element to already

significant risks posed by retributive killing, and rendering irrelevant many biologically-

based conservation actions and mitigation measures.

To explore this „perception blight‟, this chapter addresses the realities and perceptions behind

the conflicts involving jaguars, livestock, and cattle ranchers in Brazil. We use the Pantanal

region to quantify the importance of cattle in jaguar ecology, and techniques adapted from the


206

social sciences to examine the ranchers‟ perceptions about jaguar depredation on cattle and

other perceptions about jaguars and jaguar hunting that may be relevant in dealing with

conflicts between ranchers and jaguars. We investigate then how these social and cultural

perceptions translate into the persecution of jaguars. Finally, we discuss how information on

the ecological, economic, social and cultural dimensions of a human-carnivore conflict can

fruitfully be integrated into a strategy spanning from individuals to populations (of both

jaguars and humans) in an attempt to promote coexistence between jaguars, livestock and

people.

Jaguars, livestock and people

The jaguar occurs from the southwestern United States to northern Argentina, across an area

of 11.6 million km2

and occupys a diverse array of habitats, including xeric shrublands, dry

forests, montane grasslands, moist lowland forest, wet savannahs and mangroves (Zeller

2007). Even though 36% of jaguar distribution overlaps protected areas (Zimmermann and

Wilson, in prep), very few of these areas offer true protection for jaguars and their prey.

Indeed the edges of protected areas often become hotspots for human-wildlife conflict

(Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998). The human geography outside these protected areas, too, is

varied so jaguars may co-exist with people holding a range of different perceptions and levels

of tolerance for wildlife. Outside of protected areas, the most common land-use form

occupied by jaguars is livestock ranches, followed by logging areas, forest matrix lands,

agricultural areas and other forms of land use (Zeller 2007). On a continental scale, jaguars

occur mostly in areas with a low Human Footprint Index (95% of jaguar range is in areas of

<35HFI) and low cattle densities (96% in areas of 7.5 cattle/km2)(Zimmermann & Wilson

in prep). Nevertheless, hunting of jaguar prey and direct human persecution of jaguars (most

often in retaliation for livestock depredation) are, according to 130 jaguar experts, the most

serious threats to the survival of the jaguar (Zeller 2007).

Human-jaguar conflicts occur in many different socio-economic and cultural contexts and

vary in severity, but appear to be most extensive in regions with large cattle ranches, where

human densities are low, cattle densities are moderate, and small areas of wilderness with

natural prey still persist. There are several such vast rangelands in South America, most

notably the Pantanal, Llanos, Beni and Chaco regions of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia,

Colombia, Paraguay and Venezuela. The best studied among the above regions of Brazil, the

Pantanal, is the focus of our chapter.

Conflicts between ranchers and jaguars over livestock are widespread and have been

documented throughout jaguar range, (e.g.: Belize: Rabinowitz 1986; Brazil: Crawshaw and

Quigley 1991, Dalponte 2002, Conforti and Azevedo 2003, Michalski et al. 2006, Azevedo

and Murray 2007, Palmeira et al 2008; Costa Rica: Saenz and Carrillo 2002; Argentina:

Schiaffino et al. 2002; Venezuela: Polisar et al. 2003, Scognamillo et al. 2002). Nevertheless,

some ecological, socio-economical, cultural, and historical aspects of the relationships

between people and jaguars in Brazil have made the country particularly important for jaguar

research and conservation.


207

The conflict in Brazil

Brazil covers 40% of the land area of Latin America. Even though jaguar abundance estimates are as

scarce for Brazil (Almeida 1986, Quigley and Crawshaw 1992, Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006) as for other

parts of the range (cf Wallace et al. 2003, Maffei et al. 2004, Silver et al. 2004), Brazil contains the two

largest population strongholds for jaguars (Sanderson et al. 2002): the wetlands of the Pantanal

(140,000 km2) and the rainforests of Amazonia (3,400,000 km

2). The southern Pantanal of Brazil has the

highest density of jaguars recorded (estimates range from 6.7 to 11.7 individuals/100 km2)(Soisalo and

Cavalcanti 2006). The Pantanal is also home to the largest jaguars, with males weight averaging 100 kg

(females are typically 10-20% smaller than males) and the largest males reaching 158 kg (Kindersley

2005). Jaguars were once widely distributed throughout Brazil until 1500, but are now

extirpated from entire regions (Sanderson et al. 2002)(Figure 1). Some jaguars remain in

fragments of the Atlantic forest and the Cerrado, but large jaguar populations are present only

in Amazonia and the Pantanal, where human population density has historically been low.

Brazil is also home to the world‟s largest commercial cattle herd (>200 million head) and is

the world leader in beef exports (Nepstad et al. 2006). For ecological and historical reasons,

there is overlap between areas where beef production flourishes and jaguars survive, namely

the Pantanal and the agricultural frontier of southern Amazonia (Thornton et al. 2002). Cattle

ranchers have never rejoiced in this overlap, and have a long tradition of killing jaguars

(Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi 1992). In essence, jaguars kill livestock and ranchers kill jaguars

in an attempt to prevent further losses.

Cattle ranching also threatens jaguars indirectly, insofar as it is the major driver for the level

of deforestation in Amazonia, being the primary reason for >66% of the habitat loss in the

region (Nepstad et al 2006). Between 1987 and 2006 an average of 18,000 km2 of prime

jaguar habitat was lost in this region every year, mostly from the Amazonian agricultural

frontier (PRODES 2007). In the last two decades, Brazil has lost larger areas of jaguar habitat

than any other country.

In 1967, the Brazilian Wildlife Protection Act prohibited commerce in wildlife and products

derived from their capture, pursuit or destruction. The Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species (CITES) of 1973 made it illegal to trade jaguar skins or parts for

commercial gain. The CITES listing, in combination with the Brazilian legislation and anti-

fur campaigns, brought about a sharp decline in the fur trade, helping to reduce the pressure

on jaguar populations in the wild. However, jaguar persecution continues (Crawshaw 2002,

Michalski et al. 2006) – now very rarely for the illegal trade, but because of their perceived

threat to people and their livelihoods. This indiscriminate killing of jaguars is one of the most

serious threats to their survival across all of Latin America (Zeller 2007).

Jaguars, livestock and people have co-existed in Brazil for many decades across a wide range

of ecological, cultural, and socio-economic settings. From small family-run farms in the dry

Caatinga to commercial large-scale ranches in the wetlands of the Pantanal, from old

traditional cattle ranches in the Atlantic rainforest to recent settlements on the Amazon

agricultural frontier, Brazil is the perfect test tube in which to explore the interacting

chemistry of jaguars, livestock and people.




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The Pantanal

The Pantanal is located in the geographic centre of South America and spans the borders of

Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay (Figure 2). With a highly seasonal climate, the Pantanal receives

an average of >1.2 m of rainfall annually which causes vast amounts of areas to be flooded

and a subsequent flush of green grasses available for both native and domestic ungulates. The

Pantanal is characterized by savannas interspersed with isolated islands of secondary forest,

which are an important refuge for both predators and prey. Gallery forests border temporary

and permanent rivers and provide long corridors for wildlife.

Almost a third of published scientific articles on jaguar biology and conservation concern

Brazil. While these topics have been addressed in the Brazilian Amazon (Michalski et al.

2006, Oliveira 2002), Cerrado (Silveira and Jacomo 2002, Palmeira et al. 2008) and Atlantic

Rainforest (Conforti and Azevedo 2003, Crawshaw et al. 2004, Cullen et al. 2005, Garla

2001, Leite et al. 2002), the Pantanal accounts for the greatest portion of publications about

jaguars (e.g. Schaller and Vasconcelos 1978, Schaller 1979, Schaller and Crawshaw 1980,

Schaller 1983, Crawshaw and Quigley 1984, Crawshaw 1987, Quigley 1987, Crawshaw and

Quigley 1991, Quigley and Crawshaw 1992, Dalponte 2002, Crawshaw 2002, Quigley and

Crawshaw 2002, Zimmermann et al. 2005, Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006, Azevedo and

Murray 2007a, 2007b).

In this landscape mosaic, cattle have been ranched for >200 years (Wilcox 1999). The

Pantanal consists almost entirely of large cattle ranches (e.g. average ranch size 12,950 ha

SE 22,444 ha, Zimmermann et al 2005). Cattle are raised extensively in the region, with an

average cattle density of 16 head/km2 (Mourão et al. 2002). People and jaguars, however,

have coexisted uneasily. Jaguars have long been blamed for killing cattle and, in the past,

ranch owners employed men solely to hunt jaguars. The extent of retaliation by ranchers was

considerable. For example, in the early 1980s, 68 jaguars were killed over 8 years on one

ranch alone (Crawshaw in IUCN/SSC 1986). Whether as a result of legislation or the

economic crisis in cattle ranching caused by the severe flood of the 1970s, the rate at which

jaguars are killed appears to have lessened and jaguar abundance in the Pantanal appears to

be increasing (Crawshaw 2002) Nonetheless, as ranchers own 95% of this vast region, the

future of jaguars in the Pantanal is inextricably linked to the ranchers‟ perceptions and

attitudes towards them.

Assessing the realities and perceptions behind the conflict

In this chapter we weave together several studies conducted by the authors between 2000 and

2008 which explored human-jaguar conflict in the Pantanal and the Amazon from various

angles: data regarding jaguar predation rates on a cattle ranch, perceptions and attitudes of

ranchers towards jaguars and livestock losses, and the various factors that may shape human

beliefs and behaviour.

To document the realities of jaguar predation on livestock and native prey, the Pantanal

Jaguar Project quantified kill rates, composition of prey killed, characteristics of prey killed,


209

and patterns of predation on a ranch in the southern Pantanal (“Fazenda Sete” in Figure

2)(Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). In addition, GPS telemetry provided information on

jaguar movements (Cavalcanti and Gese, accepted) and facilitated analysis of habitat use and

spatial patterns of predation (on both domestic and native species) in relation to the type and

distribution of vegetation and other landscape attributes. Ten jaguars were equipped with

Global Positioning System (GPS) radio-collars (Televilt, Sweden), which recorded their

locations at two-hour intervals, enabling us to identify kill sites and thereby to find and

document 438 carcasses of prey (including the identity of the predator, the date and

approximate time of death, the period for which the predator stayed by the carcass, and the

vegetation cover at the kill site; Cavalcanti and Gese, in review, Cavalcanti et al., in prep).

Meanwhile, the Coexistence Project studied factors determining people‟s perceptions of

jaguars and how these perceptions translated into human persecution of jaguars. Interviews

with ranchers were used to assess the following: (i) socio-demographic variables, (ii)

description of the property, (iii) respondents‟ knowledge about jaguars and depredation

problems and perceptions of the jaguars‟ impact on (iv) livestock and (v) human safety,

together with perceptions of (vi) an increase in jaguar abundance, (vii) degeneration of

economic situation, (vii) the social acceptability/desirability of persecuting jaguars, including

the importance of traditional jaguar hunting, (viii) the ease or difficulty of this persecution,

(ix) attitudes towards jaguars, and (x) intention to persecute jaguars. Answers in either a

binary “yes/no” or in 3- or 5-point scale formats enabled us to construct measurement scales

(0 to 10 for knowledge and perceptions and -10 to 10 for attitude) and combine responses into

an additive score for each variable (the higher the score the greater the knowledge or

perception and more positive the attitude; Figure 6). In order to assess the degree to which the

findings from the Pantanal can be extrapolated to other regions or what is culture-specific in

human-jaguar conflicts, we replicated this study on an agricultural frontier area in southern

Amazonia (municipality of Alta Floresta). Like the Pantanal, the Amazon site hosts relatively

high densities of both jaguars and livestock, but as a recently established agricultural frontier

it differs in many social and cultural aspects from the Pantanal. Unlike the Pantanal, habitat

loss is a major threat to jaguars on the Amazon frontier. This study involved 45 ranchers in

two subregions of the northern Pantanal – Cáceres and Poconé - and 103 in Amazonia

(Figure 2; Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a).

We also examined the attitudes and conservation values of ranchers from an earlier study

involving 50 ranchers in the three subregions of the northern Pantanal, namely Cáceres,

Poconé and Barão de Melgaço (Figure 2), in which we investigated the association between

attitudes and some socio-economic variables such as age, ranch size, cattle herd size and

density, reported cattle losses, and involvement in tourism. Attitudes were explored using a series of suggested statements regarding jaguars and conservation, and responses were recorded on a five-point Likert scale so that they could be combined into an

additive score, and the relationships between the combined score and potential explanatory

variables were analyzed (Zimmermann et al 2005).

The realities of jaguar foraging ecology

The radio-tracking study (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review) revealed that native species

comprised 68.3% of the prey killed, with the remainder being cattle (31.7%). For individual


210

jaguars, the amount of cattle killed varied widely (Figure 3). Individuals also differed in the

species diversity of their diets; although collectively the ten jaguars killed 24 prey species,

some killed few prey species, others killed many species (Table 1). Jaguars killed ungulates

predominantly, but they also killed and consumed other predators, such as maned wolves

(Chrysocyon brachyurus), crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous), coati (Nasua nasua), and

raccoons (Procyon cancrivorous).

Based on kills reported by ranch-hands, Crawshaw and Quigley (2002) calculated that cattle

comprised 46% of jaguar kills in the southern Pantanal. In their data, small prey was probably

under-represented insofar as they may be killed and consumed in secluded sites (see also

Schaller 1979). This bias might also affect our findings, although a small proportion of the

biomass killed and consumed was of small prey (e.g., birds, caiman lizard, coati, small

anaconda, armadillo). Homing in on radio-collared jaguars, Crawshaw and Quigley (2002)

found 17 prey items of which 29% were cattle and 41% were white-lipped peccaries – a close

match to our overall finding of cattle accounting for 31.7% of jaguar kills, varying

seasonally between 19.2% and 48.9%, respectively for wettest and driest periods of the 4-

year field study (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review).

Calves (<1 year old, <174 kg)) accounted for 69% of cattle killed by jaguars (Cavalcanti and

Gese, in review), which is higher than Crawshaw and Quigley (2002) reported (43%) in their

study in the same area in the southern Pantanal; perhaps again due to carcass detection bias.

These findings from the Pantanal are broadly consistent with those reported elsewhere. In

Venezuela, jaguars attacked young cattle (weaned calves and heifers 1-2 years of age) more

often than they did adults (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993, Farrell 1999, Scognamillo et al. 2002). In

northeast Argentina, cattle between 1-3 years comprised the majority of jaguar kills (Perovic

2002). Younger calves of 3-9 months of age comprised the majority of jaguar kills in

northern Goiás, central-western Brazil (Palmeira et al. 2008). Azevedo and Murray (2007)

found that in the southern Pantanal predation risk was higher among calves up to 12 months

of age.

Although jaguars can kill mature bulls (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993), we documented not a single

jaguar attack on an adult bull, and only one instance of scavenging on a bull carcass. Contrary

to the beliefs of ranchers, the GPS data indicated that jaguars scavenged a proportion of their

prey (we found six instances, involving three individuals, of feeding substantially from cattle

that had died from other causes) (see also Lopez-Gonzales and Piña 2002). Scavenging

complicates the interpretation of diet analyses based on undigested remains in faeces.

At 19 kill sites located by GPS-tracking the remains of two different prey species were found

(Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). We deduced this might have occurred when a jaguar killed

a species scavenging from the original kill, and in 79% of these occasions this was a plausible

explanation (e.g. one of the carcasses was of a potential scavenger, such as feral hog, peccary,

armadillo, raccoon, or caiman). This „scavenger-trap‟ hypotheses seemed inappropriate for

the remaining 21% of double kills, insofar as neither of the victims was a scavenger (e.g.,

calf, brocket deer, giant anteater, lesser anteater).

Jaguars are often considered nocturnal predators. However, we found the time of day in

which jaguars killed s was evenly distributed throughout the 24 hour period, even when

examining individual prey species (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). Jaguars appear to be


211

adaptable to the movement and activity patterns of various prey species and readily exploit

these species when they are active or vulnerable to predation.

When examining the seasonality of predation by jaguars, we found the average number of

cattle, caiman and peccaries (the three major prey species) killed by radio-collared jaguars

each season indicated a peak of predation on cattle in the dry seasons of each year (Figure 4;

Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). The frequency of jaguar predation on caiman appeared to

be constant throughout all months of 2002, while predation appeared to peak during the wet

seasons (February-March) of 2003 and 2004. There may be an inverse relationship between

jaguar predation on cattle and caiman; as water levels recede in the Pantanal, caiman move

with these levels and predation declines, conversely as water levels recede cattle are moved

into these areas for grazing and jaguar predation on cattle increases. The fluctuation of water

levels is the major driver in this ecosystem dictating the availability and vulnerability of prey

species, including cattle. The frequency of jaguar predation on peccary also appeared to be

constant throughout 2002, then increased in 2003 and 2004. Seasonally, the mean number of

peccaries killed each month by jaguars appeared to be lowest during the wet seasons

(February-March; Figure 4). However, despite an apparent tendency for the number of cattle

killed each month to have declined over the 4-year study, the actual seasonal predation rates

of jaguars on cattle did not statistically decline between 2002 and 2004 (Figure 5).

Conversely, while the data suggest an increase in the number of caiman killed by jaguars

each month, the observed seasonal predation rates of jaguars on caiman did not statistically

increase over the seasons. Jaguar predation rates on peccaries did increase significantly

between the wet season of 2001-2002 and the dry season of 2004 (Figure 5). The increase in

jaguar predation rates on peccary during the study occurred during a period of relatively high

peccary densities (9.63 individuals/km2; Keuroghlian 2003). This increased predation rate by

jaguars on peccary during the study suggest the availability of alternative prey could reduce

predation rates of jaguars preying on cattle and could serve as a buffer species.

Because jaguars are ambush predators, an obvious prediction would be that kills were

associated with dense vegetation. Cavalcanti et al. (in prep.) found that while the 10 GPS

collared jaguars used forests and shrublands preferentially, kills were made in habitats in

proportion to their availability. Cattle, caiman, and peccaries killed by jaguars (n = 327) were

distributed in the various habitat classes according to their availability, except during the dry

season when caiman and peccaries were mainly killed in shrublands and forests, respectively.

Male and female jaguars consistently selected shrublands during both wet and dry seasons.

Although there was little evidence that particular species were killed in particular habitats,

there was a tendency for cattle to be killed further than expected from water.

Some authors have hypothesized that jaguar predation on cattle is a function of the

distribution, availability, or proximity to forest habitat or forest edges (Hoogesteijn et al.

1993, Rabinowitz 1986, Michalski et al. 2006, Palmeira et al. 2008). Hoogesteijn et al.‟s

(1993) comparison of three ranches in Venezuela led to the conclusion that jaguars killed

cattle closer to forested areas. Rabinowitz (1986) reported jaguars readily killed domestic

livestock that entered forested areas, but not when cattle were in open pastures. Quigley

(1987) reported cattle were killed only in gallery forests and forest patches, although some

might have been dragged there from the forest-edge. Cavalcanti et al. (in prep.) reported that

the 10 GPS-collared jaguars neither selected forested areas nor avoided open fields when

killing cattle. Rather, they killed cattle in all habitat types. During the wet season, cattle were

killed by jaguars significantly closer to forest edges than in the dry season. During the wet


212

season cattle were able to forage in chest-deep water, but they needed dry ground on which to

spend the night. Therefore, they might spend more time closer to forests, which are typically

associated with higher and drier ground. Several authors have suggested keeping cattle herds

away from forested areas as a strategy to minimize jaguar attacks (Rabinowitz 1986,

Hoogesteijn et al. 1993, Michalski et al. 2006, Palmeira et al. 2008), but we recorded jaguar

attacks on cattle in other habitats as well (Cavalcanti et al., in prep.).

Individual variation in jaguar diets: do “problem animals” exist?

Since jaguars differed individually in their diet (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review), we

examined whether some jaguars contributed more than others to the levels of domestic stock

losses (cf Linnell et al. 1999). Indeed, prey remains of individual jaguars indicated that while

cattle comprised >50% of the diet for some individual jaguars, for others it did not exceed

5%. Nevertheless, each of the 10 radioed jaguars killed cattle. Whether or not killing the

predominant cattle-killers would ameliorate the problem (e.g. as suggested by Rabinowitz

1986, Hoogesteijn and Mondolfi 1992) depends on the causes of this individual variation

(i.e., causes may include availability and vulnerability of prey, preference of particular prey

species, or cultural learning from their mother). However, we also found that for some

individuals that had >50% of their kills comprised of cattle in 2002 (a dry year), these same

jaguars exhibited an appreciable decline in cattle kills in 2003 (a wet year). Again, water

levels, and the consequent movement of both caiman and cattle, likely played an important

role in the availability of these two key prey species within individual jaguar home ranges

and therefore influenced encounter rates (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review).

Previous analyses of the variation in the level of livestock depredations suggest that males are

more likely to kill cattle than are females (e.g., Rabinowitz 1986, Stander 1990, Chellam and

Johnsingh 1993). However, results from the 4-years of study found no differences between

males and females in the level of predation on cattle (Table 1; Cavalcanti and Gese, in

review). Jaguars, especially females, may kill cattle in excess of their needs and might be

considered a mechanism for teaching their young to hunt (A. Silva, V. Correia, A. T. Neto, B.

Fiori, pers. comm.). While amongst the Carnivora, surplus killing is almost universal (Kruuk

1972), neither in our study, nor any other, has it been documented amongst jaguars. In

general, the time interval between kills, and the time spent at each kill, was related to prey

size (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). After killing and consuming a small prey item, a

jaguar generally killed again in a shorter time (3.0 days before making another kill) as

compared to when they killed larger prey (5.1 days before making another kill). Similarly, the

length of time jaguars stayed at a carcass site significantly increased with increasing body

mass of prey; 16.0 hours were spent on small prey increasing to 27.9 hours on larger prey

(Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). Some authors have speculated that livestock-depredation is

more prevalent amongst subadult than adult jaguars (Rabinowitz 1986, Stander 1990,

Saberwal et al. 1994), whereas others conclude adults are more likely to kill cattle than

younger individuals (Bowns 1985, Esterhuizen and Norton 1985). In our study, stock-killing

occurred at a rather constant rate among individuals. On average, jaguars killed 1 calf every

13.3 ± 15.5 days, while adult cows were killed at a lower rate of 25.5 ± 18.4 days between

kills, but these rates varied annually (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review). The level of rainfall in

any given year appeared to be the most influential factor affecting individual jaguar predation

rates on cattle by determining the availability of cattle on the landscape (Cavalcanti and Gese,

in review). During wet years, cattle were held on higher drier ground for a longer period,

thereby reducing the number of jaguar territories exposed to cattle. Conversely, during dry

years, cattle were more dispersed over the landscape, thereby being exposed to more jaguar


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territories and increasing encounter rates being individual predators and domestic prey.

Husbandry practices likely also had a large influence on jaguar predation. In the Pantanal,

calves were generally born over several months, increasing the time period over which

vulnerability to jaguar predation was prolonged. In addition, pregnancy rates of cows are

generally well below optimal, often between 60-75%. Native ungulates usually flood a

predator by having a short birth pulse, thereby decreasing the length of time that young are

exposed or vulnerable to predation. Shortening the birth pulse and increasing the number of

pregnant cows within a cattle operation could, in theory, reduce overall predation losses

within individual jaguar territories where calving grounds are located by flooding an

individual cat with far more prey than can be killed; assuming a Type III functional response

where beyond a certain level of prey density, satiation of the predator causes an asymptote in

the kill rate.

A common hypothesis in terms of jaguar predation on livestock is that it is prevalent amongst

wounded or sick predators, and this idea has been mooted for jaguars (Rabinowitz 1986, Fox

and Chundawat 1988, Hoogesteijn et al. 1993). Indeed, two studies in Venezuela both

revealed that the majority of the jaguars (75% and 53%) killed as part of predation control

had previously sustained severe wounds precluding them from hunting normally (Hoogesteijn

et al. 1993) although the condition of jaguars not killed could not be confirmed. In our study,

all ten radio-collared jaguars were in excellent physical condition at the time of capture

(Cavalcanti and Gese, in review), as too were those documented by Schaller and Crawshaw

(1980) and Hopkins (1989). Furthermore, we could detect no difference in predatory

behaviour between older or younger animals. The oldest individual radio-tracked - a male

estimated to be >11 years old - had two missing canines (a broken lower canine on his first

capture and a second broken upper canine on his second capture) and killed white-lipped

peccaries, feral hogs, and marsh deer at a similar rate (7.1 ± 5.6 days between kills) as did a

young jaguar in the sample (3.6 ± 3.4 days between kills; no significant difference between

these two cat‟s kill rates).

Perceptions about depredation and persecution

Depredation problems caused by jaguars have been reported by 82% of the landowners in the

northern Pantanal (Zimmermann et al. 2005, Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a). Not

surprisingly, jaguars are considered the most detrimental species to human livelihoods by

73% of 110 ranchers and ranch-hands interviewed in both the southern and northern Pantanal

(Marchini 2003). Reported losses to jaguars range from 0 to 11% of their livestock holdings,

with greater proportional losses among smaller ranches and smaller herds (r = -0.590 and -

0.716, both P < 0.001)(Zimmermann et al. 2005) with losses averaging between 2.1%

(Marchini and Macdonald. in prep a) to 2.3% (Zimmermann et al. 2005) of their livestock

holdings. In absolute terms, the greatest reported loss was 80 calves in one year from a herd

of 2,000 head on a 13,200-ha ranch. Given the average price of a calf in the region

(approximately US$ 228 in 2008), this case translates into a monetary loss of US$ 18,240

(Marchini and Macdonald. in prep a). Over one-third of the respondents (38%) ranked

jaguars as a greater problem affecting their income from cattle than floods, droughts, rustling

and disease (Zimmermann et al. 2005).

Most ranchers (62%) reported that jaguar attacks show no seasonal pattern (Zimmermann et

al. 2005). As for variation among years, 24% of the respondents believed the frequency of


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attacks within their ranches was currently increasing, 35% believed it was declining and 41%

stated it was not changing (Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a). Seventy-two percent

believed that jaguars varied in their dietary preferences and thus believed that “problem

jaguars” were the ones killing cattle (Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a).

These findings suggest that perceptions of jaguar depredation might sometimes exceed

reality, as ecological studies addressing jaguar depredation in the Pantanal and elsewhere

revealed lower losses of livestock holdings (0.83% in two ranches of northern Pantanal; 0.3%

in one ranch of southern Pantanal; 1.26% in southern Amazonia)(Dalponte 2002; Azevedo

and Murray 2007b, Michalski et al. 2005, respectively). However, in the study in which

predation rates were estimated from GPS collared jaguars (Cavalcanti and Gese, in review),

the ranch foreman reported the ranch lost on average 70 head of livestock annually to jaguar

predation out of 6000 head (1.2% of livestock holdings). During a dry year (2002), a jaguar

killed an average of 2.1 calves/month and 0.6 adult cows/month, for a total of 2.7 head of

cattle/month. Extrapolating this kill rate to half (not all jaguars have equal access to cattle)

the estimated resident (80%) population of jaguars on the ranch (6.7 jaguars/100 km2 (Soisalo

and Cavalcanti 2006) would generate an estimated loss of about 390 head of livestock.

Conversely, during wet years (2003) on the study, a jaguar killed an average of 0.5

calves/month and 0.3 adult cows/month, for a total kill rate of 0.8 head of cattle/month.

Again extrapolating to half the resident jaguar population on the ranch generates an estimated

118 head of livestock lost. Data from a wet year placed cattle loses on the ranch similarly

between the perceived loss (70 head; 1.2% of cattle) and the estimated loss from actual jaguar

predation rates (118 head; 1.9% of cattle). However, during the dry year, predation rates

indicated over 5 times more cattle were lost (390 head; 6.5% of cattle) than the ranch

foreman perceived (70 head). Therefore, the level of rainfall is very influential on the

number of cattle lost annually and is directly related to the level of access the cattle have to

the landscape and the number of jaguars to which they are exposed. In addition, we generally

found cattle killed by the radio-collared jaguars that were never found by the ranch hands and

unreported losses are likely higher than previously believed. Ranch hands easily found cattle

kills in open fields and pastures, while missing most kills in the dense cover of shrublands

and forests.

We emphasize that these extrapolations on predation rates are from only one study and may

not be representative of all ranches in the Pantanal. However, it does raise the issue that

accurate and unbiased documentation of jaguar kill rates on livestock and native prey are

needed to lend credibility to claims on both sides of the argument regarding losses sustained

by livestock operations. In a study examining wolf (Canis lupus) predation on livestock in

central Idaho, USA, researchers reported that ranchers found only one in eight of the actual

kills documented (Oakleaf et al. 2003). During the years of wolf reintroduction into the

United States, agency personnel consistently agreed that a rapid response time and accurate

documentation of actual losses were critical to any compensation program proposed for

ranchers and can often lead to heated debate as to the actual level of losses sustained by a

ranching operation. Some ranchers were very diligent in keeping track of losses, while others

were less accurate and blamed predators for more losses than actually occurred.

In addition to the perceptions about the level of jaguar depredation on livestock, other beliefs

and perceptions about jaguars and jaguar hunting may be relevant in dealing with conflicts

between ranchers and jaguars. Thirty percent of the ranchers held the perception that jaguar

abundance was currently increasing (4% perceive it as decreasing; Marchini 2003). In the


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Pantanal subregion of Cáceres, 80% believed jaguar abundance was increasing and there was

a widespread perception that jaguar numbers were now abnormally - and unbearably – high

(Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a).

Fifteen percent of the ranchers in the subregion of Poconé believed that jaguars caused cattle

mortality even without preying on them (Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a). The rationale

was that jaguars scared cattle out of the "capões" (dry forest patches where cattle find refuge

during floods), from which the cattle then ran to flooded areas, where they drowned or get

stuck in the mud and starved to death. This belief in “indirect predator-induced mortality” of

livestock needs further investigation.

Some people perceived jaguars as a threat to human safety. Fifty-three percent of the

respondents agreed that jaguars attacked people even when not provoked (Marchini and

Macdonald, in prep a). A rural school in Cáceres closed its doors in 2008 because the pupils

refused to attend classes after several sightings of jaguars in the vicinity. This episode

occurred, and the foregoing data were gathered prior to an incident on 24 June 2008 when a

young fisherman was killed by a jaguar while sleeping in his tent on a riverbank of the

Paraguay River, in the subregion of Cáceres. This was the first officially documented

unprovoked fatal attack of a jaguar on a human in Brazil, and was widely covered by the

national media. Prior to this incident, attacks were almost invariably associated with hunting

situations in which the jaguar was cornered or injured. Jaguars are also known to attack to

defend their cubs or the carcass upon which they are feeding. The impact of the above event

on people‟s perceptions of the risk that jaguars pose to human safety is currently being

assessed.

Many ranchers unashamedly admit the perception that killing jaguars is socially acceptable.

Only 15 percent of the respondents believed their neighbors or family would disapprove their

killing jaguars (Marchini and Macdonald. in prep. a). It is considered one of the traditions of

the Pantaneiro culture. Additionally there is the general view that all aspects of this culture

should be cherished and preserved. Indeed, a prevailing opinion is that hunting jaguars is an

act of bravery and a test of horsemanship among cowboys. Shooting a jaguar enhances a

cowboy‟s reputation, to the extent that the hired hands continue to do it even where

(sometimes absentee) owners have specifically banned the practice (S. Cavalcanti, pers. obs.,

amongst others).

The extent to which a complainant perceives it to be difficult to kill a problem jaguar may

affect the likelihood of pursuing this option. The general approach is to use dogs to find and

pursue the jaguar. Either the jaguar climbs a tree or turns at bay on the ground, whereupon

the hunters come up and kill it. In the Pantanal, hiring a professional hunter who owns a pack

of trained dogs can be relatively easy and affordable (sometimes a cow is offered in exchange

for the service), but in other regions, the difficulty and cost of hiring a hunter may discourage

small ranchers from killing jaguars. Several small landowners on the Amazon agricultural

frontier, for instance, told us they had never killed a jaguar but would have done so had they

had the means (Marchini and Macdonald. in prep a).

Jaguars also elicit positive feelings among ranchers. All our respondents considered the

jaguar a “beautiful” or “very beautiful” animal (Marchini and Macdonald in prep a), and 16%

would choose the species to be the symbol of the Pantanal (only the jabiru stork, the official

symbol of the region, ranks higher; Marchini 2003). Although we met ranchers who


216

confessed hatred of jaguars, irrespective of their behaviour, the average attitude score value

of ranchers in the region, based on questions that assessed the individual‟s like or dislike for

jaguars (e.g. how would you feel if all jaguars disappeared?) and unfavourability or

favourability towards jaguar persecution (e.g. Killing any jaguar that shows up in your

property this year will improve your livelihood?), was positive (Figure 6)(Marchini and

Macdonald in prep a).

Finally, the economic decline in the region may exacerbate the conflict between ranchers and

jaguars. In recent decades, growing competition within the cattle industry, higher taxes, and

generational land-splitting has rendered cattle-ranching less profitable in the Pantanal (Swarts

2000). Indeed, 95% of the ranchers believed their economic situation is worse now than in

the past (Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a). A decline in the financial margins of profits

from cattle ranching may decrease their tolerance of jaguar depredation on their cattle. The

expressive growth of ecotourism in the region has brought the hope of better days to some

ranchers (and conservationists as well), although ecotourism alone seems unlikely to be the

complete solution.

Variation in perceptions and its determinants

In order to understand how and why the above perceptions vary, we examined correlations

between perceptions and some socio-economic and demographic variables (Table 2). Details

of these analyses are in Marchini and Macdonald (in prep a).

The perceived impact of jaguars on livestock, which was measured using questions about

recent and past depredation events, magnitude of the loss in the evaluation of the rancher

(from none to very large) on his ranch as well as neighbouring and relatives‟ ranches, and

current trends in the jaguar depredation problem (decreasing, unchanged, increasing), was

positively correlated with the perception of increasing jaguar abundance (r = 0.41, p < 0.02)

and declining economic situation (r = 0.47, p < 0.04). It was also negatively correlated with

attitude to jaguars (r = -0.61, p < 0.0001) and years in school (r = -0.49, p < 0.0001): ranchers

holding stronger negative attitudes to jaguars and with fewer years in school (education

varied greatly among respondents, from 33% of them being illiterate to 22% with higher

education) had greater perceptions of impact. Attitude to jaguars was also negatively

correlated with the respondents‟ perception of the deterioration in the economic situation (r =

-0.57, p < 0.04) and positively correlated with years in school (r = 0.36, p < 0.0001), which in

turn was negatively corrrelated with age (r = -0.50, p < 0.001). The rationale for using

different questions to assess the perception of impact on livestock is that a rancher‟s

evaluation of the impact is not based solely on his recent losses to jaguars. The same loss can

be seen as small or large by different ranchers, depending on their background and socio-

economic situation. The perceived impact of jaguars on human safety, measured using

questions about the belief in unprovoked attacks by jaguar on humans and man-eating habit

among jaguars, first- or second-hand reports of jaguar attacks on people (fatal or not),

magnitude of threat to human safety and fear of jaguars (none to very large), was positively

correlated with perceived increase in jaguar abundance (r = 0.45, p < 0.02) and negatively

correlated with an index of the respondent‟s knowledge of jaguar ecology and depredation

problems (r = -0.53, p < 0.0001). In sum, if perceptions of jaguars‟ impact on livestock and

human safety determine retaliatory persecution, then the foregoing correlated factors may

also play a role in human-jaguar conflicts in the Pantanal.


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Some differences between the perceptions in the Pantanal versus the Amazonia region are

relevant to this discussion (Figure 6)(Marchini and Macdonald, in prep a). The perception of

the jaguars‟ impact on livestock was more serious in the Pantanal than in the Amazon (t = -

9.966, p < 0.0001, df = 149) whereas the perceived threat to human safety was greater in the

Amazon than in the Pantanal (t = 2.919, p = 0.004, df = 149). Even though attitude scores

were similar in the two regions (t = -1.112, p = 0.268, df = 149), in the Pantanal, attitude was

correlated with the perceived impact on livestock (see above), whereas in the Amazon it was

correlated with the perceived impact on human safety (r = -0.39, p < 0.01). We also found

differences in the perception of social acceptability of jaguar hunting, which was assessed by

questions as to whether the respondent felt his family and neighbours would approve or

disapprove if he killed jaguars and his willingness to comply with them. The acceptability of

killing jaguars was higher in the Pantanal than in Amazonia (t = - 2.962, p = 0.004, df = 149)

and so was the perceived ease of persecuting jaguars (t = -13.044, p < 0.0001, df = 149).

People in the Pantanal were more knowledgeable about jaguars and depredation problems

than were people on the Amazon frontier (t = -7.684, p < 0.0001, df = 149). For instance,

whereas 89% of the respondents in the Pantanal could tell the difference between jaguar and

puma tracks, only 7% of the respondents in the Amazon were correct in their identification

skills.

From perceptions to persecution

From a conservation standpoint, what ultimately matters in conflicts between people and

jaguars is the level of persecution and its impact on a carnivore population. To investigate

the relationship between perceptions, attitudes, and persecution, we used a hierarchical

cognitive model based on the correlations mentioned above and adapted from the Theory of

Planned Behaviour (TPB, Ajzen 1985). This is an influential theory in social psychology

attempting to predict a person‟s behaviour (see also Macdonald et al., this vol, Chapter 29).

In the vocabulary of the TPB, a person‟s behaviour is explained by behavioural intention,

which is preceded by attitudes towards the behaviour. Intention also depends upon

subjective norms, which is a person‟s perception of the social acceptability or desirability of

the action in question, and perceived behavioural control, which is the actor‟s perception of

the ease or difficulty of performing the specific action (Ajzen 1985). In our model, the

perceptions of a jaguars impact on livestock and human safety affects attitudes towards

jaguars. The intention to persecute jaguars is also preceded by subjective norms and

perceived behavioural control concerning persecution of jaguars (Figure 7). This approach

allows us to assess the relative importance of the different components of the causal chain of

jaguar persecution so that more effective interventions can be devised to decrease

persecution. Background factors such as age, education, wealth, occupation, culture and

knowledge about jaguars may influence these perceptions, but are not incorporated in the

causal model.

Marchini and Macdonald (in prep a) assessed the intention to persecute jaguars via the

question: Would you kill any jaguar that shows up in your property? The answer to this

question was expressed in the form of a dichotomy: a person either intended to persecute or

not. Evidence of recent persecution of jaguars was found in 27 ranches (8 in the Pantanal and

19 in Amazonia), which facilitated validation of this measurement. Most (81%) of the people

who had killed jaguars in the previous two years said that they intended to persecute any


218

jaguar that showed up on their ranch, whereas 20% of the people who had not killed any

jaguar expressed the intention to persecute (χ2 = 35.301, df = 1, P < 0.000). This seeming

association between declared intentions and actions strengthens our belief that we should take

seriously the statements other ranchers made to us about their intentions towards jaguars.

Almost 60% of the landowners in the Pantanal declared the intention to kill any jaguar that

showed up on their land, whereas in the Amazon about 20 % of the landowners did so.

Regression analysis revealed that attitudes and subjective norms significantly explained the

variation in the intention to persecute jaguars in the Pantanal: more negative attitudes towards

jaguars and a greater perception of the social acceptability of jaguar hunting were associated

with a greater intention to kill jaguars (β = -0.259, p = 0.01 and β = 0.497, p = 0.024,

respectively; -2log likelihood = 46.722). Several ranchers in Marchini and Macdonald‟s (in

prep a) sample also expressed the view that killing jaguars was appropriate on the grounds

that it was a tradition passed from generation to generation. The important influence of norms

was unsurprising considering that many ranchers in northern Pantanal were inter-related, with

a network of family bonds linking ranches. Attitude, in turn, was correlated with the

perceived impact of jaguars on livestock (R2

(adjusted) = 0.364, F = 26.138, p < 0.0001).

Cattle ranching is an icon of the Pantaneiro culture. The few traditional families that together

own a substantial portion of the lands in the northern Pantanal have been raising cattle in the

region for generations, and this has been the only viable economic activity. The economic

and cultural centrality of cattle ranching in the region doubtless affects the high correlation

between perceptions of the jaguars‟ impact on livestock and the attitudes towards jaguars.

Although cattle ranching in the Pantanal is generally undertaken at such a large scale that the

loss of a few cattle is unlikely to seriously impact the ranchers‟ livelihoods, for the majority

of ranchers, such losses are unacceptable and may be higher than actually realized given

detection rates of kills. In addition, while losses may only be 1-3% of an operation, these

losses could be substantial in monetary form for any individual rancher. The rancher having

<1% losses may be able to absorb those costs, while the neighboring rancher having 3%

losses may be in an economic situation threatening the viability of that operation (i.e., it is

those operations with high losses that are most imperiled)

In contrast, in the Amazon, the intention to persecute jaguars was significantly explained by

attitude and perceived behavioural control (β = -0.481, p < 0.0001 and β = 0.663, p = 0.011,

respectively. -2log likelihood = 66.831). Indeed, a significant proportion of the landowners,

and particularly those with smaller properties, favored the idea of killing jaguars, but did not

intend to engage in this activity because they believed that they lacked the means (or were not

brave enough, as they told us) to do so. In the Amazon sample, norms did not significantly

affect the intention to persecute jaguars, which might reflect the reality that in this frontier

area people typically have little interaction, or shared background, with their neighbours.

However, their attitudes were heavily associated with the perceived risk of jaguars on human

safety (R2

(adjusted) = 0.488, F = 18.385, p < 0.0001). Fear of jaguars is common among the

frontiersmen, who were largely immigrants with little experience with jaguars and the forest.

Finding solutions for the future of jaguar-human coexistence

Direct persecution of jaguars by people, together with hunting of jaguar prey, is the most

significant threat to the long-term survival of jaguars throughout their range (Sanderson et al

2002, Zeller 2007). Most persecution is directed at jaguars living near or within areas of


219

livestock-raising. Jaguars kill livestock and this creates a conflict with ranchers from an

economic perspective. Aspects of jaguar ecology and behavior elucidated by our study have

direct implications for this economic aspect of jaguar conservation. The obvious, and

traditional, response has been attempting to curtail jaguar depredation on livestock through

preventive measures. A radical, but evidence-based, alternative would be for all stakeholders

to recognize the reality that cattle are routinely a component of jaguar diet in the region.

Under the Biodiversity Impacts Compensation Scheme (BICS) model proposed by

Macdonald (2000)(elaborated with respect to carnivore conflict by Macdonald & Sillero-

Zubiri, 2004), the approach would be to refine management interventions to reduce negative

impacts (stock losses), and then find other mechanisms to offset irreducible damage – in this

case, alternative mitigation measures to make bearable the residual stock losses to jaguars.

Additionally, while kills of domestic stock may be related to a lack of natural prey (Saberwal

et al. 1994, Vos 2000), insofar as leaving predators no alternative choice of food, this

chicken-and-egg logic can be reversed insofar as domestic stock adds to the carrying capacity

of the environment for predators. Schaller (1972) found that the more abundant a preferred

species was, the more likely it was to fall prey to lions. By extension, in the Pantanal, cattle

are both the most abundant and the most vulnerable prey, so one might recognize some level

of jaguar predation as inevitable and a natural part of ranching, like drought or soil fertility

(Soisalo and Cavalcanti 2006). By analogy, there are limits to the feasibility of mitigating

such environmental affects on agriculture, and limits to what society deems an acceptable

cost of environmental intervention – for example, the latter is clearly illustrated in Europe by

payments to farmers for custody of nature under the Common Agricultural Policy (Dutton et

al. 2008). To the extent that irreducible damage by jaguars to cattle ranchers must be off-set

(rather than tolerated as an inevitable consequence of farming in jaguar country), solutions

might lie in financial instruments such as tax benefits, favourable credit, or a regional

increase in beef prices. The significance of losses to jaguars will be proportionally diminished

by ranchers improving other aspects of rudimentary herd husbandry that currently often

account for much more significant losses than do jaguars (Hoogesteijn et al. 1993). That said,

eventually the quest for efficiency will bring the farmer into head-on collision with those

losses to jaguars that are unavoidable, and society will need to decide who is to bear these

costs.

Recently, there has been an effort in the Pantanal to alleviate jaguar-livestock conflict in the

form of a compensation program (Silveira et al. 2006). Such programs have been explored

worldwide (Saberwal et al. 1994, Wagner et al. 1997, Vos 2000, Naughton-Treves et al. 2003,

Swenson and Andrén 2005) but their effectiveness is debated (Bulte and Rondeau 2005,

Nyhus et al. 2003, 2005; Maclennan et al., submitted). Unverifiable losses, fraudulent claims,

overly bureaucratic procedures and associated time lags in payment, payments below market

values, lack of sustainable funding, high administrative costs, and moral hazard are some of

the drawbacks associated with compensation programs (Bulte and Rondeau 2005, Nyhus et

al. 2005, Zabel and Holm-Müller 2008). Ideally, such schemes would be closely monitored,

but in the Panatanal this is challenging because retaliatory, illegal killing of jaguars is often

clandestine.

An alternative to compensation involves „performance payments‟ (Nyhus et al. 2005, Zabel

and Holm-Müller 2008). By analogy with agri-environment schemes elsewhere, payments

would be conditional on some measure of effective jaguar conservation in an area (Ferraro

and Kiss 2002, Zabel and Holm-Müller 2008). As with all environmental payments (and


220

compensation schemes) it would be essential to have effective monitoring, robust regulation

and care to avoid unintended consequences.

However, the results of our studies demonstrated that the problem goes beyond the

economics and into the realms of culture - depredation on stock and retributive killing turn

out to be more loosely linked than is often supposed. But although prejudices against jaguars

are deeply ingrained within the culture of cattle ranching, attitudes can change over

generations. Wolves were eradicated from the Rocky Mountain region of the U.S. by the

1930‟s, but are now making a dramatic comeback after reintroduction efforts in 1995. It may

have taken decades, but policies towards wolves slowly changed over time as ecological

studies and social attitudes reflected an increasing appreciation for the role that top predators

play in ecosystem dynamics. In the case of the Pantanal, given that cowboys are ultimately

the ones whose behaviour will directly impact jaguar conservation, one priority would be to

make them stakeholders in jaguar conservation, and this could be a potent ingredient of any

performance-related scheme. Examples from the Amazon and Africa illustrate the potential

of community-based resource management in wildlife conservation (Lewis et al. 1990,

Castello 2004, Frost and Bond 2008). It will require ingenuity to formulate, and then regulate,

a scheme that delivers benefits to both land-owners and local communities from successful

custody of „their‟ jaguars. For example, mechanisms might be sought to channel payments

both to landowners and into wider community benefits (e.g. education, health, economic

development) to encourage, ideally in ways that even fosters, peer pressure against those

acting against jaguars.

Our synthesis reveals that while jaguars do indeed kill livestock in the Pantanal, this is not the

only, nor perhaps even the most important reason, why people kill jaguars. Therefore, in

many cases jaguar conservation may need to be approached in a different way. As described

here in our case studies from the Pantanal and the Amazon, the motivations for killing jaguars

include not only traditions and social rewards, but the fear and misconceptions of the threat

that jaguars pose to humans, the social incentives for persecution, and the economic viability

of ranchers as well. These insights may lead us towards approaches to decrease persecution

that rely on gradual changes in the values, attitudes and social norms concerning jaguars and

jaguar persecution and that are tailored for the specific region. For example, whereas in the

Pantanal communication campaigns to influence the social norms concerning jaguar hunting

may significantly contribute to decrease persecution, in the Amazon education to increase

knowledge and improve perceptions about jaguars‟ threat to human safety might be more

effective. Although the Pantanal is very important for jaguar conservation in the long-term

(Sanderson et al. 2002), it would be unwise to generalize too readily from this particular

situation to other parts of the jaguar‟s range. Nonetheless, conditions in the Pantanal are

similar to those in, for example, the tropical-wet savannahs of the Venezuelan Llanos and the

Bolivian Beni, so there is scope for an international analysis of cross-regional patterns in

jaguar conflict (Zimmermann and Macdonald in prep).

Unquestionably, practical conservation must be underpinned by sound science. The

illuminating power of data to allow for informed discussions and dispel misconceptions is

illustrated by the findings we report on jaguar predatory behaviour in the Pantanal. However,

the tensions between people and wildlife are so complicated that while ecological science is

necessary as a foundation for solutions, it is not sufficient to deliver them. Drawing on

methodologies from the social sciences we have shown that the link between jaguar

depredation on cattle and retaliatory persecution is only part of the story. To change peoples‟


221

actions will thus require a more far-reaching involvement that examines and understands their

perceptions and traditions.

Acknowledgements

The Pantanal Jaguar Project was supported by the Wildlife Conservation Society, the U.S.

Department of Agriculture (USDA) - National Wildlife Research Center at Utah State

University, Logan, Utah, the National Scientific and Technological Development Council in

Brazil (CNPq), the Conservation, Food, and Health Foundation, the Mamirauá Civil Society,

and Brazilian Foundation for Sustainable Development. The People and Jaguars Coexistence

Project, in collaboration with the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (Oxford University),

has been supported by Cristalino Ecological Foundation, Instituto HSBC Solidariedade,

Anglo American Brazil, Rainforest Concern, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, North of England

Zoological Society (Chester Zoo), Woodland Park Zoo, O Boticário Foundation, Fauna &

Flora International and Kevin Duncan. The global survey of human-jaguar conflicts project

is funded by North of England Zoological Society (Chester Zoo) in collaboration with

Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (Oxford University).

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Figures & Tables

Figure 1. Historical and current jaguar distribution range


228

Figure 2. (A) Map of Brazil showing major biomes, the Amazon study site (Alta Floresta)

and the Pantanal (highlighted by the box), and (B) map of the Pantanal showing its

subregions and boundary between Northern and Southern Pantanal. This study was conducted

in the three subregions of Northern Pantanal, namely Cáceres, Poconé and Barão de Melgaço,

and a ranch in Southern Pantanal (“Fazenda Sete”).


229

Figure 3. Distribution of native prey species and livestock killed by collared jaguars,

November 2001 to April 2004, southern Pantanal, Brazil (from Cavalcanti and Gese, in

review).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Female

#2

Female

#3

Female

#4

Mal

e #2

Mal

e #3

Mal

e #4

Mal

e #5

Mal

e #6

Mal

e #7

Collared individuals

% o

f ca

rca

sse

s fo

un

d

Livestock

Native species


- 230 -

Table 1. Distribution of prey species (n, (% of kills)) detected at kill sites for 10 individual jaguars, November 2001 to April 2004, southern Pantanal,

Brazil (from Cavalcanti and Gese, in review).

Prey

Adult female

#1 (n=80)

Adult female

#2 (n=123)

Adult female

#3 (n=22)

Adult female

#4 (n=5)

Adult male

#1 (n=47)

Adult male

#2 (n=36)

Adult male

#3 (n=18)

Adult male

#4 (n=40)

Adult male

#5 (n=36)

Subadult male

#6 (n=27)

tapir 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 (2.50) 1 (2.78) 0

birdsa 0 1 (0.81) 0 0 1 (2.13) 1 (2.78) 0 0 0 0

calf 30 (37.5) 18 (14.6) 0 3 (60.0) 24 (51.1) 3 (8.33) 2 (11.1) 7 (17.5) 1 (2.78) 6 (22.2)

capybara 4 (5.0) 1 (0.81) 0 0 0 0 0 1 (2.50) 0 3 (11.1)

marsh deer 3 (3.75) 2 (1.63) 1 (4.54) 0 4 (8.51) 1 (2.78) 0 2 (5.0) 0 3 (11.1)

maned wolf 2 (2.50) 1 (0.81) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

land turtle 1 (1.25) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

caiman 10 (12.5) 52 (42.3) 9 (40.9) 1 (20.0) 4 (8.51) 8 (22.2) 7 (38.9) 3 (7.50) 8 (22.2) 5 (18.5)

crab eating fox 0 1 (0.81) 0 0 0 0 0 1 (2.50) 1 (2.78) 0

racoon 0 0 1 (4.54) 0 0 1 (2.78) 0 0 1 (2.78) 0

feral hog 3 (3.75) 4 (3.25) 1 (4.54) 0 6 (12.8) 1 (2.78) 1 (5.55) 2 (5.0) 1 (2.78) 0

coati 0 0 1 (4.54) 0 1 (2.13) 1 (2.78) 0 0 0 2 (7.40)

peccaryb 7 (8.75) 23 (18.7) 5 (22.0) 0 4 (8.51) 11 (30.5) 6 (33.3) 14 (35.0) 20 (55.6) 2 (7.40)

anaconda 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 (3.70)

giant anteater 7 (8.75) 2 (1.63) 0 0 1 (2.13) 3 (8.33) 0 0 1 (2.78) 0

lesser anteater 1 (1.25) 1 (0.81) 0 0 0 3 (8.33) 0 2 (5.0) 0 0

armadilloc 2 (2.50) 0 3 (13.6) 0 0 0 0 1 (2.50) 0 0

adult cattle 9 (11.2) 16 (13.0) 1 (4.54) 1 (20.0) 2 (4.25) 2 (5.55) 2 (11.1) 5 (12.5) 0 4 (14.8)

brocket deerd 1 (1.25) 0 0 0 0 1 (2.78) 0 1 (2.50) 2 (5.55) 1 (3.70)

caiman lizard 0 1 (0.81) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

a Includes an egret (Egretta alba) , a jabiru stork (Jabyru mycteria), and a boat-billd heron (Cochlearius cochlearius).

b Although collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu) were present, the vast majority killed by jaguars were white-lipped peccaries.

c Includes two species of armadillos present in the sudy area, Euphractos sexcinctus (n=4) and Dasypus novencinctus (n=1).

d Includes both species, Mazama americana and Mazama gouazoubira.


231

Me

an

# k

illed

pe

r ja

gua

r 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr

0

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2001 2002 2003 2004

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2001 2002 2003 2004

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r ja

gua

r 0

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2001 2002 2003 2004

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2001 2002 2003 2004

Figure 4. Distribution of the mean number of cattle, caiman, and peccary killed per month by

collared jaguars, November 2001 to April 2004, southern Pantanal, Brazil (from

Cavalcanti and Gese, in review).


232

Pre

dation r

ate

(# d

ays/k

ill)

Wet 2001-2002 Wet 2002-2003 Wet 2003-2004Dry 2002 Dry 2003 Dry 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Wet 2001-2002 Dry 2002 Wet 2002-2003 Dry 2003 Wet 2003-2004 Dry 2004

caiman

domestic

peccary

Pre

dation r

ate

(# d

ays/k

ill)

Wet 2001-2002 Wet 2002-2003 Wet 2003-2004Dry 2002 Dry 2003 Dry 2004

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35


caiman

domestic

peccary

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35


caiman

domestic

peccary

Figure 5. Seasonal variation in jaguar predation rates of caiman, peccary, and domestic cattle,

November 2001 to April 2004, southern Pantanal, Brazil (from Cavalcanti and Gese, in

review).

Table 2. Zero-order correlations among perception, knowledge and attitude scores and

demographic and socio-economic variables in the Pantanal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1. Age 1

2. Years in school -.50** 1

3. Property size .28 .08 1

4. Knowledge about

jaguars and depredation -.15 -.28 -.17 1

5. Perception of increase

in jaguar abundance .05 -.12 -.08 .18 1

6. Perception of decline

in economic situation .43 -.25 .38 .08 .26 1

7. Perception of impact

on human safety -.08 .27 -.11 -.53** .45* .10 1

8. Perception of impact

on livestock .18 -.49** -.14 .16 .41** .47** .19 1

9. Perception of ease of

hunting jaguars -.14 .09 -.12 .22 .13 -.11 .13 -.15 1

10. Perception of social

acceptability/desirability

of jaguar hunting

-.10 .19 -.04 -.25 .39 .29 .07 -.18 -.07 1

11. Attitude to jaguars -.16 .36* .14 -.06 -.33 -.57** -.04 -.61** .04 -.05 1

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)


233

Figure 6. Graphs showing the measurement scales, distribution of average scores values and

differences between Amazon and Pantanal. The box indicates the median, 25% and 75% quartiles and

whiskers are the largest values that are not outliers, while circles mark outliers.


234

Figure 7. Hierarchical cognitive model of jaguar persecution adapted from the Theory of Planned

Behaviour (Ajzen 1985).

Appendix VIII – Contemporary views

235

APPENDIX VIII

CONTEMPORARY VIEWS OF HUMAN-CARNIVORE

CONFLICTS ON WILD RANGELANDS

Alexandra Zimmermann1, 2

Nicholas Baker3, Chloe Inskip

1, John D.C.Linnell

4, Silvio

Marchini2, John Odden

4, Greg Rasmussen

2, Adrian Treves

5

In: Wild Rangelands: Conserving Wildlife While Maintaining Livestock in Semi-Arid

Ecosystems. Editors J. Du Toit, R. Kock & J Deutsch. Blackwells, UK. 2009. 1)

North of England Zoological Society, Chester Zoo, CH2 1LH, UK 2)

Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, University of Oxford, OX13 5QL, UK 3)

University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072 Australia

4) Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, N-7485 Trondheim, Norway

5) Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin,

53706, USA

* corresponding author [email protected]

Introduction

Conflicts between wildlife and people pose a challenge of increasing concern to conservation

scientists (Woodroffe et al., 2005). Large carnivores in particular, require spaces and

resources that are increasingly compromised by the human dominance of landscapes that

were once prime habitat for wildlife. Human-carnivore conflicts occur in temperate as well as

tropical regions, in rangelands as well as in forests, wetlands and many other habitats.

Rangelands support carnivores and their prey, as well as people and their livestock, and as a

result have always been prone to human-carnivore encounters and conflicts. For rangelands,

already threatened by conversion to agriculture, desertification, invasive species and other

factors, human-wildlife conflicts add yet another dimension of complexity to the challenge of

their conservation (Sinclair & Schaller, this volume).

The order Carnivora contains 11 families and around 260 species (Macdonald 2001). It is the

terrestrial, large-bodied families in particular which come into conflict with people: the cats

(Felidae), dogs (Canidae), bears (Ursidae) and hyaenas (Hyaenidae). Conflicts with some of

the smaller-bodied species among the raccoons (Procyonidae), weasels (Mustelidae), skunks

(Mephitidae), civets (Viverridae) and mongooses (Herpestidae) are not widely known or

documented, with the exception of the wolverine, which is a predator of sheep and semi-

domestic reindeer in northern Eurasia. Even within the cat, dog, bear and hyaena families

there are some species that are more prone to come into conflict with people than others. For

carnivores, likelihood of conflict appears to be a function of body size and proximity to

human-dominated landscapes.

Several factors appear to predispose carnivores to conflicts with people, most importantly the

depletion of natural prey (where livestock provide a good alternative food resource); habitat

mailto:[email protected]


236

disturbance dynamics (e.g. edge effects of protected areas which often increase

animal/human encounter probabilities and create populations sinks) (Woodroffe & Ginsberg,

1998) and livestock management practices (levels of protection implemented, as well as

general condition of livestock) (Hoogesteijn, 2003; Ogada et al., 2003). A predator‟s

individual condition, including health, age and territory has also been correlated with

depredation, but not proven to predispose carnivores to prey on livestock (cf. Rabinowitz

1986, Linnell et al., 1999; Miquelle et al., 1999; Wydeven et al., 2004).

When livestock-raisers experience loss of income from predation on their sheep, goats, cattle,

horses, pigs, poultry, and losses of crops in some cases (e.g. bears); when hunters face

competition over game species, or ordinary villagers live with a fear of being attacked by a

predator, as can occur in predatory, territorial or defensive attacks by carnivores (Conover,

2002) retaliation inevitably ensues. Tolerance of carnivores in human-dominated areas is

influenced by the economic impacts of coexistence as well as the perceptions and attitudes

held by local communities (Woodroffe & Ginsberg, 1998; Sillero-Zubiri & Laurenson 2001;

Hussain, 2003; Treves & Naughton-Treves 2005; Zimmermann et al., 2005,), and many large

carnivore species have suffered significant population declines from persecution by people.

This is not only detrimental to carnivore populations which play a key ecological role in the

regulation of prey species (Treves & Karanth, 2003), but also for the wider challenges of

conservation efforts, such as those for rangelands, which require tolerance, positive attitudes

and participation on the part of the communities involved.

Understanding the complex dynamics that shape the nature of a conflict situation is

challenging in itself; resolving conflicts is even more difficult and requires a balance of

practical solutions, community outreach, and the best available information on both the

ecology of the species involved and the social psychology of the people affected. In this

chapter we aim to illustrate some of the diversity of pressures, responses and dynamics that

shape human-carnivore conflicts. As an introduction to the topic, we present six different

conflict case studies from around the globe to discuss a variety of contexts from economically

advanced as well as developing regions.

Hunter versus predator: Wolves in North America

Thirty-two years ago, the last grey wolves (Canis lupus) in the lower 48 United States were

declared endangered by the federal government. They had been eliminated from all but a tiny

area around Lake Superior because they competed with humans for livestock and game.

Today, the western Great Lakes Region of the USA holds around 3,500 wolves across

human-transformed areas of Minnesota (MN), Wisconsin (WI) and Michigan (MI) (USFWS,

2007). In 2007, the US government proposed removing federal endangered/threatened

species protections from this grey wolf population. The scenario above is not entirely rosy.

Returning management of wolves to range states is raising concerns about renewed

extirpation campaigns. For example, proposals to hunt wolves in WI are alarming wolf

preservationists. Transfer of authority is more than a shift in institutional responsibility for

wolf management, it signals a change in emphasis from restoration to coexistence. Yet

wolves continue to attack domestic animals and the many interest groups‟ definitions of

coexistence differ.

In the western Great Lakes region, wolf predation on domestic animals - mainly beef cattle

and hunting dogs - kept pace with population growth through 2000 (Fritts et al., 1992; Treves


237

et al., 2002). But such incidents may have begun to outpace wolf population increase in the

past seven years. Domestic animal depredation and other real and perceived conflicts

generate opposition to wolf conservation, especially in rural areas with high proportions of

livestock producers and hunters (Naughton-Treves et al., 2003; Treves et al., 2007).

Opponents of wolf recovery may retaliate illicitly. More than half of Wisconsin's adult wolf

mortality is caused by people, much of it apparently intentional (Wydeven et al., 2001). More

commonly, opponents call for stricter control of suspected problem packs and for regulated,

public hunting of wolves.

Neither selective lethal control nor public hunting has a strong record of effectiveness in

preventing future conflicts or eliminating culprits selectively (Treves & Naughton-Treves,

2005). Wolf predation on livestock continues despite ~20 years of legal, lethal control in MN

and several years in WI and MI, as well as continuous illicit killing (Wydeven et al., 2001).

Yet perceptions have changed about problem carnivores.

The traditional view that any carnivore will kill livestock if given the opportunity, has given

way in the face of scientific evidence (Treves et al., 2002; Wydeven et al., 2004). An

alternative explanation is that problem individuals arise spontaneously, so large carnivore

populations will always have some problem individuals. Opinions differ about the genesis of

such problem carnivores. Some maintain that exposure to livestock carcasses, garbage or

other human food sources leads to problem behaviors (Andelt & Gipson, 1979; Jorgensen,

1979). Another conjecture is that non-culprit carnivores are being killed at rates too high to

exert efficient selection against problem individuals, so we see no diminution of conflicts. A

recent review found high error rates in lethal control operations on wolves, bears and coyotes

(Treves & Naughton-Treves, 2005). In sum, for various reasons, we should not expect a

decline in livestock predation by wolves or any other large carnivore in the western Great

Lakes Region, until managers and stakeholders act in a systematic manner to understand and

prevent factors that may underlie conflicts.

Even if livestock predation by wolves could be reduced to a minimum, hunters might still

object in force to the presence of this competitor (Hammill, 2005). Hunters may find less

game in their habitual shooting grounds. Preventing a large carnivore from pursuing its wild

prey is more complex than preventing predation on livestock (Treves & Naughton-Treves,

2005). Hence interventions to reduce conflicts between hunters and wolves will take

ingenuity and changes in human behavior. Some groups address the issue through efforts at

hunter education, while others advocate a change in status of wolves from protected species

to game species. Numerous challenges lie ahead before wolves are subject to regulated,

public hunting but in the Lake Superior Region with its strong, popular tradition of hunting,

this intervention may gather momentum now that states have authority.

Finally, when one discusses the future of wolf recovery, managers often lower their voices

and allude to drastic changes if a wild wolf attacks a human. Other regions' experiences warn

us to prepare for such an attack (Rajpurohit, 1998; Linnell & Bjerke, 2002). It could

precipitate a dramatic change in wolf management policy. Swift justice would be demanded

and the response might not be limited to the suspected culprit or its pack. Pre-empting

disproportional retaliation should be an explicit management objective. In addition to a better

understanding of the genesis and behavior of problem carnivores, we need greater effort and

support for social scientific research aimed at understanding tolerance, anthropogenic

mortality and the events that precipitate political backlashes against large carnivores.


238

Developing a risk assessment protocol: Wild dogs in Africa

Colonialism in Africa ensured that the European, traditionally negative, perception of the

wolf was transferred to the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus); wild dogs were declared

vermin and a bounty put on their heads in both ranch lands and national parks (Bere, 1956;

Childes, 1988). Justification for this was self-defence, preservation of wild game, and

protection of domestic stock, though rarely was any damage verified or quantified. In

Zimbabwe, systematic persecution by ranchers and government occurred from 1904 to 1988,

when it was recognized that wild dogs were at risk of being extirpated and not a real threat to

the cattle industry, and government-sponsored persecution stopped. However, wild dogs

were still regarded by ranchers and general public as ruthless cattle and game killers. Their

resurgence into the cattle ranching regions of Nyamandlovu, Zimbabwe in 1993 revived the

conflict but resulted in better understanding and a structured approach for dealing with the

situation.

The primary objective of the approach to deal with the conflict, was the safety and welfare of

the wild dogs and, given their wide dispersal ability (Fuller et al. 1992) the importance of this

for metapopulation viability (Mills et al. 1998). To understand how to tackle the situation,

and most importantly determine whether the conflict was “real” or “imagined”, field ground-

truthing was used, as questionnaires were deemed unsuitable because ranchers‟ answers

mostly carry a bias (Rasmussen, 1999) Here, apart from verifying the nature and extent of the

conflict, ground-thruthing served to evaluate the ranchers‟ points of view, established

personal contact with aggrieved parties, and demonstrated willingness on behalf of the

conservation side to listen, which is an important step in ameliorating conflict.

The ground truthing then led to a three-part “risk assessment phase”. First, the probability of

the dogs being extirpated was assessed using criteria including: resident status, home range

utilisation, denning status, habituation, and vulnerability to being killed. Second, real risk to

stock was evaluated since, due to prejudice, whilst no stock losses do not equate to zero-

killing of predators, genuine high losses will result in increased killing. Stock risk assessment

evaluated actual losses, based on method of stock management, and the presence of natural

prey, as studies have demonstrated that this lessens stock losses (Rasmussen, 1999, Fritts et

al., 2003). Third, and arguably most important, public relations between ranchers and the

wider community were evaluated as public peer pressure relating to the acceptability of

killing predators can ameliorate ranchers killing predators.

This risk assessment phase led to the first action phase of circulating findings locally and

nationally, to ensure transparency and rationality, as well as promote positive public opinion

toward predators and their plight, thus securing assistance in tackling the situation.

Circulation of information regarding the situation, gained the predator a league of support,

whilst at the same time reduced ranchers‟ support for unnecessary predator control initiatives.

To determine the next phase of the conflict management strategy, the first primary

consideration was whether the dogs were resident in an area as determined by breeding. If

not, there was realistically no action that could be taken apart from maintaining contact and

relations with the land owners. If the dogs were resident, then from a welfare position,

vulnerability of the predator to control measures was an important criterion. For example, in

this study when the dogs were denning they were vulnerable, and when not they were so wide

ranging and behaviourally cryptic as to render the possibility of retaliatory killing slight.


239

When using a „welfare of the predator comes first” approach to conflict management, three

options arise. First, doing nothing: this may allow the dogs more time to disperse and breed,

but will most likely result in extirpation of dogs and loss of public support. Second, humane

culling of dogs: this is not only an ethically thorny tactic that can alienate public support,

particularly in the case of an endangered species, but also presents a minefield of legal

implications. Third, translocation: there can be difficulties in acquiring the large amount of

funding necessary for translocation initiatives and in also finding a relocation site.

Translocation can also be stressful for the dogs, but arguably less stressful and potentially

more productive than allowing them to be shot. In the Zimbabwe case study, as the desired

goal was to maximize the safety and welfare of dogs and their ability to contribute to the wild

population via dispersals, option three was considered the most appropriate. To maximize on

the potential of the pack to disperse, the decision to move the packs was not were taken until

the “11th

hour”, when if the dogs were not moved they would have been shot. Two

translocations in Zimbabwe have been deemed successful (Hartwig and Rasmussen 1999)

with long-distance dispersers emanating from the translocation site. Furthermore, well the

dogs bred at all their new locations (Rasmussen unpublished data). Most importantly, a

rancher/conservationist entente cordiale‟ was maintained, so when, as expected, dogs filled

the vacuum caused by the relocation, they were tolerated for three years after their detection

until they were moved. Delayed translocation is therefore a valuable solution that increases

the metapopulation, minimizes conservation costs and assists to maintain or create an

essential „entente cordiale‟ between ranchers and conservationists.

Protecting a ‘pest’: Dingos in Australia

The dingo (Canis lupus dingo) is the largest terrestrial predator in Australia, and has managed

to radiate into virtually all habitats across the country since its introduction from Asia around

4,000-6,000 years ago (Corbett, 1995; Savolainen et al., 2004). It is a major predator of

livestock (the primary cause of conflict with humans), causing millions of dollars of damage

each year, as well as the costs associated with its control (Allen & Sparkes, 2001). This

includes the maintenance of one of the world‟s longest human-made structures, the dingo

barrier fence, at over 5,000km in length, poison baiting, trapping and shooting programs.

Dingoes also carry disease, predate on pets (Dickman & Lunney, 2001; Fleming et al., 2001)

and, in some isolated circumstances, have attacked humans, with two instances of human

death recorded.

The management of dingoes in Australia is a complex and expensive exercise, and is

complicated by the fact that the species is at the same time both a declared pest (requiring

that it must legally be controlled) and a protected native species in conservation lands

(Fleming et al., 2006). Public opinion about the species is similarly divided. The situation is

further complicated by the recent listing of dingoes on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, with

the main threatening processes being hybridisation with domestic dogs and lethal control

methods employed by humans (Johnson et al., 2007).

Dingoes are normally generalist in their approach to survival, and are able to exploit most

habitats and food sources. This greatly enhances the potential for conflict with humans as the

number of ways in which they can interact also increases. Many „traditional‟ dingo habitats

have been inhabited by humans, providing competition for space and other resources. There

is also a tendency for human settlement to increase the availability of some resources (such as

food) for dingoes.


240

While human-dingo conflict is increasing dramatically in urban and semi-urban areas in

Australia, large landowners in the rangelands are often the most affected (or at least,

perceived to be) by these conflicts in terms of the personal financial and psychological costs

borne. Financial costs include lost livestock (mainly sheep), opportunity costs of reduced

yield, and control costs. Psychological costs often arise from the trauma of witnessing

predation impacts upon stock and pets, as well as stress arising from financial strain. The

dingo has been persecuted as a result, and in many cases, this persecution has led to an

increase in the impacts that the control measures have tried to address. Increased poison

baiting campaigns have in many cases led to an increase in predation rates on livestock. It is

believed that dispersing individuals not part of stable packs tend to attack livestock more

frequently, and the removal of local stable packs allows these dispersers to invade areas they

would not normally be able to (Allen, 2000; Allen & Sparkes, 2001). A potential secondary

effect of local dingo removal is an increase in numbers of mesopredator and competing native

herbivore (e.g. macropods) species, further impacting on livestock industries through loss of

stock and reduced yield.

For the Australian livestock industry to remain viable there needs to be a change in the way

dingoes are viewed and the focus of control programs. To some extent this is already

happening with many abandoning the traditional sheep industry in favour of cattle, which are

less likely to be impacted by dingoes. Many are also reducing baiting campaigns and using

alternative non-lethal methods such as guard animals to reduce the impacts of dingoes on

their stock. As the benefits of these alternative approaches become more apparent, their

uptake is expected to increase. The question that remains to be answered is whether it is, as

some have suggested (e.g. Daniels & Corbett, 2003), too late to ensure the continued survival

of the dingo as we know it today.

Culture and conflict: Jaguars in South America

As the dingo is to Australia, the jaguar (Panthera onca) is the largest terrestrial predator of

Central and South America. Renowned for its power, the jaguar has always been feared and

hunted, yet they also evoked admiration for its exceptional strength, elegance and beauty,

which explains the strong cultural significance of the species. However, an additional

dimension evolved in the relationship between humans and jaguars when domestic livestock

was introduced to South America (Arnold, 1968) and jaguar predation on cattle resulted in

hostility of ranchers toward jaguars.

Attacks by jaguars on humans are extremely rare, but jaguar predation on cattle has long been

documented in the Brazilian Pantanal (Roosevelt, 1914) and since the late 1970s scientific

studies conducted in that region, and later in the Venezuelan Llanos and other sites, have

contributed to our understanding of jaguar feeding ecology and the relationship of jaguars to

livestock in the rangelands of South America (Mondolfi & Hoogesteijn, 1986; Hoogesteijn &

Mondolfi, 1992; Crawshaw & Quigley, 2002; Dalponte, 2002). More than 85 species have

been recorded in the jaguar‟s diet (Seymour, 1989) from frogs to tapirs, but in some areas

where cattle are ranched on prime jaguar habitat, such as the Pantanal and the Llanos, cattle

can become the most frequent prey species for jaguars (Hoogesteijn & Mondolfi, 1992;

Crawshaw & Quigley, 2002, Dalponte, 2002).


241

Some factors increase the likelihood of cattle depredation, including scarcity of wild prey

(Aranda, 2002, Nunez et al., 2002, Polisar et al., 2003), persecution of jaguars, which can

result in wounded individuals whose injuries make it difficult for them to capture wild prey

(Rabinowitz, 1986), and poor livestock husbandry practices (Schaller, 1983, Schaller &

Crawshaw, 1980). In the Pantanal and Llanos cattle are typically left unattended, often near

or even inside forested areas, which makes them more vulnerable to predation (Crawshaw &

Quigley 2002, Hoogesteijn 2002). This leads to livestock losses that are unrelated to jaguars,

but often blamed on them. Indeed, studies have shown that in the large ranches of the

Pantanal and the Llanos predation by jaguars is a minor cause of cattle mortality compared to

other causes, such as disease, abortion, malnutrition, attacks by vultures on newborn calves,

and puma depredation (Schaller, 1983, Hoogesteijn et al., 1993). The relative economic

damage associated with jaguar predation also varies. However, livestock losses to felids are

generally low and less than 1–3% of total stock per year (Jackson et al., 1994; Farrell, 1999),

reaching 6% in the worst cases (Hoogesteijn et al., 1993).

These findings have led to a number of recommendations for resolving the conflict by

attempting to decrease and compensate for economic damage. Electric fences (Saenz &

Carillo, 2002; Schiaffino et al., 2002; Scognamillo et al., 2002), translocation of "problem

jaguars" (Linnell et al., 1997; Rabinowitz, 1986; Vaughan & Temple, 2002), the introduction

of water buffalos (Hoogesteijn, 2002), and improved cattle husbandry and management

practices (Weber and Rabinowitz, 1996; Crawshaw & Quigley, 2002; Hoogesteijn et al.,

2002) are examples of interventions. Compensation payments for the cattle killed by jaguars

(Nowell & Jackson, 1996; Hoogesteijn et al., 2002; Perovic, 2002; Vaughan & Temple,

2002; Conforti & Azevedo, 2003), the implementation of wildlife-based tourism (Weber &

Rabinowitz, 1996; Dalponte, 2002; Miller, 2002; Conforti & Azevedo, 2003) and trophy

hunting of problem jaguars (Swank & Teer, 1992) have also been tried or proposed.

However, so far the evidence that any of these interventions can effectively reduce hostility

toward jaguars is scarce and conservation efforts focused solely on the ecological and

economic dimensions of human-jaguar conflicts have still not resulted in any noticeable

change throughout much of jaguar range.

Indeed, the above interventions will have little effect if jaguar persecution is found to be

socially and culturally ingrained. Recent research on ranches and farms in Brazil suggest that

rural attitudes to jaguars are not dictated by material loss caused by the animal (Conforti &

Azevedo, 2003, Zimmermann et al., 2005) and negative attitudes to the species are also found

among farmers who do not raise cattle (Marchini, 2006). Therefore, factors other than the

economic also determine negative attitudes, and resulting hostility, to jaguars. Fear,

prejudice, the social significance or simply the excitement of hunting a large predator, among

other socio-cultural phenomena, also explain why people persecute jaguars. It is imperative

then that we broaden the scope of our current approaches to resolve human-jaguar conflicts.

Future research should turn to the human side of the conflict in order to (1) understand

people‟s behaviour toward jaguars and identify the factors that determine hostility toward the

species, (2) develop education and communication interventions to engage landowners in the

effort to resolve the conflict, improve their perceptions of the issue and increase their

tolerance to jaguars, taking advantage of the exceptional socio-cultural significance of the

species, and (3) compare approaches for human-jaguar conflict mitigation in a broader

spectrum of ecological, economic, political, social and cultural circumstances, from large

cattle ranches in the Pantanal and Llanos to small farms in other parts of the continent. Our

coexistence with jaguars in the rangelands of South America depends upon the recognition


242

that the origin – and therefore the resolution – of the conflicts between humans and jaguars

lies on the human side of the conflict.

When people become prey: Tigers in Asia

The tiger (Panthera tigris) has suffered a severe decline in its population distribution over the

last decade (Biswas & Sankar, 2002). Fewer than 5,000 individuals remain in the wild

(Jackson, 1999), inhabiting only 7% of its original range (Sanderson et al 2006). Although

now predominantly associated with tropical and temperate broadleaf forests, tigers also

inhabit grassland and shrubland habitats, such as in the of the Terai-Duar landscape which

includes, for example, the Chitwan and Royal Bardia National Parks (Nepal), and Jim Corbett

National Park (India).

Much like the jaguar, the tiger is both feared and admired across its range, and, conflict with

people has undoubtedly contributed to its population decline. Unlike its Latin American

counterpart, however, tigers also occasionally attack people, a dimension that significantly

complicates this case of human-carnivore conflict. In areas where attacks on people occur,

fear inevitably exacerbates communities‟ animosity towards tigers. The resultant retaliatory

killing of tigers is widespread in Asia and occurs even within protected areas. As most of

Asia‟s protected areas are relatively small (Wikramanayake et al., 1999), tigers often range

into adjacent, human-dominated habitats, where conflicts also arise. Human-tiger conflict is

therefore often most severe in moderately disturbed habitat areas, such as buffer zones around

protected areas (Nyhus & Tilson, 2004a,b).

The scale of human-tiger conflict in rangelands, in particular the number of attacks on

humans per location, varies. Attacks on humans have been reported in both the area

surrounding Bardia National Park and, in Chitwan National Park, where, in 1998-99 eleven

deaths were reported, marking a sudden departure from the Park‟s prior average of 1.3 attacks

per year (McDougal, 1999). Attack rates also vary throughout the rest of the tigers‟ range. In

areas of low human and tiger density, attacks on people are rare (Nowell & Jackson, 1996).

In the Russian Far East, for example Miquelle et al., (1999) report only six unprovoked

attacks on humans since 1970. Conversely, in India‟s Dudhwa National Park, over 200

people were killed between 1978 and 1996 (Nowell & Jackson, 1996), and in Sumatra, over

170 people were killed or injured in tiger attacks over a 20 year period (Nyhus & Tilson,

2004a). The Sundarbans of India and Bangladesh are most notorious for „man-eating‟ tigers,

with an official figure of an average of 24 (and an unofficial estimate of approximately 100)

people killed per year (Reza et al., 2002). Attacks are generally attributed to people entering

reserves to harvest natural resources (Nowell & Jackson, 1996; Reza et al., 2000; Mukherjee,

2003), cultivation of land around reserves (Nowell & Jackson, 1996) or to hunters wounding

tigers (Miquelle et al., 1999).

More often than attacking people, tigers kill livestock and a number studies have quantified

these predation losses. For example: livestock constitutes 0.45–12% of tigers‟ diets in four

Indian protected areas (Biswas & Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al., 2003; Reddy et al 2004;

Andheria et al., 2007). In the Russian Far East it has been estimated that up to 100 livestock

are killed each year by tigers (Miquelle et al., 2005), while in Sumatra, at least 870 head of

livestock were reportedly killed over a 20 year period (Nyhus & Tilson, 2004a) and across

Indochina livestock losses to tigers are common (Johnson et al., 2006). Livestock depredation


243

tends to be particularly severe in those areas where tigers‟ wild prey base has been

significantly reduced (Johnson et al., 2006; TIGRIS Foundation, 2007)

Various methods have been implemented or suggested in order to reduce human-tiger

conflicts, including compensation schemes (Madhusudan, 2003; TIGRIS Foundation, 2007),

changes to cattle husbandry practices (Johnson et al., 2006), village eco-development (Bagchi

et al., 2003) and the use of face masks worn on the back of the head (Nowell & Jackson,

1996). As with jaguars, few quantitative data are available on the effectiveness of such

mitigation techniques, although observations have been recorded. While in the Sundarbans no

attacks on people wearing face masks have been reported (Mukherjee, 2003), compensation

schemes have generally been found to be inefficient and ineffective (Madhusudan, 2003).

More detailed and up-to-date data describing the frequency, distribution and determinants of

attacks on humans by tigers in rangelands, and in other habitat types, are urgently required if

we are to understand the dynamics of human-tiger conflicts range-wide. The extent of

livestock depredation must also be examined extensively. Monitoring and evaluation of

existing mitigation strategies is required to complement this research, as it is fundamental to

the development of effective mitigation techniques. Emphasis must also be placed on

exploring the applicability and feasibility of new mitigation and land management techniques

for reducing human-tiger conflict. For example, the potential of community-based work and

alternative livelihood schemes to reduce the number of people entering reserves should be

investigated, as should the effectiveness of economic incentive and insurance schemes in

comparison to existing compensation schemes. Buffer zones in particular, are associated with

a high probability of conflict, yet if managed specifically with this in mind they can be used

to reduce human-tiger conflict in a wider area, and the effectiveness of multiple land use

practices in reducing conflict must therefore also be investigated (Nyhus & Tilson, 2004b).

Habitat corridors and meta-population management of tiger habitats is becoming increasingly

important as habitat becomes progressively fragmented (Wikramanayake et al., 2004) and the

maintenance of suitable habitat and wild prey base must remain a priority for the

conservation of tigers in human dominated landscapes (Reza et al., 2000). Finally,

understanding the human, dimension of human-tiger conflict is essential.

Re-emerging conflict: Lynx in Europe

The previous case studies highlight that although conflicts between large carnivores and

people and their livestock are a global phenomenon, the extent of the conflict varies greatly.

In this final case study we discuss what is possibly the greatest depredation conflict, which

occurs in the rangelands of Norway. Norway is a rugged country with the lowest human

population density in Europe and where less than 5% of the land area is suitable for

cultivation. The rest of the area consists of boreal forest (almost entirely used for intensive

commercial forestry) and alpine tundra above the tree line.

With so little farm land it has been the tradition for centuries to graze livestock in the forests

and alpine tundra habitats. In the past, grazing animals were accompanied by shepherds to

protect them from predators. However, by the early 20th

century large carnivore populations

had been so reduced (wolves were actually exterminated) that it became possible to adopt a

form of free-grazing where livestock (mainly sheep) were released in early summer and

gathered in autumn. The animals were released into unfenced forest and alpine-tundra habitat

and only received occasional supervision. In the absence of large carnivores, losses for the


244

approximate four-month grazing season were remarkably low, in the region of 1-2% for ewes

and 5% for lambs.

However, since the 1980s the populations of all four large carnivore species in Norway

(brown bear (Ursos arctos), wolf, Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and wolverine (Gulo gulo)) have

begun to recover due to more conservation-orientated legislation. This recovery has been

associated with a dramatic increase in depredation losses of livestock to the large carnivores.

Eurasian lynx are the most widespread of the four large carnivore species and are, together

with wolverine, responsible for the greatest losses of livestock. Lynx have been the subject of

intensive radio-telemetry based studies during the last decade (Scandlynx 2007). Between

1996-2005 lynx numbers have fluctuated between 300 and 500 individuals (the fluctuations

are caused by hunter harvest), and compensation has been paid for between 6,000 and 9,000

sheep, mainly lambs killed each year. It should be pointed out that not all losses are

documented, but a combination of documented losses combined with a wide range of studies

where sheep have been radio-collared to identify the cause of losses has confirmed that these

numbers are realistic. This works out to around 20 sheep per lynx per year. The results of an

ongoing study in which lynx have been radio-collared and intensively monitored have

confirmed that the calculated kill rates are realistic. The project has also shown that virtually

all lynx will kill sheep at some stage, but that adult males and juvenile lynx kill far more

sheep than adult female lynx, and that while the diet of lynx is dominated by wild ungulates,

sheep do constitute a significant proportion of a summer diet (26%), which, given that

unguarded livestock far outnumbered wild ungulates in our study area, was a surprisingly low

proportion. In contrast to depredation by tiger and hunting dog, the data also indicated that

the probability of a lynx killing sheep increased with the density of wild prey in the area.

These results combined to build a picture of a conflict situation where lynx are only

incidentally killing livestock that they encounter while pursuing their wild prey. However,

because unguarded sheep are found at high density throughout the natural habitats exploited

by lynx and their preferred prey, lynx–sheep encounters occur frequently, resulting in

depredation. The data further indicated that this is not due to specific problem individuals –

but that rather all of the lynx at some stage kill livestock.

Therefore, it is not surprising that the only way that lethal control reduces depredation is in

circumstances where it reduces the lynx population. The modern Norwegian “tradition” of

placing free-ranging and unguarded sheep directly into forest habitats where large carnivores

occur is a recipe for maximum conflict. Unfortunately, the high labour costs in Norway make

the restoration of the original shepherding tradition virtually impossible, and even fencing

sheep requires an expensive and radical restructuring of an industry that is already highly

subsidised. The only other alternatives for lynx are to either accept losses or phase out sheep.

However, in areas where other large carnivores such as bears, wolves and wolverines also

occur, the combined depredation pressure on livestock holdings will probably force change.

Comparative studies from France, Switzerland and eastern Europe have shown that confining

sheep on fenced fields or alpine pastures (out of the forest) dramatically reduces depredation

losses per lynx and that depredation becomes more associated with specific individuals.

Adopting mitigation measures such as electric fences, night-time enclosures or livestock

guarding dogs can basically reduce the problem to zero (Odden et al., 2002, 2006; Linnell &

Brøseth, 2003; Herfindal et al., 2005; Moa et al., 2006).


245

Conclusion

Our set of case studies has illustrated that although human-carnivore conflicts occur in a great

range of geographic and socio-economic contexts, on a global scale the challenges and

experiences are remarkably similar. Compromises to the ecological needs of carnivores

predispose them to livestock-killing and the severity of each conflict is inextricably linked to

the attitudes and beliefs of the communities affected. Perceptions of conflict are often formed

by a few memorable or catastrophic events and reflect not only those events experienced

first-hand, but historical events and often the stories from other people and communities

(Naughton-Treves & Treves 2005, Treves 2007). As such, perceptions of conflict severity

may not accurately reflect real conflict severity.

Similarly, the results of scientific research may not provide an entirely accurate picture.

Conflict incidents tend to be randomly distributed within and between communities, and the

few individuals, households, or communities that suffer the most devastating losses may be

masked by the regional or community averages commonly used in scientific literature to

describe losses. Scientific research is also rarely able to capture more extensive geographic

and historic perspectives of a conflict situation due to restricted study areas and short time

frames (Treves, 2007). Consequently when devising mitigation strategies both the „perceived‟

and the „scientific‟ views of conflict must be considered, as when viewed together they

provide a more comprehensive insight into conflict severity.

Globally, conflict mitigation techniques are plentiful, but efforts to evaluate these

systematically are lacking and mechanisms for easy exchanges of lessons-learnt are only

beginning to be established. To manage conflicts with greater success world-wide, we need to

understand better the spatial and ecological dynamics of human/wild interfaces; focus on the

importance of the human dimension of these conflicts, compare mitigation results and tailor

mitigation approaches to the characteristics of individual cases. Although there are species-

by-species differences among these conflicts, the core issues as well as the principles that

have been outlined in this chapter apply widely and are crucial to the successful management

of human-wildlife conflicts on wild rangelands.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Richard Kock and Claudio Sillero-Zubiri for their reviews of

the manuscript and their valuable comments and assistance.

Appendix IX – Other communication materials

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APPENDIX IX

OTHER COMMUNICATION MATERIALS

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)

Example of tools used in the communication campaign. (a) logo of research project, (b)

poster of the dramatic perfomance (“Sassá, the jaguar” is the character staring the campaign

toward students), (c) poster of the project, (d) the “Pro-Jaguar Stamp” used in a partnership

with local handcrafters to promote palm seed and fiber handcrafting (a “jaguar-friendly”

economic activity, relative to cattle-ranching and agriculture), (d) key chains with project‟s

logo (f) stickers and (g) cartoon magazine of Sassá, the Jaguar