digitalcommons.nyls.edu

Faculty Scholarship Books

1980

Human Rights and World Public Order: The BasicPolicies of an International Law of Human DignityMyres S. McDougal

Harold D. Lasswell

Lung-chu ChenNew York Law School

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/fac_books

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at DigitalCommons@NYLS. It has been accepted for inclusion inBooks by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@NYLS.

Recommended CitationMcDougal, Myres S.; Lasswell, Harold D.; and Chen, Lung-chu, "Human Rights and World Public Order: The Basic Policies of anInternational Law of Human Dignity" (1980). Books. 29.http://digitalcommons.nyls.edu/fac_books/29

Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan PowER AND Socncrv: A Framework for Political Inquiry. I 950 Myres S. McDougal and Associates STUDIES IN WORLD PUBLIC ORDER. I 960

Human Rights and World Public Order

OF RELATED INTEREST

Myres S. McDougal and Florentino P. Feliciano LAW AND MINIMUM WORLD PUBLIC ORDER: The Legal Regulation of International Coercion. 1961

The Basic Policies of an International

Law of Human Dignity

Myres S. McDougal and William T. Burke THE Puur.ro ORDER OF THE OCEANS: A Contemporary International

Law of the Sea. I 962

Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, and Ivan A. Vlasu: LA w AND PUBLIC ORDER IN SPACE. I 963 by Myre; S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell,

and Lung-chu Chen Douglas M. Johnston THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF FISHERIES: A Framework for Policy­

Oriented Inquiries. 1965.

B. S. Murty PROPM;ANDA AND WORLD PUBLIC 0RDim: The Legal Regulation of the Ideological Instrument of Coercion. 1968

Myres S. McDougal, Harold D. Lasswell, and James C. Miller THE INTERPRETATION OF AGREEMENTS AND WORLD PUBLIC ORDER:

Principles of Content and Procedure. 1967 W. Michael Reisman NuLI,ITY AND REVISION: The Review and Enforcement of Interna­ tional Judgments and Awards. 1971

New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1980

\ -.

Copyright © 1980 by Yale University. All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without written permission from the publisher.

Published in Great Britain, Europe, Africa, and Asia (except Japan) by Yale University Press, Ltd., London. Distributed in Australia and New Zealand by Book & Film Services, Artarmon, N.S.W., Australia; and in Japan by Harper & Row, Publishers, Tokyo Office.

TO FRANCES LEE McDOUGAL

SU-TON CHEN LAI-CHU HUANG CHEN

Set in Baskerville type. Printed in the United States of America by The Vail-Ballou Press, Inc., Binghamton, New York.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

McDougal, Myres Smith, 1906- Human rights and world public order. Includes indexes. I. Civil rights (International law)

I. Lasswell, Harold Dwight, 1902-1978 joint author. II. Chen, Lung-chu, 1935- 111. Title. K3240.4.M27 341.48' 1 ISBN 0-300-02344-8

joint author.

79-18149

/

J I •.

CONTENTS

Preface xvn

Part I. Delimitation of the Problem I I. Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 3

The Rising Common Demands 7 Demands Relating to Respect 7 Demands Relating to Power 8 Demands Relating to Enlightenment 9 Demands Relating to Well-Being IO Demands Relating to Wealth I I Demands Relating to Skill I2 Demands Relating to Affection I2 Demands Relating to Rectitude I3

Inadequate Responses-Deprivations and Nonfulfillment of Human Rights I3 Deprivations Relating to Respect I5 Deprivations Relating to Power I 7 Deprivations Relating to Enlightenment 22 Deprivations Relating to Well-Being 26 Deprivations Relating to Wealth 3 I Deprivations Relating to Skill 34 Deprivations Relating to Affection 34 Deprivations Relating to Rectitude 36

Conditions Affecting Deprivations and Nonfulfillment 37 Environmental Factors 38 Predispositional Factors 45 Interdependences 4 7

Inadequacies in Inquiry: The Intellectual Confusion about Human Rights 63 The Natural Law Approach 68 The Historical Approach 7 I The Positivist Approach 73 The Marxist (Communist) Approach 76 The Social Science Approach 80

Vil

\ ·-

VIII Contents Contents

Human Rights in Policy-Oriented Perspective 82 The Est~bl~sh?1ent ?f the Observational Standpoint 83 T~e Dehm1t~t10n of the Focus of Inquiry 83 3.

The Relation of Human Rights to Social Process 84 The Conception of Authoritative Decision 86 Comprehensiveness in Conception of Processes of Authoritative Decision 86 The Relation to Community Processes 88

The Explicit Postulation of Basic Public Order Goals 90 The Performance of Intellectual Tasks 9I The Clarification of Community Policies 92 The Description of Past Trends in Decision 92 The Analysis of Factors Affecting Decision 92 The Projection of Future Trends 93

2. T?e Inv:ntion and Evaluation of Policy Alternatives 93

The Social Settmg of Human Rights: The Process of Deprivation and Nonfulfillment of Values 94 Participants

96 Organized Groups 97 Nation-States 98 International Governmental Organizations IOO Political Parties IOI Pressure Groups IOI Private Associations I02 Terror Groups and Gangs I06 Unorganized Groups I07 Culture 107 Class I09 Interest I IO Personality I I 0 Crisis 1I3

Perspectives II3 Demands I I4 Identifications I I5 Expectations I I 7 Contending Systems of Public Order 1I9

Situations I I 9 Geographic Features I20 Temporal Features I2I Institutionalization 123 Crisis I26

Base Values I30

Strategies Outcomes

Claims Made to Authority for the Protection of Human Rights Claimants Perspectives Specific Types of Claim

Claims Relating to the Process of Deprivation and Nonfulfillment of Values

Claims Relating to Respect Claims Relating to Power Claims Relating to Enlightenment Claims Relating to Well-Being Claims Relating to Wealth Claims Relating to Skill Claims Relating to Affection­ Claims Relating to Rectitude

Claims Relating to Permissible Derogation from Established Standards

Claims Relating to Crises in Security Claims Relating to Crises in Power Claims Relating to Crises in Respect Claims Relating to Crises in Enlightenment Claims Relating to Crises in Well-Being Claims Relating to Crises in Wealth Claims Relating to Crises in Skill Claims Relating to Crises in Affection Claims Relating to Crises in Rectitude

Claims Relating to the Constitutive Process of Authoritative Decision

Claims Relating to Participation Claims Relating to Perspectives Claims Relating to Situations Claims Relating to Base Values Claims Relating to Strategies Claims Relating to Outcomes

Intelligence Promotion (Recommendation) Prescription Invocation Application Termination

I•,

IX

135 I38

143 145 145 146

146 14G 149 151 152 154 155 156 157

158 I58 158 I58 I58 158 158 159 159 I59

159 159 159 I59 I59 159 159 I59 159 I59 159 I59 I59

x

Appraisal Claims Relating to Effects

The Context of Conditions 4. The Global Constitutive Process of Authoritative Decision

The Major Features of Contemporary Constitutive Process

Participation Nation-States

International Governmental Organizations Political Parties Pressure Groups Private Associations The Individual

Perspectives Arenas

Establishment Diplomatic Parliamentary-Diplomatic Parliamentary Adjudicative Executive

Access Com pulsoriness

Base Values Authority Effective Control

Strategies The Diplomatic Instrument The Ideological Instrument The Economic Instrument The Military Instrument

Outcomes The Intelligence Function The Promoting Function The Prescribing Function The Invoking Function The Applying Function The Terminating Function The Appraising Function

The Human Rights Prescriptions as an Emerging Global Bill of Rights

Prescription Application

Contents Contents

159 159 159 161

The United Nations and Its Organs Nation-States and Their Officials Unilateral Acts Agreements

Non-Governmental Actors Invocation Termination

167 167 168 170 173 174 175 176 179 185 186 186 187 188 189 190 192 199 207 207 217 219 220 223 227 236 248 248 256 261 278 289 299 307

Part II. The Clarification of General Community Policies

5. The Basic Policies of a Comprehensive Public Order of Human Dignity The Observational Standpoint: Identification with the Whole of Humankind The Perspectives of a Comprehensive World Public Order: Clarifying Policies The Postulation of the Goal Values of Human Dignity

Postulated Goal Values in Social Process Preferred Policies Relating to the World Process of Value Fulfillment and Deprivation Preferences Relating to Respect Preferences Relating to Power· Preferences Relating to Enlightenment Preferences Relating to Well-Being Preferences Relating to Wealth Preferences Relating to Skill Preferences Relating to Affection Preferences Relating to Rectitude

Postulated Goal Values in Constitutive Process Preferred Policies Relating to World Constitutive Process Participation in Decision-Making Rep re sen tativeness Responsibility

Perspectives Demands Identifications Expectations

Arenas Establishment Access Open Compulsory

313 320 332

I•.

XI

332 335 335 338 350 357 360

365

367

368

373 375 378

381 381 383 387 389 393 395 396 398 399

400 400 400 401 401 401 402 402 402 402 402 402 402

XII Contents Contents XIII

Bases of Power 403 Part III. Trends in Decision and Conditioning Authority 403 Factors: Claims Relating to Respect 449 Control 403 6. Respect as the Core Value of Human Rights 451 Strategies 403 7. Claims Relating to Fundamental Freedom of Choice 468 Outcomes 404 The Eradication of Slavery 473 Aggregate Consequences 404 Factual Background 473 Rationality 404 Basic Community Policies 481 Efficiency 404 Trends in Decision 482 Inclusivity 405 Appraisal and Recommendations 505 Comprehensiveness and Integration 405 The Elimination of Caste 508 Particular Functions (Types of Decisions) 405 The Elimination of Apartheid 521 The Intelligence Function 405 Factual Background 521 The Promotional Function 406 Basic Community Policies 531 The Prescribing Function 406 Trends in Decision 532 The Invoking Function 406 8. Claims Relating to a Basic Equality of Opportunity and The Applying Function 407 Freedom from Discrimination 561 The Terminating Function 407 9. Claims Relating to Racial Discrimination 569 The Appraising Function 408 Factual Background 569 The Conception of Common Interest 408 Basic Community Policies 577

The Accommodation of Interests in Particular Instances 415 Trends in Decision 581 Principles of Content 419 10. The Outlawing of Sex-Based Discrimination 612 Principles Relating to the Prescribing Process 419 Factual Background 612 Principles Relating to the Process of Claim 420 Basic Community Policies 623 Principles Relating to the Process of Decision 420 Trends in Decision 625 Principles of Procedure 420 Proposals for Application 650 The Contextual Principle 420 11. Claims Relating to Freedom from Religious Discrimination 653 The Principle of Economy 420 Factual Background 653 The Principle of Manifest (Provisional) Focus 420 Basic Community Policies 661 The Principle of Clarified Focus 421 Trends in Decision 665 The Principle of Observing Trends in Past The Inclusive Context of Religious and Other Basic Experience 421 Freedoms of Belief 687 The Principle of Realistic Orientation in Factors 12. Claims for Freedom from Discrimination because of Affecting Decision 421 Non-Conforming Political Opinion 690 The Principle of Observing the Constraints of Factual Background 690 Future Probabilities 421 Basic Community Policies 697 !he P~i~ciple of Evaluating and Inventing Options Trends in Decision 702 m Decision 422 Future Developments 710 The Significance of Past Trends 423 13. Claims for Freedom from Discrimination in Choice of

The Analysis of Factors Conditioning Trends 428 Language 713 The Projection of Probable Future Developments 436 Factual Background 713 The Invention ~nd Evalua~ion of Alternatives: Looking Basic Community Policies 720 Toward an Optimum Pubhc Order of Human Dignity 440 Trends in Decision 722

I•,

XIV

Pre-United Nations Protections Protections under the United Nations Regional Protections: The Belgian Linguistic Cases National Protections

Future Developments 14. The Protection of Aliens from Discrimination: State

Responsibility Conjoined with Human Rights Factual Background Basic Community Policies Trends in Decision The Future of Protection

15. The Protection of the Aged from Discrimination Factual Background Basic Community Policies Trends in Decision Future Developments

Contents Contents xv

722 724 729 732 736

Claims Relating to Statelessness Minimization of Statelessness Statelessness at Birth Statelessness Subsequent to Birth

Mitigations of Statelessness Claims Relating to Multiple Nationality

Appraisal and Recommendations Table of Cases Name Index Subject Index

920 924 927 929 935 941 953 959 962 995

737 738 742 745 776 779 779 782 786 795

Part IV. Future Prospects 797 16. The Aggregate Interest in Shared Respect and Human

Rights: The Harmonization of Public Order and Civic Order 799 Claims Relating to Comprehensive Public Order 802 Factual Background 802 Basic Community Policies 804 Trends in Decision 805

Claims Relating to Civic Order (Including Privacy) 815 Factual Background 815 Basic Community Policies 823 Trends in Decision 829

The Future of Human Rights in Public and Civic Order 857 Appendix Nationality and Human Rights: The Protection of the

Individual in External Arenas 861 Delimitation of the Problem 86 I The Clarification of General Community Policy 863 Trends in Decision and Conditioning Factors 866 Claims by the Individual to a Protecting State 866 Claims Relating to the Conferment of Nationality 878 Claims Relating to Withdrawal of Nationality 888 Voluntary Expatriation 889 Withdrawal with Consent (Genuine or Constructive) for Promoting Harmonious Relations between States 895 Withdrawal without Consent as Punishment 900

'._

1. HUMAN RIGHTS IN COMPREHENSIVE CONTEXT

The demands for human rights being made today around the world are heir to all the great historic movements for human freedom, equality, and solidarity-including the English, American, French, Russian, and Chinese revolutions and the events they set in train. They derive also from the more enduring elements in the traditions both of natural law and natural rights and of most of the world's great religions and philosophies. They achieve support, further, from the findings of modern science about the close link between simple respect for human dignity and the shaping and sharing of all other values.1 It has been

In sligh1ly differenl form t his chapter first appeared as ll11111r111 Rights""" World Public Ord1'r: Hu man Rights in C1m1f1rl'i1n1siw Context, 7'2 Nw. U. L. R1·:v. '2'27 (1977).

I. S1'1' generally FUNDAMENTAi. Rrr.urs (I. Bridge, D. Lasok, D. Perrott, & R. Plender eds. 1973); J. CAREY, UN PIWTECTION OF C1v11. AND POl.JTICAI. RI(:JITS ( 1970); COMPARATIVE HUMAN RH:JITS (R. Claude ed. l!J76) [hereinafter cited as COMPARATIVE HUMAN Rrc.urs]: CoMM1ss10N To STUDY TllE 01u:ANIZATION OF PEACE, Tin: UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RH:ins (I !J68); CoRNEI.I. LAw Sc11001., HUMAN Rrr.u-rs: PROTECTION OF Tl n: I ND1v11rnA1. UNDER INTERNATIONAi. LAW (I 970) (Proceedings of Ihe Fifth Summer Conference on In­ ternational Law); M. CRANSTON, WHAT Aiu: HUMAN Rrc.urs> (197'.l) [hcrcin.rfn-r cited as M. CRANSTON]; A. DEi. Russo, INTERNATIONAi. PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIC:llTS ( 1971 ); P. DROST, HUMAN R1<:11Ts As LECAI. R1<:11Ts (l!J51) [hereinafter cited as P. DROST]; I. Duc11AcEK, Rrc.ms & LIBERTIES IN TllE WoRI.D ToDAY: CoNSTITUTioNAL PROMISE & REAL­ ITY (197:1); INTERNATIONAi. PROTECTION OF llUMAN RIC:llTS (A. Eide & A. Schou eds. l!J(i8) (Nobel Symposium 7) [hereinafter cited as NOBEL SYMPOSIUM ON HUMAN RICllTS]; M. GAN.JI, INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN RICllTS (I !Hi'2) [hereinafter cited as M. GAN.JI]; M. GAN.JI, THE REAl.IZATION OF EcoNoM1c, Soc1A1. AND CULTURAi. Rrr.nrs: PROB­ LEMS, Por.rcn:s, PROGRESS, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1108/Rev. I and '.lO U.N. ESCOR (Provisional Agenda Item 7), U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/11'.ll/Rev. I (1975) [hereinafter cited as Ecoxovm., SocIAL AND Cm.TURAI. RIC:ll'rs]; HUMAN D1<:NITY: T111s CENTURY AND THE NEXT (R. Gotesky & E. Laszlo eds. I !J70) [hereinafter cited as HUMAN DIC:NnYj; HUMAN R1<:11Ts, h:DERAl.JSM AND MINORITIES (A. Cotlieb ed. 1!!70); J. GREEN, Tm: UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RICllTS (I !l5li); E. llAAS, HUMAN RH:1ns AND INTERNATIONAi. ACTION (I !J70); SoCJAl.IST CONCEPT OF HUMl\N RIC:11Ts (I. Halasz ed. 19(i(i) [hereinafter cited as SocIAl.IST CONCEPT OF HUMAN RH:irrs]; T. HESllURGll, Tin: HUMAN IMPERATIVE '2'.1-37 (1974); A. Ho1.coMBE, HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE MODERN WoRLD (1948); RENE CASSIN, AMICORUM D1s­ c1ru1,0RUMQUE LIBER (Institut International des Droits de !'Homme ed. I 9G9-7'2) (4 vols.)

3

4 Delimitation of the Problem

many times observed how rudimentary demands for freedom from des­ potic executive tyranny have gradually been transformed into demands for protection against not only the executive but all institutions or functions of government and all private coercion. Early demands for the barest "civil liberties," inherent in the most primitive conception of rule by law, have burgeoned into insistence upon comprehensive "human

[hereinafter cited as RENI:: CASSIN]; INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE, Soc1AL Pot.rev IN A

CHAN<:IN<: WoRLD: Tm: ILO RESPONSE (1976) (Selected Speeches by Wilfred Jenks); G. JELLINEK, THE DECLARATION OF THE Rrcrrrs OF MAN AND or CITIZENS: A CoNTRIBUTION TO

MODERN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY (M. Farrand trans. 1901 ); THE HUMAN RIGHT TO INDI­

VIDUAL FREEDOM (L. Kutner ed. 1970); H. LAUTERPACHT, AN INTERNATIONAL BILL OF THE

RH:Ifl'S OF MAN ( 1945); H. LAUTERPACilT, INTERNATIONAL LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS (1950)

[hereinafter cited as H. LAUTERPACHT, 1950]; THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN

RIGHTS (E. Luard ed. 1967) [hereinafter cited as E. LUARD]; J. MARITAIN, THE RIGHTS OF

MAN AND NATURAL LAW (D. Anson trans. 1943); HUMAN RIGHTS (A. Melden ed. 1970); M.

MOSKOWITZ, INTERNATIONAL CONCERN WITH HUMAN RIGHTS ( 1974) [hereinafter cited as

M. MOSKOWITZ, 1974]; M. MOSKOWITZ, THE POLITICS AND DYNAMICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

(1968) [hereinafter cited as M. MOSKOWITZ, 1968]; HUMAN RIGHTS (E. Pollack ed. 1971)

[hereinafter cited as HUMAN R1G1rrs]; POLITICAL THEORY AND THE RIGHTS OF MAN (D.

Raphael ed. 1967); A. ROBERTSON, HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE WORLD ( 1972) [hereinafter cited

as A. ROBERTSON]; HUMAN RIGHTS IN NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAW (A. Robertson

ed. 1968); D. SANDIFER & L. SCHEMAN, THE FOUNDATIONS OF FREEDOM: THE INTERRELA­

TIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN Rrc.nrs ( 1966); E. ScHWELB, HUMAN RIGHTS

AND THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY (1964); N. SINGH, HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERNA­

TIONAi. COOPERATION ( 1969); L. SIN<:IIVI, HORIZONS OF FREEDOM ( 1969); L. Sou» & T. BUERGENTHAI., INTERNATIONAL i'ROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS ( J 97:1); UNITED NATIONS,

UNITED NATIONS AcTION IN THE FIELD OF HUMAN RIGHTS, U.N. Doc. ST/HR/2 (1974);

UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION, BIRTHRIGHT OF

MAN ( 1969) [hereinafter cited as BIRTHRIGHT OF MAN]; HUMAN RIGHTS (UNESCO ed.

1949); AN INTRODUCTION TO TllE STUDY OF HUMAN RIGHTS (F. Vallat ed. 1972); v. VAN DYKE, HUMAN RH;HTS, THE UNITED STATES, AND WORLD COMMUNITY ( 1970); Hearings on International Protection o] Human Rights before the Subcomm. on International Organization and Movements o] the House Comm. on Foreign Aflairs, 93d Cong., !st Sess. (1974) [hereinafter

cited as Hearings]; Bilder, Rethinking International Human Rights: Some Basic Questiom, 1969

Wis. L. REV. 170; Humphrey, The International Law ofHuman Rights in the Middle Tioentieth. Century, in THE PRESENT STATE OF INTERNATIONAi. LAW AND OTHER EssAYS 75 (M. Bos ed.

1973).

On the regional level, see R. BEDDARD, HUMAN RH:HTS AND EUROPE ( 1973); BRITISH

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL AND COMPARATIVE LAW, Tur; EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON

HUMAN RIGHTS (1965) (International Law Series No. 5); F. CASTIIERG, Tm: EUROPEAN

CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS (T, Opsahl & T. OuchterJony eds. 1974); HUMAN RIGHTS

AND THE LlllERATION OF MAN IN THE AMERICAS (L. Colonnese ed. 1970); J. FAWCETT, Tnz APPJ.ICATION OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN R1<a1TS ( 1969); F. Jacob, THE

EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RH:IITS (1975); MELANGES 0FFERTS A POI.VS MODINOS

(1968); C. MORRISON, THE DEVEl.OPIN<; EUROPEAN LAW OF HUMAN RIGHTS (1967); A.

SCHREIBER, THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS (1970); SECRETARIAT OF

THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, THE ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN

STATES AND HUMAN RIGHTS, 1960-1967 (1972); G. Wzn., THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON

HUMAN RIGHTS (1963).

Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 5

ri.ghts"-that is, into demands for effective participation in all cornmu­ ~Ity val~~ proces.s~s ~nd ~or wide sharing in all the values upon which ven ~1111mum civil liberties depend. 2 This history can be traced in the

changmg relation of the individual to the state: from the absolutist state t~rough the liberal or laissez-faire state to the welfare or socialist state W~th an increasing perception of political organization as an instrumen~ of all v'.:lues, and of the importan~e of government of, by, and for all people. ~rom demands for physical security and inviolability of the person, with freedom from cruel and inhuman treatment and freedom from arbit_rar( arrest and confinement, a progression may be noted to ~emands for free~o~ of conscience and religion, of opinion and expres­ s~on, and ?f associauon and assembly. 4 With the impact of industrializa­ ~Ion, massive concentration of wealth, sprawling urbanization, accelerat­ ~~g ~han.ge, and the attendant ills of exploitation, disparities in wealth

.1stnbu.t1on, unemployment, inadequate housing, medical care, educa­ tion, skills, and so on have come not unnaturally demands for fair and ~dequate wages, basic income, improved working and health conditions, ~~cess to education and ski.II acquisition, and protection against the az~rds of unemployment, sickness, old age, and the Iike.5 Diffe~ent peoples located in different parts of the world, conditioned

by va?m? cultural traditions and employing divergent modes of social o:gamzat10n, may of course assert these fundamental demands in many ~Ifferent modalities and nuances of institutional practice. There would appear, however, to be an overriding insistence, transcending all cul- tures and r I c imes, upon t ie greater production and wider distribution of

2 F D · 1 or an _excellent, succinct account, see Claude, The Classical Model or Human Right. eve opment C 'l .

3 S ·E, Ill OMPARATIVE HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note I, at 6-50.

M . . ee . BARKER, PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL AND PoJ.JTICAL THEORY 244-52 ( 195 ANNHFIM M S I); K.

4 S . ' , AN AND • OCIETY IN AN AGE OF RECONSTRUCTION 336 ( 1940).

r,. 'ee E. CORWIN, LIBERTY AGAINST GOVERNMENT ( 1948).

lnt~~r,:~~:i R. _MACIVER, DEMOCRACY AND TllE ECONOMIC CHAI.I.ENGE 29 ( 1952); Lasswell, The Po . oni 0/ World Orgrm1zat1im and Society, 55 YALE L.J. 889 ( 1946) reprinted ;, Ti

t.rcv SCIENCES I 02 (D I & ' · ' IE VELOPMFNT . ' •. .erner H. Lasswell eds. 1951). See also E. BARKER, Tm: DE-

STR .. ' OF PUIILIC SERVICES IN WESTERN EUROPE, 1660-1930 (1945); M. BEER, SOCIAi U<.<.1.t:s IN ANTIQUITY (1922)· M I' · · s ·

I' (' . . >F.ER,. OCIAI. STRUGGLES IN THE MIDDI FACES (1924)· '· •II.HERT T1 . E . . . ' • ,. ' HIE W. ' '.F, VO!.U I ION OF NATIONAi. INSURANCE IN GREAT BRITAIN: THE ORIGINS OF

El.FARE STATE ( 1966)· IN'I"ERNA"I"] l 0 s ING W , , • ONAL ,ABOUR FFICE, OCIAL POI.ICY IN A CHANG-

LAW l~RI.D: 1 HE ILO RESPONSE ( 1976) (Selected Speeches by Wilfred Jenks); c. JENKS CHAR,

1.1.YRF.FI>oM AND WELFARE 1-31, 101-36 ( 1963); j. RoMANYSllYN, SocIAL WEI.FARF'.

"IO JUSTICE (J<J7J)· S . . . " XIV-. I . . . •. OLIA!. WEUARE AND HUMAN RIGHTS: PROCEEDINCS OFT

I II NI ERNATIONAI C , . . . '· HE 18-24 1968 (1969 . ' ' ONFERENU, ON SOCIAL WELFARE, HELSINKI, FINI.AND, AUGUST

Soc1A; WFIFA •. )A. w. TRATTNER, FROM Poon LAW TO WEI.FARE STATE: A HISTORY OF . '· RE IN MERICA (1974)· E W · . T D Acr ( 1962). ' . I fTE, HE EVELO PM ENT OF THE SOCIAL SECURITY

6 Delimitation of the Problem

all basic values," accompanied by increasing recognition that a world public order of human dignity can tolerate wide differences in the spe­ cific practices by which values are shaped and shared, so long as all demands and practices are effectively appraised and accommodated in terms of common interest. The important fact is that the peoples of the world, whatever their differences in cultural traditions and styles of justification, are today increasingly demanding the enhanced protection of all those basic rights, commonly characterized in empirical reference as those of human dignity, by the processes of law in all the different communities of which they are members, including especially the inter­ national or world community. 7

6. For specification of the value terms with which we work, see H. LASSWELL & A._ KAPLAN, PowER AND SocIETY (1950); Lasswell & Holmberg, Toward a Generol Theory of Directed Value Accumulation and Institutional Development, in COMPARATIVE THEORIES OF So­ CIAL CHANca: 12 (H. Peter ed. I 966).

7. Thus, President Carter in his address to the United Nations stated: "The basic thrust of human affairs points toward a more universal demand for fundamental human rights." Peace, Arms Control, World Economic Progress, Human Rights: Basic Priorities of U.S. Foreign Policy, 76 DEP0T STATE Buu .. 329, 332 (1977); N.Y. Times, Mar. 18, 1977, at AIO, col. G 0cy~.). . .

For an abundant collection of expressions of the common demands of peoples for values across cultures and through time, see BmTHRH:1rr OF MAN supra note 1. On a more formal level, demands for all important values have been eloquently articulated and summarized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenants on Human Rights and their ancillary expressions, the regional human rights conventions, and the bills of rights embodied in various national constitutions. Useful compilations include: BASIC DOCUMENTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS (I. Brownlie ed. 1971); BASIC DOCUMENTS ON INTERNA­ TIONAL PROTECTION OF HUMAN Rrc.trrs (L. Sohn & T. Buergcnthal eds. 1973); UNITED NATIONS, HUMAN RIGHTS: A COMPILATION OF INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE UNITED NATIONS, U.N. Doc. ST/HR/I (1973). On a less formal level, see M. ADLER, THE COMMON SENSE OF POLITICS (1971); C. BAY,

THE STRUCTURE OF FREEDOM ( 1966); H. CANTRIL, THE PATTERN OF HUMAN CONCERNS '.H 5-22 (I 9G5); N. COHN, Tm: PURSUIT OF THE MILLENNIUM (rev. & expanded ed. 1970); R. FALK, A STUDY OF FUTURE WORLDS I 1-32 ( 1975); C. FEINBERG, Tim PROMETHEUS PROJECT: MANKINIJS SEARCH FOR LoNG-RANCa: GOALS (1968); K. Fox, SOCIAL INDICATORS AND So­ CIAL THEORY 8-28 (1974); E. HoBSl\AWM, Tm: Ace OF REVOLUTION, 1789-1848, at 81, 218-37, 278-79, 303, 327 (1962); B. MOORE, REFLECTIONS ON THE CAUSES OF HUMAN MISERY AND UPON CERTAIN PROPOSALS TO ELIMINATE THEM (I 972); Galtung, Towards Neto Indicators ofDeuelopmen], 8 FUTURES 26 I ( 1976); Toth, Human Rights and World Prace, in I RENt: CASSIN, supra note 1, at 362-82.

Ralph Linton characterizes demands for values in terms of "biological needs," "social needs," and "psychic needs." R. l.INTON, T11E STUDY OF MAN 394-96, 4 I 2-17 (I 937). In his words: "While human needs, in the abstract, arc probably constant, the forms in which they present themselves to the members of societies are rarely twice the same." Id. at 414.

In Abraham Maslow's postulation, the demands of human beings find expression in a hierarchy of needs, and the lower level needs must be fulfilled before the higher ones. Sa A. MASLOW, MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY, 97-104 (2d ed. 1970); A. MASLOW, Tm:

Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 7

THE RISING COMMON DEMANDS

For a systematic, though necessarily synoptic and impressionistic, re­ view of the empirical content of the demands commonly described as of "human rights," we offer an itemization in terms of the principal fea­ tures of a nurnber of representative value processes, believed to be in­ digenous in varying forms of equivalency in most contemporary cul­ tures. Because of its critical importance, we begin with the value of respect. When respect is conceived as the reciprocal honoring of free­ dom of choice about participation in value processes, it is an indispensa­ ble component and determinant in all human rights.8 With regard to each value, we itemize in comparable pattern:

DEMANDS RELATING TO RESPECT

For a fundamental freedom of choice for all individuals regarding participation in all value processes;

For an effective equality of opportunity that precludes discrimina­ tions based on race (color), sex, religion, political opinion, language, , or oth~~ grounds !1~relcvant tr~ capability, and <~ social ~nvironmcnt, j that affords conditions enablmg people to enjoy a wide range of 1 effective choice in their interactions with others; (

For distinctive recognition of preeminent contribution to the com­ mon interest;

For an aggregate pattern of social interactions in which all individu­ als and groups are protected in the utmost freedom of choice and subjected to the least possible coercion, governmental or private; For effective participation in the shaping and sharing of respect, both individually and through groups;

FARTHER REACllES OF HUMAN NATURE 299-:140, '.170-90 (I 97 I). We find it unnecessary and counter-productive to indulge in debate about a hierarchy in demands. It suffices to say that the overall trend is clearly toward demands for a wider shaping and sharing of all values.

In his book ENDS AND MEANS (19:17), Aldous Huxley observed: "About the ideal goal of hunian effort there exists in our civilization and, for nearly thirty centuries, there has _e,xisted, a very general agreement." Quoted in Reston, Tiu· Condition ofth» Press in llu: World .1,oday (I), 7 HUMAN RHans J. 59;1, 595 (I 974). Similarly, the late Secretary-General U I hant:

A gradual development is taking place within the United Nations of a common philos­ ophy regarding the right of every individual, without distinction as to race, sex, lan­ guage or religion, to secure respect for his dignity as a human being whether in the poln1cal and civil, or the economic, social and cultural fields.

Quoted in NOBEL SYMPOSIUM ON HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note I, at 267-68. 8. See chapter (i infra.

8 Delimitation of' the Problem

For freedom to acquire a demand for respect, with appropriate opportunity to discover latent capabilities and to exercise such capabilities; For freedom to establish and change identifications;

For opportunity to achieve realism in expectations; For freedom to initiate and constitute institutions specialized to re­ spect; For freedom of access to institutions specialized to respect; For freedom of access to institutions not specialized to respect;

For protection of respect even under conditions of crisis; For the availability of processes of authoritative decision and effec­ tive power to defend and fulfill respect; For special assistance to overcome handicaps not attributable to merit; For freedom to employ the different instruments of policy (diplo­ matic, ideological, economic, military) in the protection of respect; For freedom from imposition of disrespect by the use of the dif­ ferent instruments of policy; For freedom from forced labor and from imprisonment for debt; For freedom from terrorist activities and other acts of violence.

DEMANDS RELATING TO POWER

For recognition as a human being; For admission to group membership (nationality); For fullest participation in both the processes of government (in­ cluding voting and officeholding) and effective power; For freedom from discrimination in participation; For freedom to establish and join groups (including political parties, pressure groups, and private associations); For protection of minority associations; For freedom to change rulers of groups; For freedom to constitute a new entity; For freedom from coercion external to the group; For freedom to acquire a demand for power; For freedom of access to, movement within, and egress from terri­ tory (including asylum); For stability of expectations about continuation of rights;

Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 9

~or freedom to initiate and constitute power and other value institu­ tions:

~or freedom of access to adequate power and other value institu­ nons:

For freedom from deprivations disproportionate to crisis· Fm: the availability of processes of authoritative decision adequate t defend and fulfill all rights;

0

~or t~1e comparable availability of processes of effective power; For freedom to ~mploy the diplomatic and other instruments to enhance the shapmg and sharing of power;

F?r free?o~ from .arbitrary restrains in the employment of the diplomatic, ideological, economic, and military instruments of strategy;

~or freedom from coercive employment of the diplomatic and other mstruments;

For freedom from arbitrary seizure and confinement·

f(~r .the. maintena?ce of, and access to, adequate in~titutions for making ,md applymg law;

For protection of equality before the law;

~~:I the_ establi~hment and main.tenance of a community that effec­ f Y: 1 esp~rnsib_Iy, and responsively performs all essential decision unctions (mtelhgence pr · . . . .. . . . , orn otro n , prescnpnon, mvocation, appli- canon, term111at1on, and appraisal).

DEMANDS RELATING TO ENLIGHTENMENT

For achieveme t f · . f 1.

11 0 an opumum aggregate in the shaping and shar- mg o en ightenmenr (i th h · . m e gat enng, dissemination, and enjoy- ment of knowledge and information); For the 1· · · .: f · . rrovision o a basic enlightenment to all individuals· For adrlitir, I 1· ' • c ib . na access to en ightenment on the basis of capability and contn utron ; For general parti · . · · l . .

(k ' ICip,lti?n 111 t 1e g1v111g and receiving of enlighten-

ment nowledge and mformation); For freedom from d" .: · · . . . . . iscr 1mmat1on 111 the acquisition, use, and com- rnurucanon of knowledge and information; For group · · · · part1npat1on 111 opportunity to acquire and di .. knowledge; issemman-

For ~r.:edom to acquire the demand for enlightenment;

IO Delimitation of the Problem

For freedom from state or private conditioning; For freedom from distorted communications (misinformation); For disclosure of special interests; For freedom to initiate and constitute institutions specialized to en­ lightenment; For freedom of access to adequate enlightenment and other value institutions; For freedom from deprivations of enlightenment disproportionate to crisis; For the availability of processes of authoritative decision adequate to defend and fulfill demands for enlightenment; For the comparable availability of processes of effective power; For freedom to acquire and employ appropriate language; For freedom in both small group and mass communications; For freedom in the assembly of appropriate resources for en­ lightenment; For freedom from coerced deprivations of enlightenment (censor­ ship, indoctrination, distortion).

DEMANDS RELATING TO WELL-BEING

For an optimum aggregate in the shaping and sharing of well-being; For the right to life; For a basic minimum in safety, health, and comfort, and for additional opportunities in accordance with choice; For progress toward optimum somatic and psychological develop­ ment throughout life; For a merciful euthanasia (for freedom to depart or continue life); For general participation in the realization of bodily and mental health and development; For freedom from restrictions for reasons irrelevant to individual capabilities and contributions; For group survival and development; For an environment that is conducive to survival and development;

For freedom to initiate and constitute institutions specialized to

well-being; For freedom of access to adequate well-being and other value in­ stitutions;

Human Rights in Comprehrnsine Context 1 I

For the availability of processes of authoritative decision adequate to defend and fulfill demands for well-being;

For the comparable availability of processes of effective power; For being a beneficiary of pertinent science and technology; For the employment of appropriate strategics in relation to health for prevention, deterrence, restoration, rehabilitation, rcconst ruc­ tion, and correction;

For freedom from coerced experimentation and other deprivations; For freedom to accept or reject medical service;

For freedom to accept or reject transplantation and repair; For freedom to employ specific strategics in birth control; For the employment of genetic engineering.

DEMANDS RELATING TO WEALTH

For the maintenance of high levels of productivity;

For a basic minimum of benefits from the wealth process (guaran­ teed income, social security, abolition of poverty);

For the enjoyment of benefits on the basis of contribution; For general participation in wealth shaping and sharing (working, investing, employing resources, enjoying, etc.);

For freedom from restrictions irrelevant to capabilities for contribu­ tion;

For freedom of association in group shaping and sharing (produc­ ers, entrepreneurs, laborers, consumers, investors);

For freedom to acquire (or reject) a demand to participate in the wealth process;

For freedom to initiate and constitute, and freedom of access to, institutions specialized to wealth;

For freedom from deprivations of wealth disproportionate to crisis; For the availability of processes of authoritative decision and effec­ tive power to defend and fulfill wealth demands (including the right to property);

For freedom to accumulate and employ resources for productive purposes;

For freedom from wasteful use of resources;

For freedom to employ all relevant strategies, without coercion or discrimination, in production, conservation, distribution, and con­ sumpr_ion.

12 Delimitation of the Problem

DEMANDS RELATING TO SKILL

For an optimum aggregate in the acquisition and exercise of skills; For acquisition of a basic minimum of skills relevant to effective participation in all value processes; For additional acquisition in terms of talent and motivation; For unrestricted opportunity to acquire and exercise socially accept­ able skill;

For opportunity to have talent discovered;

For opportunity to acquire and exercise skill without discrimination; For accordance of skill to groups;

For acquisition of a demand for, and capability of, skill expression; For freedom to initiate and constitute, and freedom of access to, institutions specialized to skill; For the availability of processes of authoritative decision and effec­ tive power to defend and fulfill demands for the acquisition and exercise of skills;

For special assistance to overcome handicaps;

For exposure to training, both in content and method, appropriate to a culture of science and technology; For freedom from coercive strategies other than those inherent in compulsory education;

For exposure to a socialization process that enables the individual to acquire the motivations and capabilities appropriate to the perfor­ mance of adult roles in value processes.

DEMANDS RELATING TO AFFECTION

For an optimum aggregate in the shaping and sharing of affection (loyalties, positive sentiments); For the basic acceptance necessary for individuals to acquire the motivations and capabilities of functioning effectively in the shaping and sharing of values;

For additional affection in terms of capability and contribution; For giving and receiving affection on a reciprocal basis, free from restrictions irrelevant to capabilities;

For freedom to give and receive loyalty to groups of one's choice; For freedom of association;

For freedom to acquire (or reject) a demand to participate in the affection process;

Human Rights in Comprehensioe Context 13

For freedom to initiate and constitute intimate and congenial per­ sonal relationships;

For freedom of access to ·;1~stitutions specialized to affection (adop­ tion, legitimacy, proper spouse);

For recognition of membership in specialized groups; For the availability of processes of authoritative decision and effec­ tive power to defend and facilitate affection demand;

For freedom in the cultivation of positive sentiments and loyalty, free from coercive and discriminatory strategies.

DEMANDS RELATING TO RECTITUDE

For the maintenance of public and civic order in which individuals demand of themselves and others that they act responsibly for common interest;

For a minimum opportunity to receive positive evaluation of rec­ titude;

For movement toward a fuller participation of all in responsible conduct;

For freedom to participate in the formulation and application of standards of responsibility (religious and secular);

For freedom from discrimination in the shaping and sharing of rec­ titude;

For freedom of association for rectitude purposes;

For freedom to acquire a demand on the self to act responsibly; For freedom to choose among justifications of responsible conduct (secular and religious, transernpirical and empirical, etc.);

For freedom to initiate and constitute, and freedom of access to, institutions specialized to rectitude;

For the availability of processes of authoritative decision and effec­ tive power to defend and fulfill rectitude demands; For freedom to employ all relevant strategies, without coercion or discrimination, in the pursuit of rectitude.

INADEQUATE RESPONSES-DEPRIVATIONS AND NONFULFILLMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Al~ this cumulative upsurge in common demands for human rights has not, m common knowledge, been matched by the effective realization of s~ch rights in the public and civic orders about the world. The responses of both transnational and national processes of authoritative decision to these rising common demands have been most halting and inadequate.

14 Delimitation of the Problem

Whether one looks with difficulty back into the remote past or considers the more clearly recorded world picture of the last two hundred years, the condition of the great mass of peopl.~ in terms of the protection of their demands for values has not been gt~i'.L Even a cursory look at daily events on a global scale leaves no doubt, r.lrther, that nonfulfillment of human dignity values still characterizes all cultures and that large-scale deprivations of individuals and groups continue to prevail everywhere." Though the nature, scope, and magnitude of values at stake may differ from one community to another and from occasion to occasion, the nonfulfillments and deprivations encompass every value sector. We offer selective itemizations:

9. For example, the New York Times of Oct. 31, 1976, included the following headings: U.S. Stwly Links Rise in jobless to Deaths, Murders and Suicides, N.Y. Times, Oct. 31, 197G,

§ I, at I, col. I ; State Department Said to Have Urged Korea Inquiry in '75: lrwestigation of Park Tong Sun

Followed Testimony in Senate on Payment by Gulf Oil, id.; Protection ofAlaska's Wilderness New Priority of Conservationists, id.§ I, at I, col. 3; Human Rights Group Reports Repression. in South America, id. § I, at 3, col. 3; Lebanese Fight On as Factions Quarrel ova Peare Plan Terms, id. § I, at 3, col. I; Devaluation Adding to Mexico's Unrest, id. § I, at 4, col. I; China Pastas Link Le]! to Killing Plot, id. § I, at 7, col. I; Three Investigations liegun in Bizarre Tokyo Case Involving Miki, fl judge and a Midnight

Telephone Call, id. § I, at 8, col. I; India Puts Off Parliament Election, id. § I, at I 0, col. I; Indira Gandhi's Aunt Says She Is "Profoundl» Troubled" at Direction India is Taking, id. § I, at

I I, col. 2; Increase in Crime Worries Hunger», id. § I, at 12, col. 3; Thai Purge Results in Climate of Fear: With More Than 5,000 Arrested by the Military junta,

Roundups and Searches Continue Daily, id. § I, at 13, col. I; Separatists in Quebec May Profit as Popularity of Liberals Declines, id. § I, at 20, col. 3; Military Institute Told to Admit Girls, id. § I, at 25, col. I; Children's Rights Drive Centered in Courtroom, id. § I, at 2G, col. I; Louier East Side Churches Mobilize against Voudalism and Fires, id. § I, at 58, col. :~. In an unpublicized report to Congress, prepared in connection with the Foreign Assis­

tance Act of 1975, the Department of State indicated: "Repressive laws and actions, arbi­ trary arrest and prolonged detention, torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, unfair trials or other flagrant denials of rights of life, liberty and the security of the person are not extraordinary events in the world community." Id., Nov. 19, 1975, at 14, col. 7. Emphasizing that "[h]uman rights abuses follow no pattern," the report further pointed

out: "They are not limited to types of political regimes 01· political philosophies. Abuses take place in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. They are carried out by and against persons of virtually all races and major religions of the world." Id. The annual comparative survey of freedom (with country-by-country rating) under­

taken under the auspices of Freedom House is a valuable source of reference. See Gastil, The Comparative Survey of Freedom VI, 34 FREEDOM AT Issun 11 (I 97G). For previous surveys, see 29 FREEDOM AT ISSUE 5 (1975); 2G id. 15 (1974); l~ ut. 8 (IY"/4); 20 u. 14 (1973); 17 id. 4 (1973).

Human Ri[!;/ils tn. Comprehensive Context 15

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO RESPECT

Widespread denial of individual freedom of choice regarding par­ ticipation in value processes, including the comprehensive and sys­ tematic deprivations inherent in slavery, caste, apartheid, and equivalents; 10

Persistent discrimination on such invidious grounds as race (racism), sex (sexism), religion, political opinion, language, alienage, and age;11

Bestowal or withholding of horror (symbolic recognition) in disre­ gard of actual contribution to common interest;

Massive encroachments upon the zone of individual autonomy, especially privacy, as a consequence of the trends toward militariza­ tion, concentration of power, governmentalization, regimentation, and high bureaucratization; 12

Suppression of demands for respect by denying opportunity to dis­ cover latent capabilities for participation and to acquire and exercise such capabilities;

Denial of freedom to initiate and constitute, and of freedom of access to, institutions specialized to respect te.g., suppression of civil rights organizations); ia

Inability of processes of authoritative decision and effective power to defend and fulfill respect;

Controversies and difficulties about programs of affirmative ac­ tion; 14

, 10. Sa chapter 7 infra, at notes 27-78, 30:l-22, and :187-4:19, and accompanying text. 5ee generally Con/hrnce l ntrrnationalr de Dalwr .111r la Namilnr ti les Droits dr l'Hm11111t: d'hirra rlemain, 9 HUMAN RH a ITS J. 209 ( l 97G).

11. See chapters 8-15 infra. See also CASE STUDIES ON HUMAN RH:Jl"l"S AND FUNDAMENTAL FREt-:DOMs: A WORLD SURVEY (W. Vecnhoven ed. 1975) [hereinafter cited as CASE STunn:s]; E. Vrn1mAG, THE CoNct-:PT OF D1sc1uMINATION IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (197:l).

12. See chapter 16 infra,

. , Of a burgeoning lite1:ature concerning encroachments upon privacy, sre Z. MEllVEllEV, r HE M1mvEDEV PAPERS 293-4 70 (V. Rich trans. I 971 ); A. !\!Ju.ER, Tm: ASSAULT ON PRI­ VACY: COMPUTERS, DATA BANKS, AND Dossrrns (1971 ); PRIVACY AND HUMAN RH;llTS (A. Robertson ed. 1973); A. WESTIN, PRIVACY AND FREEDOM (1968); A. WESTIN & M. BAKER, DATA BANKS IN A FREE Soonerv: COMPUTERS, RECORD-KEEPING AND PRIVACY ( 1972). More detailed references are contained in chapter 16 infra. , I~. See, e.g., N.Y. Times, Apr. 19, 1975, at 7, .col. 2 (arrest of members of the small Soviet chapter of Amnesty International by the Soviet security police [KGB]). . , 14. The co~trove_rsy has generated extraordinary interest in the academic community, as well as proliferation of debate among legal commentators. See B. BITTKt-:R, THE CASE FOR BLACK 'REPARATIONS ( 1973); DE FUNIS VERSUS ODEGAARD AND THE UNIVERSITY OF

16 Delimitation of' the Problem

Widespread practices of forced labor, debt bondage, and so on;15

Occurrences or threats of terrorist activities endangering innocent people te.g., kidnapping, hijacking, terror bombs, etc.). rn

WASHIN(;T()N (A. Ginger ed. 1974); N. GLAZER, AFFIRMATIVE DISCRIMINATION: ETHNIC INEQUALITY AND PUBLIC POLICY (1975); R. O"NEII., DISCRIMINATING AGAINST DISCRIMINA­ TION ( 1975); Askin, Eliminating Racial Inequality in a Racist World, 2 C1v. Lrn. REV. 96 (Spring 1975); Bell, Black Students in White Schools: The Ordeal and the Opportunity, 1970 U. TOI .. L. REV. 539; Cohen, The De Furus C£L<e: Race and the Constitution, THE NATION, Feb. 8, I 975, at 135; De Funis Symposium, 75 CoLUM. L. REV. 483 (1975); Ely, The Constitutionality of Reverse Racial Discrimination, 41 U. Cm. L. REV. 723 (1974); Graglia, Special Admission of the "Culturally Deprived" to Law School, 119 U. PA. L. REV. 351 (1970); Kaplan, Equal justice in an Unequal World: Equality for the Negro-The Problem of Special Treatment, 61 Nw. U.L. REV. 363 (1966); Karst & Horowitz, Affirmative Action and Equal Protection, 60 VA. L. REV. 955 (1974); Morris, Equal Protection, Affirmative Action and Racial Preferences in Law Admission: DeFunis v. Odegaard, 49 WASH. L. REV. I (1973); O'Neill, Racial Preference and Higher Education: The Larger Context, 60 VA. L. REV. 925 (1974); O'Neill, Preferential Admissions: Equalizing the Access of Minority Groups to Higher Education, 80 YALE L.J. 699 ( 1971 ); Pelikan, Quality and Equality, N.Y. Times, Mar. 29, 1976, at 29, col. 2; Pollock, On Academic Quotas, id., Mar. 4, 197 5, at 33, col. 3; Posner, The DeFunis Case and the Constitutionality of Preferential Treatment of Racial Minorities, 1974 Sur. Gr. REV. I; Redish, Preferential Law Admissions, 22 U.C.L.A. L. REV. 343 (1974); "Reverse Discrimination": Has It Gone Too Far? U.S. NEWS & WORLD REPORT, Mar. 29, I 976, at 26-29; Rosen, Equalizing Access to Legal Education: Special Pro­ gramsfor Law Students Who Are Not Admissible by Traditional Standards, 1970 U. ToL. L. REV. 321; Sandalow, Racial Preferences in Higher Education: Political Responsibility and the judical Role, 42 U. Cm. L. REV. 653 (1975); Sowell, Black Conservative Dissents, N.Y. Times, Aug. 8, I 976, § 6 (Magazine), at 14-15 et seq.; Summers, Preferential Admissions: An Unreal Solution to a Real Problem, 1970 U. ToL. L. REV. 377; Symposiwn-DeFunis: The Road Not Taken, 60 VA. L. REV. 917 ( 1974); Symposium-Disadvantaged Students and Legal Education-Programs for Affirmative Action, 1970 U. ToL. L. REV. 277; Totenberg, Discriminating to End Discrimina­ tion, N.Y. Times, Apr. 14, 1974, § 6 (Magazine), at 9; Bakke v. The Regents of the Univ. of Cal., 18 Cal. 3d 34, 553 P.2d 1152, 132 Cal. Rptr. 680 (1976) (en bane), cert. granted, 97 S. Ct. I 098 ( 1977).

15. See c. GREENIDGE, SLAVERY 66-7:1 (1958); G. MYRDAL, ASIAN DRAMA: AN INQUIRY INTO THE POVERTY OF NATIONS 273-81, 745-49 (J 97) ); UNITED NATIONS & INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE, REPORT OF THE An Hoc CoMMI'ITEE ON FORCED LABOUR, U.N. Doc. E/2431 (1953); An Hoc COMMITTEE ON SI.AVERY AND SERVITUDE, FORMS OF INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE IN ASIA, OCEANIA AND AUSTRALIA, U.N. Doc. E/AC.33/R. I I (1951 ); Gullick, Debt Bondage in Malaya, in SLAVERY: A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE 51-57 (R. Winks ed. 1972); N.Y. Times, Oct. 5, 1973, at IO, col. I; id., Dec. 8, 1968, §I, at 7, col. I. 16. See J. AREY, THE SKY PIRATES (1972); c. BAUMANN, THE DIPLOMATIC KIDNAPPINGS:

A REVOLUTIONARY TACTIC OF URBAN TERRORISM (J973);J. BELL, TRANSNATIONAL TERROR ( 1975); INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM AND WORLD SECURITY (D. Carlton & C. Schaerf eds. 1975); R. CLUTTERIIUCK, LIVING WITH TERRORISM (1975); P. CLYDE, AN ANATOMY OF SKYJACKING ( J 973); R. GAUCHER, THE TERRORISTS: FROM TSARIST RUSSIA TO THE 0.A.S. (1968); E. HYAMS, TERRORISTS AND TERRORISM (1975); B. JENKINS, INTERNATIONAL TER­ RORISM: A NEW MODE OF CONFLICT (1975); REPORT OF THE An Hoc COMMITTEE ON INTER­ NATIONAL TERRORISM, 28 U.N. GAOR, Supp. (No. 28), U.N. Doc. A/9028 (1973); UNITED NATIONS, DEr'T OF Ecoxoxnc AND Soc1A1. AFFAIRS, FIFTH UNITED NATIONS CoNGRESs ON THE PREVENTION OF CRIME AND THE TREATMENT OF OFFENDERS, GENEVA, J-)2, SEPTEMBER 1975, at 1,3,15-16,52, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.56/10 (1976) (report prepared by the Sec-

Human Rights in Comprehensim. Context 17

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO POWER

Arbitrary denial or deprivation of nationality causing numerous unprotected, stateless persons; 17

r:>eni;'.J of full participation in the processes of government by exclu­ sion from voting and officeholding;18

!"f anipulation of elective machinery through various devices, mak­ mg elections a mockery of democracy;19

Suspension of elections in the guise of national emergency;20

retariat) [hereinafter cited as THE PREVENTION OF CRIME]; U.S. FEDERAL BUREAU OF IN­ VESTIGATION, NATIONAL BOMB DATA CENTER, BOMB SUMMARY: A COMPREHENSIVE REPORT OF INCIDENTS INVOLVING EXPLOSIVE AND INCENDIARY DEVICES IN THE NATION, 1974 ( J 975); Measures lo Prevent International Terrorism Which Endangers or Takes Innocent Hu.man Lives or Jeopardizes Fundamental Freedoms, and Study of the Underlying Causes o'f. Those Forms of Terrorism and Acts of Violence Which Lie in Misery, Frustration, (,ne\'.atKe and Despair and Which Cause Some People to Sacrifice Human Lives, lnclud­ lllg 1 heir Own, in an Attempt to Effect Radical Changes, 27 U.N. GAOR (Agenda Item ~2), U.N. Doc. A/C.G/418 (1972) (study prepared by the Secretariat); Alexander, Some 1 ersprrtio-, on lntrrnational Terrorism, 14 INT'L PROIILEMS 24 (Fall 1975); Around the Globe:

Outbrmki of Terror, U.S. NEWS & W<>RLD REPORT, Sept. 29, 1975, at 76-79; Franck & Lockwood, Prl'liminary Thoughts towards an International Convention on Terrorism, G8 AM. J. INT'L L 69 (1974)· H . I 7' ... H 1'1 . '

18 , ·,. '· • .owarc, erro~i1t.1. ow rieyOperateaWorldwuleNetwork,PARADE,.Jan. , '. I J7G, <It 12, j enkins, Do What lhey Ask and Don'/ Wony. TIU'y May Kill Mr but Thq Arr Not

l~vzl Men NY Times Oct 3 197" · t '3" I 2 R · Tl C' · · ' • • ·' • • , ~ .::>, d . :J, co . ; ov1ne, ie ontemporar» International 1:egal AUack on Terrorism, 3 ISRAEi. Y.B. HUMAN RIGHTS 9 (1973); Terrorism and Political

Crimes in l nternational Law, 1973 Pnor:., AM. Soc'y INT'1. L. 87; World Terrorism Flares Anew, ~.S. NE\vs.& WORLD REPORT, Mar. 17, 1975, at 25-26; N.Y. Times.July 16, 197G, at I, col. . (the anmng and training of world terrorists by Libyans); id., .July 23, I 976, at A2, col. 3 (unprovement of terrorists' techniques).

_I?· See the appendix infi·a, at notes 160-386 and accompanying text. I he denationalization and forcible exile on February J:l, 1974, of Alexander I. Sol­

~hen1tsyn by the Soviet Union for the publication in December I 97:l in the West of his book I llE Cm.Ac; ARCHH'ELA<;o, 1918-1956, is a most dramatic recent example. For further detail and pertinent references, .IN the appendix infra, at note 280. 30~8· >SI'/' H. SANTA ~RUZ, RACIAL DISCRIMINATION 45-48, U.N. Doc. E/CN.1/Sub. 2/ D .'_Rev. I ( 1971) lbcreinancr Cited as RACIAL DISCRIMINATION]; H. SANTA CRUZ, STUDY OF ISCRIMINATION IN THE MA'ITER OF Po1 ITICAI RIC HTS 26>-42 U N Doc L'/('N 4/S I 2/2 )/ . . , • ' ' . . . " ' ' ' LI l. L Rev. I (1962) [hereinafter cited as H. SANTA Cuuz]. For an attempt by ·1 Ii ·t' . I I 1· · I . · I ·1· . I ·

• ' · c c s 111gu1s rec po urea sciennst at c assi ymg anc raung countries (114 111 total) accord] " 1· ·1 ·1· · · · I · f . ' ' · mg lo e 1g1 )t Hy to paruopate me ectwns and degree of opportunity or public opposition," .\ff R. DAHL POLYARCHY: PARTICIPATION AND OPPOSITION 2'31-45 (1971 ). ' '

I 9. See, e.g., the practice of the Nationalist Chinese regime in Taiwan: L. CHEN & H I ASSWEI L F c . " ' · • ORMOSA, llINA AND THE UNITED NATIONS )32-36 ) 5) ) 64-65 J 70-73 251-53 275 77 . ' ' ' ' S ' - (1967); Axelbank, Chumg Kai-shek'.1 Silent Enemies, HARPER's MAGAZINE ept. 1963, at 46-53. '

120. See, ~.g., N.Y. Times, Oct. 31, 1976, §I, at IO, col. I (India)· id. Nov. 6 1976 ·it" co I (I d' )· 't , ' ' ' •' "• · n ta • 11

., Nov. 8, 1976, at I, col. I (India); id., Oct. 14, 1976, at 8, col. I (Thailand).

18 Delimitation o/ the Problem

Denial of full participation in the process of effective power because of disparities in the distribution of base values among members of the community;

Denial or severe restrictions on participation in the power process on invidious grounds, especially through intolerance of political nonconformists;

Prevalence of one-party rule, de jure or de facto;

Total suppression of opposition parties or toleration only of token opposition parties;

Denial or severe restrictions on freedom of association and assem­ bly; Suppression of minority groups;

Severe sanctions against efforts to change incumbent power elites or to form a new entity;

Denial or severe restrictions on freedom of access to, movement within, and egress from territory (e.g., emigration of minorities, restrictive immigration policies);21

21. Sa .J. I NG LES, STUDY OF DISCRIMINATION IN RESPECT OF THE RIGHT OF EVERYONE TO LEAVE ANY COUNTRY, INCLUDING His OwN, AND TO RETURN TO His COUNTRY 18-63, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub. 2/229/Rev. I (196'.I); Expulsion and Expatriation in l nternationol Lato: Thi' Right to Leaue, lo Stay, and to Return, 1973 Pnoo. AM. Soc'y INT'L L. 122-40; Higgins, Thi' Right in l nternational Law of an Individual to E11tn, Stay In and Lrau« a Countrv, 49 INT'L AFFAIRS 341 (I 973); Part sch, The Right to Lnml' awl to Return i11 the Countries oft ht Council of Europe, 5 ISRAEL Y.B. HUMAN RH;HTS 215 ( 1975); Pcttiti, The Right lo Lrau« and to Return. in the USSR, 5 lsRAEL Y.B. HUMAN RIGHTS 264 ( 1975); Plcnder, Thi' Ugandan Crisis and the Right of Expulsion under International Law, 9 REV. INT'L CoMM'N .JUIHSTS 19 (Dec. I 972); Silverstein, Emigration: A Policy Oriented l nquir», 2 SYRACUSE.J. INT'1. L. & CoM. 149 (1974); Toman, The Right lo Lcaue and to Return in Eastern Europe, 5 ls RAEL Y.B. I IUMAN RIC;HTS 27(i (1975); Weis, The Right lo L!'aVt' mu/ to Return in the Middle East, 5 lsRAEL Y.11. llUMAN RIC;11Ts 322 (1975); N.Y. Times, Nov. 19, 1976, at Al, col. 4 (restrictions on emigration to the West by East Germans); id., Dec. 2G, 1974, at 8, col. '.-l (the new internal passport system in the Soviet Union); id., Dec. 27, 1974, at 4, col. fi.

Recently, the principal focus of attention has centered upon the problem of emigration of Soviet Jews. See V. C11AI.IllZE, To lh:FEND THESE Rrcrrrs: HUMAN RIC;Irrs AND THE Sovucr UNION 92-114 ( 1974); W. KoREY, Tm: Sovncr CAC;E: ANTI-SEMITISM IN Russi» 184-200 ( 197:-l); Z. MEDVEDEV, snpra note 12, at 173-270; A. SAKHAROV, MY COUNTRY AND TllE WORLD 51-(i I (G. Daniels trans. I !J75); A. SAKHAROV, SAKHAROV SPEAKS 159-6'.l (H. Salisbury ed. 1974); T. TAYLOR, COURTS OF TERROR: Sovn.r CRIMINAI..JUSTICE AND JEWISH EMIGRATION (I !l7(i); Anti-Semitism and Rrpnsals ogoimt Jewish Emigration in the Soviet Union: /l('{/ri11g bejor» the Subcomm. on Internotional Organization, o/ the Hause Comm. on l uternational Relations, 94th Cong., 2d Scss. ( l 97G); Dinstein, Freedom of Emigration and Sooie! Jewry, 4 lsRAEI. Y.B. HUMAN RIGHTS 266 (1974); Higgins, ll11111m1 Right of Soviet Jews to Lrau«: Violations and Obstacles, 4 lsRAEI. Y.11. HUMAN RH;11Ts 275 (1974); Knisbachcr, Aliyah of Soinet j en»: Protection ofth« Right of1,·111igmtim1 Under Lutrrnational l rnr, 14 HARV. INT'!. I...J. 89 ( 197:-l); Peuiti, The Admiuistratiue Practice, the Measures Tohen and the Harassments AjljJfitd Following the Requestfor 11 Visa, 4 lsRAEI. Y.B. HUMAN R1c;i1Ts 288 (1974); Shroetcr, How

Human Rip;ht.1 in ComjJrehen.1ive Context 19

Mass expulsion of resident aliens (expulsion of Asians in Uganda);

Vast numbers of refugees fleeing persecution amidst deterioration of the practices of asylum;

Imposition of restrictions on freedom to initiate and constitute, and freedom of access to institutions specialized to power;22 Governmental institutions closed to free access;

Dep1 .. ivati~m or :uspension of important human rights through spurious mvocanon or abusive application of national security, as through declarations of martial law (state of siege);2:1

Thi')' I t•fi- Vrtr1· •11·, 1· ,. · t J ·1 1 · ·1 /' · '' S ' .. · . · t 1.1 o .>1n111·. ew1.11 '..\/ '.X/H'l'll'llU', ", OVIETJEw1s11 AFFAIRS :1 (1972); Vaz- quez, l he .Sm.111'.t Jnuish 1\1i11ority and !ht• Right to l,ml'I', 4 lsRAEI. Y.B. HUMAN RH;irrs 'l02 ( ~ !l7:1L N. :· l 1m~"· Feb. 17, I :l7(i, a'. fi, col. 2; id., Oct. 20, 197(i, at I, col. I; id., Oct. 22, I J7h, "t A2, col. :l; 11/., Oct. 2h, I 'l7b, at I 6, col. I.

A dramatic recent example of suppression of freedom to tr;l\·c] abroad is the denial of su~h ,fre"cdom .'o ,Andrei D. S;~kharov .hy the Soviet government for acceptance in person of the IJ7.i Nohel I cacc l'r11c. Se!' N.Y. l 1111cs, Oct. 11, 1~175, at 1, col. 2; id., Dec. 11, ]975, at 10, col. 1; u/., Dec. I :-l, 1975, at (i, col. '.l. 22. St•e C. FRIEDR1c11 & Z. BRZEZINSKI, ToTAI.;TARL\N D1cTATORSlllP AND At!T<><'" \C'"

27-'l'I (I qc 1) [I · · · · .n, · • · · ·. > icrcmaftcr clled as C. FRIEDRICll & Z. BRZEZINSKij; II. SANTA CRUZ, rn/mi

.note 18. Sr•e gtnl'mll\' lh:(;JMES AND OPPOSITIONS (R. Dahl ed. 197:1); AUTllORITARIAN l'OI 1- .1 tcs IN Mc~D~.RN SOCIETY: Tm·: DYNAMICS OF EsTABI.ISllED ONE-l'A1ny SYSTHts (S. 1111111- '.n~ton & C .. Moore eds. 1970). St•t also R. DA111., 111/m1 note 18; N.Y. Times, Dec. 'I 1974 ,11 h, col. l · 11/ June 1 O 1 q7c 8 · 1 I· · 1 J I • - · , ' .. ':·· •·>,,co. ,11 .•. 11yl:i,191h,atll,col.:l(fromthcstrictbanof P<'.h,tic;tl pa riles to legalization of political parties in Spain). .2;. INTERNATIONAL CoMM1ss10N oFJURISTs, Tin: lluNt;ARIAN SITUATION AND THE Ruu:

(H ,AW ( 1957); UNITED NATIONS, 1959 SEMINAR ON .JllDICIAI. AND 0TJIER REMEDIES '.\'.·AINST TllE l I.I.E(;AI. EXERCISE OR ABUSE OF ADMINISTRATIVE A lJTllORITY u N DO(' S"I'/ IAO/HR/C(l9CO· ... .. . . ' ...• A .. ' ,·' l .. UNIII·.D NA110Ns, R1·:~n:Dn.s AC;AINST TllE ABUSE OF ADMINISTRATIVE R UtHORITY, SEu:cu:D Snmn:s (19G4); Azad, A l,e/ll'r fi-0111 Mn. (;r111dhi's India T11F Nnv EPllBl.Ic Aug 7 & 14 I '17C · t I') 2'1 B I I /" . ' . .

R , ., · ' · >, ,t · - , ; Ill er, 'o 1/1ml Rt•/Jrl'ssion in SouthKorm-1974 I:I LV. INT'! COMM'N ]llRISTS '17 (1()-4) II I'' I . '

( , , ' ' . · · · · I ; 11111r111 ug 1/.1 Ill !ht• IVor/r/, Urng1u11•, I (i REV. l NT'1. ·<>MM N JURISTS 1 ') ')') (J 1 '17(') I 1· ' . Ny T' · · · · --- unc · >; 1111ra .1 Next /)ecadt, NEWSWEEK, Feb. ](i, ]97(i, at :17;

.1· · Illies, July 4, 1975, at 3, col. I (city ed.); id., Scf)I. 8 1975 at I col. I (htc citv cd )· 11 De· 2C l'l7" · ' ' ' ' • . ' ( 1·•1. <. '· · "·at I, col. I; 11/., Sept. 15, I 97fi, at 18, col. I; id., Nov. :1, l 97(i, at 45, rnl 8

11' 1a). But "''' K·111l I 1''1 · ·/ I' . · j· / ,. · · , . . .1 · ' , n • 111 1 •twon1 or I II' ,,/a/1• oj l'.mngn/l'\' An• /'.xj1/r111m/ 11nd /)eji·ndr•d u., July 28 J<)7r, ·11 ''I . 1 1 p. M' . . ', - . . , /) . ' · ' • ' - , co. ; 111111• '1111.1/n· l11dm1 (,r111d/11 Rts/}(Jnds lo Chmgt•s That n;wcmry 111 !11di11 I.I n,,od, SATURDAY REV., Aug. !l, 1975, at 10. ' I OJ ,1busc of 1>owcr 11nd · · · t 1· · 1 · · · · . .. I · er pre ext o nat1ona secunty 111 con11cct1011 w11h the V\latcrg-alc

SC.Ill( al S<'C W ATFR · · S I ·1 ''. . . (.An::' l'ECIAI. PROSECUTION h>RC:E REPOlff (Oct. 1!175) (containing 'l

< cta1 cd b1hhogrt)>I . f w- . , ' p .. ' 1} o dlcrgatc source materials at 2h5-7'.l); lfrarings and Final Rt'/"""'

111.i11a11t lo II Rn HOJ /.ti !" · (' I .. , , (I . . · · · . ' 0 II' 10u.11• ,0111111. 1111 I 1e Jwhnmy, 9'.ld Cong., 2d Scss. ( 1974) ( 1 ~~j~~·.tc~uncnt, Hca.rmg:). St•r• al.rn .J. lh:AN, BI.IND AMBITION: T11E W111n: HousE YEARS

( 1 "7,' ." JA\\OI{SKI, I in. R1c;11T AND THE PowER: T11E i'ROSECUTION oF WATFRc\·i·i· "h)· r R1 · , T , · " · vi ' ,. CHARDSoN, HE CREATIVE BALANCE: GovERNMEN'I, Po1.1T1cs, AND THE INDI- llllAI. IN A~n:RICA's THIRD CENTURY I -4 7 ( l 97G).

. Abuse .;lf governmental power is the common thread that runs through the comi><> ._ Itcexpcnen·, f 1 I · . • · s

· cc 0 t 1e < ccepl1ons which made possible the drift into Vietnam, the long

20 Delimitation of' the Problem Human Riglus in Comprehensioe Context 21

Subverting the normal civilian processes of government by decla­ rations of martial law (or state of siege);24

Inability of the processes of authoritative decision and effective power to defend and fulfill particular rih"hts;2:;

Total breakdown of the process of authoritative decision (no rule of law);21;

Oppressive or totalitarian character of the processes of authoritative decision and effective power;

Controversies about proportional representation or quota repre­ sentation in the power process;27

Monopolization by a particular "class" or caste of the processes of both authoritative decision and effective power, because of dis­ parities in the distribution of base values;

Imposition of arbitrary restraints upon the employment of the rele­ vant instruments of policy;

Prevalence of the reign of terror, as sustained by monopoly of the means of violence (secret police, military and para-military organi­ zations, etc.);

Widespread practices of arbitrary arrest, detention, imprisonment and torture;28

contempt for the law hy the Federal Bureau of Investigation under its late dircctor]. Edgar I loovcr, the persistent violations of its own charier and of fundamental civil liberties by the Central Intelligence Agency and similar transgressions by the Internal Revenue Service.

A bow thr Lato, N. Y. Times, Dec. 28, 1975, § 4, at I 0, col. I (editorial). Ser FINAL REPORT OF THE SENATE S1-:u:cr COMMITTEE To STUDY Covu{NMENTAL OPERATIONS WITH RESPECT TO INTELLI<;ENCE AcTIVITn:s, S. REP. No. 755, 94th Cong., 2d Sess. (1976); P. AGEE, INSIDE TllE COMPANY: CIA DIARY (197G); N. BLACKSTOCK, CotNTELPRo: Tin: FBl's SECRET WAR ON POI.ITICAL FREEDOM ( J 976); M. HALPERIN, THE LAWLESS STATE: THE CRIME OF THE U.S. INTELLI<;1·:NcE Aca:Ncms ( 1976); V. MARCHETTI & J. MARKS, Tm: CIA AND TllE Cui.r OF INTI·:LLH;ENCE (1974); REPORT TO THE i'RESlllENT BY THE COMMISSION ON CIA ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE UNITED STATES (June, 1975) (Rockefeller Commission Report); S. UN(;AR, FBI (I 976); Calamaro, Tiu· Way the Gtn.ernment Is Going, N.Y. Times, Mar. 17, 1976, al 41, col. 2; Donner, Electronic Surueilla nce: Thr Nntional Srcurit» Game, 2 C1v1L I.111. REV. 15-4 7 (Sum­ mer 1975); Halperin, National Securitv and Civil Liberties, 21 FoREJ(;N POI.ICY 125 (1975); Ungar, The Intelligence Tangle: The CIA and the FBI Fart' the Momrnl ofTruth, Tm: ATLANTIC, Apr. 1976, at'.{ 1-42; Snmm({ry o/Rorhe/dla /'({11,,/'s Cl.A. Report, N.Y. Times,June 11, 1975, al 18-20; id., Mar. 29, I 97G, at I, col. I (FBI's burglarization of the offices of the Socialist Workers Party ); id., June 27, I 97G, § I, at Hi, col. :l. 24. Se« genl'mlly J. HUREWITZ, MlllDI.E EAST Po1.1T1cs: THE Mtl.ITARY DIMENSION ( 1969);

M. JANow1Tz, T1rn M11.1TARY IN THE Po1.1TICA1. lh:VEI.OPMENT or NEw NATIONS (19G4); Tm: Ror.i: OF THE MII.ITARY IN UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES (I. Johnson ed. 1962); C. KENNEDY, THE Mtl.ITARY IN THE THIRD WORLD ( 1975) (containing an appendix on "Military Interventions in the Third World 1945-72," at :l:l7-44); Mtl.ITARY PROFESSION AND MtI.ITARY REGIMES (I. Van Doorn ed. 1969); Lerner, Militmy Rule=-Can It Sbarl: a New Latin Sel{Relim1a? SATURDAY REv./WoRI.D, Oct. 2:l, 197'.l, at 12-15.

St'I' also De Onis, Latin Amnim, the Growing Grrwryard/iir Democracies, N.Y. Times, Mar. 28, 1976, § 4, at I, col. 4; Human Rights in the World, Argentina, ](i REV. INT'!. CoMM'N .JURISTS 1-4 (June 1976); In l Oth Ymr, Brazil Regiml' Givl's No Sign of Restoring Civil Rule, N.Y. Times, Apr. 4, 197'.l, at 8, col. I (city cd.): Chile: The System ofMilitaryju.1/ice, 15 Rrv. INT'L CoMM'N .JURISTS I (Dec. I 975); The l,r•p;rd Svstem in Chill', 1'.I REV. Ixr'r. CoMM'N .JURISTS 45 (Dec. 1974); Zalaguetl, Human Rights in Chilt•, N.Y. Times, May 26, 1976, at ss, col. 2; Chile Groes Frer Rein lo Srcrr! Police, ul., May 12, 1975, at I, col. 5; Chill' Junia Rl'sisting Critics, id., Sept. 21, 1975, at I, col. :l; George, For Marcos, Thi' Lesser Drmga, FAR EASTERN EcoNOMIC REV., Jan. 8, I 97'.{, at 2'.{-25; Katten burg, Morcos Said They "Chose lo Stay" in Prison, N.Y. Times, July 24, 1974, at 41, col. I; Marcos Says Ht• Must Ket/J Martial L({W, id., June 17, 1974, at 7, col. I; Tro11b/1•sfi1r Marcos, id., July 5, 1974, at :l, col. I (city ed.); High Court in Phi/ijJjJines UjJholds Marcos'.1 Martial-Law lfrpjme, id., Feb. 2, 1975, § I, at 12, col. 4; M({rros Says Mar/ii/I Law Stmuls Des/Jite Gains, id., Aug. 28, 1976, at 2, col. 4; One Morr lnf(mt Dnnorrnry Dies in !hr• Cradle, T111-: ECONOMIST, Oct. 9, 1976, at 55 (Thailand); N.Y. Times, Oct. 7, 1976, at I, col. I (Thailand); id., Oct. 8, 1976, at Al, col. 2 (Thailand); id., Oct. 9, I 97G, at :l, col. 4 (Thailand); id., Oct. 2:l, 1976, at 2, col. :l (Thailand). 25. St•e INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF .JURISTS, JUSTICE ENSLAVED: A CoI.I.ECT!ON OF

DOCUMENTS ON THE ABUSE OF JUSTICE FOR PoI.ITICAI. ENDS ( 1955) [hereinafter cited as .JUSTICE ENSLAVED].

2fi. Sr•e H. ARENDT, Tin: OR1<;1Ns OF ToTAI.ITARIANISM ( 1958); B. CHAPMAN, PoucE STATE ( 1970); TOTAI.ITARIANISM (C. Friedrich ed. 1964); C. FRIEDRICH & Z. BRZEZINSKI, su/Jra note 22; F. HAYEK, Tim RoAD TO SERFDOM (1950); .J. TAI.MON, THE OR1c1Ns OF ToTAI.ITARlAN lh:MOCRACY ( 1960).

27. Sn! g1•11emlly J. LAPONCE, Tm: PROTECTION OF MINORITIES 111-:l] ( 1960). 28. See UNITED NATIONS, STUDY OF THE RH;IIT OF EVERYONE TO BE FREE FROM ARBI­

TRARY ARREST, DETENTION AND EXILE, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/826/Rev. I (I 9(i4); Frttdomfl·mn Arbitrary Arrtst, Detention ({lld Exill', [1955] Y.B. ON HUMAN RH;11Ts (United Nations) (!st Supp. Vol. I 959).

Sa also W. Bun.ER & G. LEVASSEUR, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE LEGAi. SYSTEM IN IRAN (I 97G); Hl'(/rings on Human Rights in South Korm: lmplimtionsjiJr U.S. Poliry hl'jiJre !hr Sub­ comms. on Asian and Pac~fir Aj{airs and on International Or~anizalions and !Hov<'ments of the House Comm. on Foreign Aff(lir.<, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. (1974); Amalrik, Arrest 011 Suspicion of Courage: Detention by the KGB, HARPER'S MA<;AZINE, Aug. 1976, at '.{7-44, 49-5(); Shelton, The Geogrn/Jhy ofDisgma: A World Survey o/Politiml Prisonen, SATURDAY REv./WoRI.D, June 15, I 974, al 14; N.Y. Times, Oct. 12, 1975, § I, at I, col. 2 (Ethiopia); id., Oct. JG, 197(), at I, col. 6 (Thailand); id., Oct. 21, I 976, at I, col. 2 (Thailand}; id., Nov. 22, 1975, at fi, col. '.{ (political prisoners around the world}.

For the recent tragic events, including the large-scale arrest and imprisonment of oppos­ ing political leaders in the name of national security and emergency, in India, once the world's most populous democracy, sre id., .June I :l, 1975, at I, col. I; id., .June 27, 1975, at I, col. 6; id., June 28, 1975, al I, col. 6; id., Aug. 5, 1975, at 10, col. :l. On perversion of judicial systems, see L. DOWNIE, .JUSTICE DENIED: THE CASE FOR

REFORM OF THE COURTS (] 972); C. GoODEI.I., POLITICAL PRISONERS IN AMERICA ( 197'.l); 0. KIRCIIHEIMER, POI.ITICAL .JUSTICE: THE USE OF LEGAL PROCEDURE FOR POLITICAL ENDS (1961); J. LIEBERMAN, How THE GOVERNMENT BREAKS THE LAW ( 1972); TtIF. TRIAL OF THE FouR: A CoI.I.ECTION OF MATERIALS ON THE CASE OF GALANSKOV, GtNZBURG, DoBROVOI.SKY & LASIIKO~~· 1967-68 (!'. Litvinov comp. & P. Reddaway ed. I 972); J. NEWFIELD, CRUEL AND UNUSUAL JUSTICE (1974); WITH .JUSTICE FOR SOME: AN INDICTMENT OF THE LAW BY

22 Delimitation of the Problem Hu111a11 Rights i11 Co111/neh1'11.1ivl' Co1111'xl

Subversion of the procedures of due process and of fair and public trial; Subjection of civilians to court-martial; Arbitrary arrest and detention of individuals, kept incommunicado, without the filing of charges; Widespread failure to establish and maintain community structures that effectively and responsibly perform all essential decision functions.

Unequal and limited opportunity m access to institutions of higher learniug;!" Wholesale indoctrination (thought control, brainwashing, condi­ tioning);"!

Deliberate fabrication and dissemination of misinformation (dis­ torted information), especially by the government; :12 Politicization of cnlightcumcnr.:"

Withholding or suppression of information essential to indepen­ dent appraisal of governmental policies and decisions:":'

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO ENLIGHTENMENT

Continuing high illiteracy rate in many communities around the world.?" l!lG!l-1971: l'twc;tu:ss ,\c111nTt> 1:-.: Ltri.u.vc:v TttROl'c;11ouT THE Woru.n (1!172); N.Y.

Times, Sept. ·1. 1 !175, at 12, col. '!. :10 . Sr« C. A~tMOUN, S'rrnv OF ll1sc:RtMINATION IN EtlllCATION 1-8!1, U.N. Doc. E/

CN.4/Suh. 2/181/Rev. 1 (1'157); Ec:oNO~llC:, Soc:tAt. AND Ct.:t.TllRAt. R1c;11Ts, .111/n11 note I, ;it 8 l -8(i. Se1· also HARVAtm ElllJCATIONAt. REVIEW, EQUAL EtHJCATIONAL OrrotnUNITY ( 1 !Hi!l); C. JENCKS, IN EQUAi.II v: A RL\sS>:ssMENT OF THE EFFECT oF FA~111.v AND Sc11001.IN<; IN AMERICA (] !J72). :~I. See ge111·1111/y T. Ct1EN, Tll(Hr<;11T R1·:t·OR~1 OF Tilt·: Ct1tNESE INTEl.l.EC:T!IAl.S ( 1 !HiO); A.

llAl.l.!N & C. llRt::st.AllER, l'ol.lTICAI. TEtrnoR IN CoM~ll!NIST Svsn:~1s (I !170); R. 1.nTON, T11ouc;11T R1·:FoR~1 AND 'rrn: Psvr.uor.or.v OF Tor.u.rs«: A STUDY OF "B1u1NwAsttIN<;" IN Ct1!NA (l!Hil); A. :\h:t·:RUHl, Tin: RAPE OF TllE Mrx n: Tin: Psvc.noi.oc.v OF T11ouc;11T CONTROi., MENTICIDE, AND BRAtNwAst11Nc; (l!l5(i); S. NEUMANN, l't·:R~IANENT Rr.vorurrov: ToTAl.ITARL\NISM IN TllE Ac;E OF INTERNATIONAi. Ct VII. WAR 20:")-2!1 (2d ed. 1 !l(i"i); w. SARt;ANT, llA·nu: FOR THE l\ltNll: A P11vs101.oc;v OF CoNVERstoN AND BRAtNWAs111Nc; (l!l57); T. Yu, MAss l'1·:RSUASION IN Co~tMUNIST Ct11NA (l!l!i-1).

32. Se1· D. Wrx«, Tt1E Pot.rrtr:s OF Lvrxr.: CovERN~IENT lh:c:EPTION, Sn:RECY, AND POWER (I !17:1).

3:\. For attempts hy the Third World nations to pool their gm·t·rm1"·nt-con1rolled news agencies in order to replace coverage by the existing major news gathering and disseminating organizations and lo liberate "information and mass media from the colonial legacy," .1t1• N.Y. Times.July 14, l 97(i, at'.\, rnl. 5. Ste 11/10 id., j an. 25, 1 !)7(i, * I, at I'.\, ml. I; id., Aug. 2, l 97(i, at 20, col. 4. For a reaction to such an attempt, 11•1• M11zzli11g th» Wor/11'.1 Press, Wall St. .J., July 2'1, l 97(i, at I 0, col. I (editorial).

:H. For vivid illustration, .11'1' II. Sxurn, Tm: RUSSIANS '.H·l-7·1 (l!l7(i). Smith obxc-rvr-s: :·The absence of such routine and obviously necessary information is t ypic.il. Russians take II as a fact of life that much of the information they need to know just to get along day hy day does not appear in their press." Id. al '.\4!i. Smith further states:

In the West, Soviet censorship has a reputation for suppressing had news like airplane crashes or political purges, or for turning Trotsky, Kh rushchcv, and other foes of the regime into nonpersons. But what is more important is that on behalf of the Soviet elite, the system of censorship suppresses the facts of life in many areas that seem to have no obvious connection with national security or the political secrets of Soviet rulers-and this cripples independent public discussion of almost any serious issue.

Id. at 3 7:1. The pro~·o~tnd consequence of withholding or suppressing information was explored bv

one of the nut hors many years ago:

YOUNG ADVOCATES (B. Wasserstein & M. Green eds. 1970); P. ZIMROTll, PERVERSIONS OF JUSTICE: Tt1E PROSECUTION AND AcQUl'ITAI. OF TllE PANTHER 2] (1974).

29. According to the Final Act of the International Conference on I luman Rights, adopted in Tehcran, "over 700 million persons in the world" were, in l 9(i8, "still illiterate." FINAL AcT or THE INTERNATIONAL CoNFERENCE ox HUMAN R1c;11Ts, T1·:t1ERAN, 22 APRIL TO 13 MAY ]!Hi8, at 12, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.32/41 (19G8). Acrnrding to a recent United Nations report:

The literacy situation varies considerably from one country to another; whereas in some countries a relatively high level of literacy has been achieved, in others, the existing low percentage of literates is not rising fast enough lo keep pace with the increase ill population. The over-all percentage of adults, i.e., persons of 15 years of age or over, who are illiterate declined from '.19 per cent in I !l(iO to 34 per cent in 1970 (table 140). The number of literate adults in the world rose by over 370 million. However, because the total adult population grew during the same period by some 420 million, the actual number of illiterates also increased by nearly 50 million. The illiteracy rate among females is higher than among males. The present male illiteracy rate is 28 per cent, whereas the female illiteracy rate stands at 40 per cent. The highest illiteracy rates are found in Africa (74 per cent) and the Arab States (73 per cent) followed by Asia (4 7 per cent) and Latin America (24 per cent) and this order has not changed between l 9(i0 and 1970.

UNITED NATIONS, Ih:t>'T or EcoNOMtc AND Socrxr. AFFAIRS, 1974 REPORT ON THE Wos r.n SoctAt. SITUATION 224-25, U.N. Doc. E/CN.5/512/Rev. I (ST/ESA/24) (1975) [hereinafter cited as I 974 REPORT ON TIU: WORLD SOCIAi. SITUATION]. See 11/.10 L. BROWN, IN THE HuMAN INTEREST: A STRATEc;y TO STABILIZE WoRLI> PoPULA­

TION 104-05 (1974) [hereinafter cited as IN Tm: HUMAN INTEREST]; L. BROWN, Wo ar.n WITHOUT BORDERS 11 (i (I 972) [hereinafter cited as WoRl.ll WITllOUT BORDERS]; LITERACY IN TRADITIONAi. SOCIETIES U· Goody ed. J!)(i8); B. RusSETT, H. At.KER, K. DEUTSCH, & H. LASSWELi., Woui.n HANIJllOOK OF PoLITICAI. AND SOCIAi. INDICATORS 22 l -2(i (I !)(i4) [here­ inafter cited as B. RUSSETT, et al.]; c. TAYLOR & M. llUIJSON, WoRI.D HANDBOOK OF PoLITICAI. AND SOCIAi. INDICATORS :~23-35 (2d ed. 1972) [hereinafter cited as C. TA YI.OR & M. HtmsoNj; UNITED NATIONS, Ih:t>'T oF EcoNOMIC AND Soc1A1. AFFAIRS, 1970 REPORT ON TllE WoRLIJ SOCIAL SITUATION 198-9!1, U.N. Doc. E/CN.5/45G/Rev. I (ST/SOA/I 10) (I !l7 l) [hereinafter cited as 1970 REPORT ON THE WORLD SoCIAI. SITUATION]; UNESCO, LITERACY

24 Delimitation ol the Problem Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 25

Dissemination of information calculated to win blind public support rather than create public enlightenment;

Monopoly of the instruments of public enlightenment (the media of mass communication) by the ruling power elites.:" Politicization and governmental domination of universities and de­ nial of academic freedom.?"

Exce~sive concentration in private ownership of the instruments of mass communication;

Systematic undertaking of drastic measures to curb freedom of opinions and expression (freedom to acquire, use, and communi­ cate knowledge and information) under the pretext of national se­ curity and internal order;37

Exploitation of the process of authoritative decision to support and defend practices suppressing freedom of expression.:'" Suppression of nondominant languages;3!l

Keeping people ignorant and content, by severe restrictions on travel abroad and contact with foreigners, and by constant surveil­ lance, jamming of transnational radio broadcasting and control over access to foreign publications (books, periodicals and dailiesjr!? Suppression of dissenters and nonconformists through coercive measures;41

Manipulated standardization (requisitioning) of taste and style to suppress diversity and innovation;42 Widespread practices of censorship. 43

40. See, e.g., N.Y. Times, Sept. 28, 1975, § I, at 23, col. I (Soviet curbs on import of Western publications). 41. Such activities are increasingly carried out transnationally as well as internally. For

~ransnational operations by South Korean governmental agents against Koreans residing in the United States and against Korean-Americans, see id., Oct. 29, 1976, at A I, col. 3; id., Oct. 30, I 976, at I, col. 2. For coercive suppression of dissidents within South Korea, see Falk, Seoul's Repression, id., Apr. 25, 1976, § 4, at I 5, col. 2; Kim, From a Seoul Prison, id., Dec. 17, 197 5, at 45, col. 3; 25 Ymrs after W(lr South Korea Mixes Progress mu/ Repression, id., Jun~ 25, I 975, at I 0, col. I; Curbs Are Tighter on South Korrans, id., Sept. 22, 1975, at I, col. 4; I I Crztics of Regime Arr Seized in Seoul, id., Mar. I I, 1976, at I, col. I; South Korea Dissidents Tel/ of Threats and Fear in Days ofNonstop Grilling by lntelligencr Agents, id., Mar. 12, 1976, at ~·col. I; SouthKorm Begins Trial of I 8 OjJ/Josition Leaders, id., May 5, I 976, at 3, col. 5; I 2 in Clergy Are Reported Det(lined in South Korea, id., June 25, 1976, at A3, col. 3; Seoul Adamant over Dissidents, id., Aug. 23, 1976, at 7, col. I; Seoul Sentences Expected to Intimidate Park's Foes, ul., Aug. 29, 1976, § I, at 3, col. I. c Regarding India, see Borders, India's Usual Dissenters Fall Silent, id., Aug. I 0, 1975, § 4, at 3• col. 3; X, Dismay in India, id., Apr. 9, 1976, at 37, col. 2; id., July 5, 1975, at I col 4· id M·1 26 , . , ., 'Y , I 976, at I, col. I; id., Aug. 25, I 976, at 4, col. 4 . . , See also C. Ih:LFRAGE, Tm: AMERICAN INQUISITION, I 945-1960 ( 1973); THIRTY YEARS OF I RFASON E . · · : XCERPTs FROM HEARINGS BEFORE THE House CoMMI'ITEE ON UN-AMERICAN AcnvrrIEs, 1938-1968 (E. Bentley ed. 1971); C. Mm, THE INTERNMENT OF SOVIET D1s­ SENTERs IN MENTAL HOSPITALS (1971); Jacoby & Astracham, Souiet Dissent: An Ebb Tide, ~ORLD, June 19, 1973, at 13-19; Human Rights in the World, Yugoslauia, 16 REV. INT'L

_0M~'N JURISTS 17-19 (june 1976); N.Y. Times, May 10, 1976, at 7, col. I (city ed.) ~mpnsonment of journalists in seventeen countries); East Germany Tightening Curbs, But (l·isside:its Say They'll Fight On, u., Nov. 30, 1976, at 3, col. 2; id., Sept. 16, 1974, at I, col. 5 ~te ctty ed.) (disruption of a nonconformist modern art show by the Soviet government t rough bulldozers, dump trucks and water-spraying trucks); id., Sept. 14, 1975, § I, at 15, ~ol. .1 (~rrest of/~nc~rei Amalrik, a dissident writer, by the Soviet police); id., Oct. IO, 1976, . 1'

at 3, col. 4 (I hailand): id., Feb. 16, 1975, § I, at 12, col. 3 (purge of academic dissidents rn Yugoslavia).

C 42. This has been most vividly illustrated by Mao's China. See A. SAKHAROV, PROGRESS, [hOEX.ISTENCE,_ AND INTELLECTUAL FREEDOM 59-62 (The New York Times trans. 1968) ereinafter cited as A. SAKHAROV]. 43 "A · recent study of the world's press has concluded that only 16 of the 132 nations

~ow represented in the United Nations have a press that can be said to be 'free to a

5 egree."' Restort, The Condition of the Press in the World Today (I), 7 HUMAN RtGHTSJ 593 96(1974). . '

Cut off from the means by which statements can be tested in reality, cut off from the quickening support of institutions of genuine inquiry, independent minds are cast adrift from their moorings. They are no longer in a position to exercise the kind of criticisms which they themselves most respect; for mature independent minds respect information and inquiry. The impoverished pabulum available to the ego first weakens the ego and typically ends in transforming the conscience. The ego is con­ strained to admit that given the miserable sources of current intelligence, the indi­ vidual has little more than his suspicions to contribute to the consideration of public policy. And the coercive menaces of the ruling regime provide strong incentives against speaking up and demanding wider access to intelligence sources.

Lasswell, Propaeanda and Mass Insecurity, in PERSONALITY AND POI.ITICAL CRISIS 21 (A. Stanton & E. Perry eds. 1951 ). 35. Needless to say, totalitarian regimes distinguish themselves by monopolizing the

media of mass communication. See C. FRIEDRICH & Z. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 22, at I 07- 17; F. Houx, To CHANGE A NATION ( 1961) (China); A. INKELES, Pu111.1c OPINION IN SOVIET RUSSIA 150-56 ( 1951 ); B. MURTY, PROPAGANDA AND WORLD Pu111.1c ORDER: THE LEGAL REGULATION OF TIIE IDEOLOGICAL INSTRUMENT OF COERCION 39-44 ( J 968); TIIE l'RESs IN AUTIIORITAIHAN COUNTRIES 28-43 (International Press Institute Survey No. 5, 1959). 36. See, e.g., Human Rights in the World, Uruguay, 16 REV. INT'L CoMM'N JURISTS 19-22

Oune 1976); 400 Profrssors Ousted in Korea: Seoul Forces Resignations or Dismissals under New Tenure Laui, N.Y. Times, Mar. 14, 1976, § I, at I, col. 2; id., Nov. 30, 1976, at I, col. I (Latin American universities). 37. See, e.g., Irani, The Indian Press wider Pressure, 30 FREEDOM AT ISSUE 7 (I 975). See also

notes 23-24 supra. 38. See N.Y. Times,June 2, 1974, §I, at 18, col. I (Singapore); id., Sept. 6, 1974, at 8,

col. 4 (Peru); id., Apr. 11, 1976, § I, at 2, col.'.{ (Nigeria); id., Aug. 15, 1976, § I, at I, col. 3 (South Africa); id., Oct. 26, 1975, § I, at 14, col. 4 (Latin America).

'.19. See chapter 13 in/iH, at notes 2-18 and accompanying text. See (l/.rn Spanish Region< Bitter at Ruling on Lan1,'1lages, N.Y. Times, Nov. 17, 1975, at I, col. 6; Seoul, to "Purify" Language, Acts agaimt Foreign Words, id., May 21, 1976, at A6, col. 4.

26 Delimitation of the Problem Human Rights in Comprehensioe Context 27

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO WELL-BEING Inadequate prov1s10n for safety, health, and comfort; Unhealthy psychosomatic development because of malnutrition-s? Recurrences of communicable diseases in parts of the world r'" High incidences of mental and emotional disturbances in stress­ laden societics.''"

Intense anxieties generated by threats of violence, both large-scale and small-scale;

I_ndiscriminate mass killings in armed conflict and other situa­ tions;"0

Deliberate destruction of group members (genocide);"1

Persistence of human misery from disease and hunger (starva­ tion);44

High mortality rate and low life expectancy 111 many parts of the world ;"? Frequent occurrences of death by violence; Continued employment of death penalty."

See A. SAKHAROV, supra note 42, at 62-65; Press Freedom 1970-1975, 16 RJ<:v. INT'L CoMM'N JURISTS 45 (jurie I 976) (covering many countries); Human Rights in the World, Brazil, id., at 7.

Regarding India, see Censorship in India: Grim Editors, Liieless Popers, N.Y. Times, July 3, 1975, at 4, col. 5; Indian Censorship Upsets U.S. P1P.1.1, ul., July 22, 1975, at 7, col. I; l ndia Parliament AfJ/JroVl'.I Curbs, ul., July 24, I 975, at I, col. 7; India Seeking to Tighten Control over the Press, id., Dec. 21, 197 5, § I, at I, col. I; Permanent Censorship AfJjJroved in Indian Parliament, id., Jan. 30, I 97(i, at 3, col. 5.

44. See C. BoRcSTROM, THE HuN<:RY Pl.ANET: Tim MODERN WoRLD AT THE Erx.r; OF FAMINE (rev. ed. 1970); C. BoRc:sTROM, Too MANY: A STUDY OF EARTII's BIOLoc;1cAL LIMITATIONS (1969); L. BROWN, BY BREAD ALONE ( 1974); .J. SllEPIIERD, Tm: POLITICS OF STARVATION ( 1975); A. SIMON, BREAD FOR TIIE WORLD ( 1975); TRANSNATIONAi. INSTITUTE, WoRLD HuNc;ER: CAUSES AND REMEllIES (1974); Africa's Other Crisis: l~thiof1ia'.1 Right to Famine, TIIE INTERDEPENDENT, Feb. I 97G, at I et snr; Forecast: Famine? CIA Re/Jori, TIME, May 17, 1976, at 85 et seq.; .Johnson, Hunger: A Historical Perspective, THE INTERDEPENDENT, Apr. 1975, at I,'.~; Rothschild, Food Politics, 54 FoREICN AFFAIRS 285 (1976).

See also Maloney, Tiu: Ghost of Malthus in South Asia, N.Y. Times, Feb. 14, 1974, at 41, col. I; Murphy, Starving Children and the Catholic Church, id., May 31, 1974, at 33, col. 2; Rensberger, 32 Nations Close to Starvation, ul., Oct. 20, 1974, § 4, at 4, col. I; Silver, Sub-Sahara Africa Waits/in Hrl/1, id., Sept. 22, 1974, § 4, at 17, col. I; Weinraub, Bangladesh, The Hungriest of Them All, id., Dec. 29, 1974, § 4, at 4, col. 4 (city ed.); 1-Hunga in America, id., July 8, 1974, at 28, col. I (editorial); II-Hunger in the World, ul., July 9, 1974, at 36, col. I; Ethiopian Famine Hits Millions, id., Feb. 15, 1974, at I, col. 2; Food an Obsession in Mis1'l)'­ Ridden Calcutt", ul., Sept. 5, 1974, at '.19, col. I; ul., Sept. 19, 1974, at I, col. 6; Ba11gl111/e.1h Is Faced with Large-Scale Deaths [rom Staroation, id., Oct. 11, 1974, at 3, col. I; An,t,'11i.1h of the Hunm» Spre"ding Across India, id., Oct. 27, 1974, § I, at I, col. 5 (city ed.); World Food Crisis: Basic W!/ys of Lije Face Uphcaual, ul., Nov. 5, 1974, at I, col. '.\.

45. See B. RUSSETT, ct al., supra note 29, at 196-201; C. TAYLOR & M. llUDS()N, .111/Jl'll

note 29, at 253-55. 16. See TIIE DEATH PENAi.TY IN AMERICA: AN ANTIIOI.O(;y (H. Bcdau ed. rev. ed. 19G7);

C. BLACK,.JR., CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: THE INEVITABILITY OF CAPRICE AND MISTAKE ( 1974 ); THE HANGIN(; QUESTION: ESSAYS ON THE DEATH PENAi.TY (L Blom-Cooper ed. 1969); CANADA, DEPT. OF JUSTICE, CAPITAi. i'UNISIIMENT: NEW MATERIAi.: 1965-1972 (1972); B. COHEN, LAW WITHOUT ORDER: CAPITAi. J'UNISIIMENT AND TIIE LIIIERAl.S (1970); E. FATTAll, A STUDY OF Tiiie DETERRENT EFFECT OF CAPITAL PuNISHMENT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TIIE CANADIAN SITUATION ( 1972); Tm: PENAi.TY Is DEATH (B. Jones comp. 1968); .J. JOYCE, CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: A WoRLD VIEW ( 196 I); J. McCAFFERTY, CAPITAL PuN1s11MENT (1972); M. MELTSNER, CRUEi. AND UNUSUAL: THE SUPREME COURT AND CAPITAL PUNISH­ MENT (197'.1); CAPITAi. PUNISHMENT (J". Sellin ed. I 9G7); N. ST. JOIIN-Sn:VAS, TIIE RIGHT TO LIFE (19G4); Bcdau, Problem of Capital Punishment, 71 CURRENT HISTORY 14 (1976); Deaili Penalt» Rebounds, THE INTERDEPENDENT, Mar. 1976, at I, 6.

47.· Protein malnutrition is an important cause of infant and young child mortality, stunted physical growth, low work output, premature aging and reduced life span in the developing world. Recent research has also revealed a link between malnutrition in mfancy and early childhood and impaired learning and behaviour in later life. The widespread occurrence of protein malnutrition especially among infants, pre-school dnldrcn, and cxpectanI and nursing mothers in many developing· nations spells grave :''.111ger to the full expression. of the genetic potential of the population of large ·Ct.lions of the world commumt y,

UNITFD NATIO . l) . ,. s A s . . . NS, EP T OF ',(X)NOMIC AND, OCIAL FFAIRS, , TRATE(;y STATEMENT ON Ac- :. ION To Av1·:1n THE P1wTEIN CR1s1s IN THE Ih:VEl.OPINC; CouNTRIES 7, U.N. Doc. E/ .iOJ8/Rcv. I (ST/ECA/144) (1971). s,,,, F (I 'l7 . OOD,AND AcRICUl.TURE 0Rc;ANIZATION, LIVES IN PERIL: PROTEIN AND THE Cirn.n

1 if., O), I :17" Rf.PORT ON THE WoRI.D Soc I Al. SITUATION,.111/·'.ra note 2. 9, at. 21 I -12; f lungtr'.i -rlongl'.jfect1 NY T · M· ,r. 1974 "4 · " ·I"· \11 .·· I · W _1 ... ·.. ·, . . Imes, ·'} .J, , , ' , dt ,J, co .. >, 1 · " 1111/11/ron .1 UjJ Sitar/JI\' 111110111!; ~'8"·1 .Cluldre11, id., Oct. G, 1974, *I, at I, col. (i. - ' (. Sei· 1970 RI·.l'ORT ON TIIE WoRI.D SOCIAi. SITUATION, .111/Jrll note 29, at l(i4-(i7.

R 4J. I 971 REPORT ON THE Wo1u.D Soc1A1. Snt1ATION, .111/"" note 2!J, at 221-22. The cpon Indicates:

Thc.c:onflicts and contradictions inherent in rapid social change, urbanization and the difhcuhics i11 adapting to the urban style of life, crowding, the increased pace and s.ticss of hfc, changing social structures and a growing proportion of old persons arc Liuors responsible for an increasingly heavy toll of mental disorders in the developed and dcvclopi11g world.

Id. at 221. 5o. Si'e e i; J C ·· · · II 1\1 · · · I Ts . ' ·, ., . · .01.Ds1 I·.IN, . , ARSIIAl.I., & .J. Sc:11wAI<TZ, I HE MY LAt 1\IASSAC:I<E AND . Cov1m-up· llFYON . . . R. . . I - (I <)7(" c· ·1· . & '1 29. . . D III>. J-.,\(.11 ()!< ,Awe . l); " ,\\I.OR . ". lltmsoN, 111/m1 no]('

2C),I "'. 1,10,-15; Emerson, Tht F(l/t of H111111111 Nights i11 tht Third World, 27 WORLD Pm.nic:s

197·. 213-21 (I 975); A1gl'llti11e Extrnnists Ki/146 i11 2 i\111.1.1 l'.0.vrnti1111.1, N. Y. Times At"' 'JI

· 6, at I, col. I. ' ,.,. - '

r 5 ! · Undoubtedly the Third Reich remains the archetype of genocide, hut events of the eccnt ye·irs T'I I l . ,. . . B· I ' · 111 I >ct, IH onesia, N1gcna, Burundi, Rwanda, East Pakistan (iwi, •ll1g adcsh) ti ]\f' l 11 v l . ' a thin f: • 1e. IC ' c .cast, anc other areas suggest that genocidal prauices arc far from

·r· g 0 the 1fa,1. sl'I' c. Ac;uo1.u, llIAFRA: ITs CASE FOR INllEPFNDFN('F (I 9G9)· N AKI' I HE STRU(T - . S _. . . . . ' ' , · • N, p . '·Lf. HJR' ECESS!ON, 196b-1970 (1972); M. BOWEN C. FRH:MAN & K M . ASSINc By· T U . . ' , . ' 11.1.f.R,

' · !IE NITED STATES AND (;ENOC]])E IN l\URUNlll, 1972 ( 197!\); L. DA WIDOWICZ

28 Delimitation of the Problem Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 29

Globalization of torture as a deliberate instrument of policy;"2 Inadequate medical care and services, especially for the handi­ capped and the aged;"a Poor and overcrowded housing and other living conditions te.g., poor sanitation) ;54

Deterioration of the environment that endangers health and human survival (ecocide);"" Unequal access to the benefits of modern medical science and technology; Inability to anticipate and cope with natural disasters.?" Inadequacy in community performance of the tasks of prevention, deterrence, restoration, rehabilitation, reconstruction, and correc­ tion in regard to well-being';" Human experimentation without informed consent;58

THE WAR AGAINST THE JEWS, 19:13-1945 (1975); R. HH.BER<;, THE DESTRUCTION OF THE EUROPEAN JEWS ( 1967); R. HH.BERG, DOCUMENTS OF DESTRUCTION: GERMANY AND JEWRY 1933-1945 (1971); A. KIRK-GREENE, CRISIS AND CONFLICT IN NIGERIA (1971); J 0YNIBO, NH;ERIA: CRISIS AND BEYOND (197 J ); J !'AUST & A. BLAUSTEIN, WAR CRIMES TRIALS AND HUMAN Rrc.rrrs: T111-: CASE OF BANGLADESH ( 1974); THE SECRETARIAT OF THE INTERNA­ TIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS, THE EVENTS IN EAST PAKISTAN, 197 I ( 1972); S. SLOAN, A STUDY IN POLITICAL VIOLENCE: Trn: INDONESIAN EXPERIENCE 13 (1971 ); Melady, Death in Burundi, and U.S. Power, N.Y. Times, Oct. 27, 1974, § 4, at 17, col. 3; Salzberg, U.N. Prevention o] Human Rights Violations: The Bangladesh Case, 27 INT'L 01u;. 115 ( 197:1).

52. Amnesty International has rendered important contributions in undertaking a world survey of torture and exposing the growing barbarism of contemporary practices country by country. See AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, ANNUAL REPORT, 1974-75 (1975); AM­ NESTY INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON TORTURE ( 1975).

See Hearings on Human Rights in Chile before the Subcomm. on Inter-American Affiiirs and on International Orgrmiwtions and Movements of the Home Comm. on Foreign Affairs, 9'.1d Cong., 2d Sess. (1974); Hearing on Torture and 0/Jfm:ssion in Brazil before the Subcomm. on Interna­ tional Orgrmiwtions and Movements ofthe House Comm. on Foreign Affairs, 93d Cong., 2d Sess. (1974); Baraheni, Terror in Iran, N.Y. REv. Booxs, Oct. 28, 1976, at 21-25; Buckley, Colonels' Torture: Use in Greece, NATIONAL REV., July 23, 1976, at 803; Colligan, New Science of Torture, SCIENCE DIGEST, July 1976, at 44-49; Dolan & van den Assum, Torture and the 5th UN Congress on Crime Prevention, 14 REV. INT'L CoMM'N JURISTS 55 Uune 1975); Human Rights in the World: Torture Continues, 10 REV. INT'L CoMM'N JURISTS 10 Uune 1973); Lawyers again»; Torture, Hi REV. INT'L CoMM'N JURISTS 29 Uune 1976); McCarthy, Complicity in Torture, 103 CoMMONWEALTll 200 (1976); Styron, Torture in Chile, THE NF.w REPUBLIC, Mar. 20, I 97(i, at 15-17; Styron, Uruguay: The Oriental Republic, THE NATION, Aug. 14, 1976, at I 07-1 I; Torture as Policy: The Network of Evil, TIME, Aug. 16, 1976, at 31-34.

See also Baraheni, Torture in Iran: It Is a Hell Made by One Manfor Another Man, N.Y. Times, Apr. 21, l 97G, at 37, col. 2; Laber, Torture and Death in Uruguay, id., Mar. 10, 1976, at 39, col. I; Lewis, The Meaning of Torture, id., May 30, 1974, at 37, col. 5; Majuda, Torture and Harnssmrnt in Brazil, id., July 11, 1975, at 29, col. 2; Solomon, Torture in Spain, id., Nov. 25, 1974, at '.H, col. 2; id., Nov. 4, 1974, at 2, col. 4 (Brazil); ul., Nov. 20, I 976, at I, col. I (Brazil); id., July 28, 1974, § I, at 2, col. 3 (Chile); id., Sept. 11, 1974, at I 5, col. I (Chile); id., Oct. 24, I 974, at 11, col. I (Chile); id., Dec. I 0, 1974, at 8, col. 3 (Chile); id., Oct. 19, 1975, § I, at :1, col. 4 (Chile); id., June 8, 1976, at I, col. I (Chile); id., Feb. 29, I 976, § I, at 5, col. I (Iran); id., Sept. :-1, 1976, at A4, col. 6 (finding by the European Commission on Human Rights that the British government was guilty of torturing suspected terrorists in Northern Ireland in 1971).

5:-1. See 1974 REPORT ON THE WoRLD SocIAL SrrUATION, supra note 29, at 218-20. 54. See id., al 232-35; UNITED NATIONS, DEl>'T OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS,

WoRLD Hous1NG SURVEY 1974, at 5-7, 28-57, U.N. Doc. ST/ESA/30 (1976) [hereinafter cited as WoRLI> Housrxc SURVEY 1974].

See gn1emlly D. HUNTER, THE SLUMS: CHALL.ENGE AND RESPONSE (1964). See also N.Y. Times, Nov. 6, 1976, at I, col. 4 (Latin America); ul., Oct. 20, 1974, §I, at 21, col. I (city ed.); ul., May 31, 1976, at 3, col. I; id., June 9, 1976, at 4, col. 4.

d55. See R. CARSON, S11.ENT SPRIN(; ( 1962); THE ENVIRONMENTAL HANDBOOK (G. De Bell

e · 1970)· P E (I 97

. ' . · l.IRLICH & A. EHRLICH, POPULATION, RESOURCES, ENVIRONMENT J] 7-97 ( 197

O)'. R. FALK, f111s ENDAN<,ERED 1'1.ANET 21-'.Hi (1971 ); F. GRAHAM, SINCE S11.ENT SPRIN<; E O), LAw, INSTITUTIONS AND THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT u. Hargrove ed. 1972); THE NV!RONMENTA C M , s I H LI .. Wo L RISIS: AN s 'TRUG(;LE TO ,!VE WITH IMSEl.F (1 . Helfrich ed. 1970);

ed RLD Eco-CRISIS: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN RESPONSE (D. Kay & E. Skolnikoff E s._ l 972); MAN'S IMPACT ON THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT (Report of the Study of Critical I ~;~r~nmental Problems) ( 1970); THE ENDANGERED ENVIRONMENT (A. Montagu comp. To ), M. N1c1101.soN, THE ENVIRONMENTAL REVOLUTION (1970); H. SPROUT & M. SPROUT, s .WARO A POLITICS OF THE PLANET EARTH (1971 ); ST<)CKHOl.M AND BEYOND (Report of the

Hecretary of State's Advisory Committee on the 1972 United Nations Conference on the um·1nE · R D' nv1ronment) ( 1972); B. WARD, et al., WHO SPEAKS FOR EARTH? (1973); B. WARD &

p. UBos, ONLY ONE EARTH: THE CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF A SMALL PLANET (I 979)· roblerns f I H . . . - , An ° t le uman Environment (report of the secretary-general), 4 7 U.N. GAOR,

encnex (Agenda Item 10), U.N. Doc. E/4667 (I 969); Report of the United Nations Confer­ Pub~.on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.48/14 (1972); J. Schneider, World tio re Order of the Environment: Toward an International Ecological Law and Organiza­ S ·In, .1975 (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University Library); McDougal & ' c 1ne1der Tl p · · ' · · · m • ie rotectwn of tne I:nvzromnent and World Public Order: Some Recent Devdo/J- ~:ts, 45 Miss. Lj. 1085 (i 974); Strong, (hw Ymr afier Stockholm: An Ecological AjJfm1ach to

1977tgemt:~t,, 51 ~OREIGN AFFAIRS 690 (1973); The Concordt Furor, NEWSWEEK, Feb. Hi,

4_ >, at I 6-2 I; Hill, A Look at the Man-Made Mess, N. Y. Times, May 30, 1976, § 4, at 7, col.

na~~- Recent examples include the disastrous earthquakes in China and Turkey. See Chi-

1, , _zllerQuake, NEWSWEEK, Aug. 9, 1976, at 30-32; N.Y. Times, Nov. 26, 1976 at 2 col '1· urnl\h Q l T , ' .. , 57

· , ua le oil Pmses 3,000 Mark, id., Nov. 26, 1976, at A I, col. 6. R .. See 1974 REPORT ON THE WoRLD SOCIAL SITUATION, supra note 29, at 222-23· 1970 F.PORT ON . . W • , • 58 . IHE ORLD SOCIAL SITUATION, supra nole 29, at 167-71.

Mim; .See .B. BARBER, RESEARCH ON HuMAN SUBJECTS: PROBLEMS OF Soc1AL. CONTROL IN

El. CAL EXPERIMENTATION (1973); C. LEVY, THE HUMAN BODY AND THE LAW: LFGAI AND HICAL C . . . . . Hu • ONSIDERArIONS IN HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION (1975); EXPERIMENTATION WITH

PE MAN SUBJECTS (!'. Freund ed. 1970); B. GRAY, HUMAN SUBJECTS IN MEDICAL Ex- RIMENTATI A S RE'. ON: . OCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE CONDUCT AND REGULATION OF CLINICAi SEARCH (1975)· . . . (i97(i)· . • • N. HERSHEY & R. MILLER, HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION AND THE LAW

TIGAT~i!' :AF~, .. EXPERIMENTATION wrr.H HUMAN BEINGS: THE AUTHORITY OF THE INVES­ (1972)· NA· UllJECl' PROFESSIONS, AND STATE IN THE HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION PROCESS lJEs ' rIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, EXPERIMENTS AND RESEARCH WITH HUMANS' VAL

IN CONFLICT (1975); M. l'APPWORTH, HUMAN GUINEA PIGS (1967); U.S. DE;',T o;·

30 Delimitation of the Problem Human Rip;ftts zn Comprehensive Context 31

Difficulties associated with family planning and restrictions on birth coutrol.F''

Controversy about genetic engineering, euthanasia, etc. Go

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO WEALTH

Prevalence of poverty around the globe, except in some pockets of affluence;G1

Inadequate provision of a basic income and social security.:" Enjoyment of benefits of goods and services disproportionate to actual contribution ;6:1

Serious problems of mass unernployment.?" HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE, PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, FINAi. REPORT OF THE Tus­ KEGEE SYPHILIS STUDY An Hoc ADVISORY PANEL ( 1973); Hearings on Quality of Health Care-Human Experimentation before the Subcomm. on Health of the Senate Comm. on Labor and Public w etfare, 93d Cong., !st Sess. (1973); Adams & Cowan, The Human Guinea Pig: How We Test New Drugs, WORLD, Dec. 5, 1972, at 20-24; Capron, Informed Consent in Catastrophic Disease Research and Treatment, 123 U. PA. L. REV. '.l40 ( 1974); Katz, Experiments on Humans, N.Y. Times, Feb. 20, 1975, at 33, col. 2; Sym/)()sium: Medical Experimenlation on Human Subjeas, 25 CASE W. REs. L. REV. 431 (1975).

59. See R. GARDNER, ABORTION: THE PERSONAi. DILEMMA (1972); R. GORNEY, Tm: HUMAN Aca:NDA 197-312 (1972); ABORTION IN A C11AN<:JNG Wonr.n (R. Hall ed. 1970); D. KENNEDY, BIRTH CONTROi. IN AMERICA: Tm: CAREER OF MARGARET SAN<am ( 1970); D. LOWE, ABORTION AND THE LAW (1966); THE MORALITY OF ABORTION: LEGAi. AND HISTOR­ ICAL PERSPECTIVES (I. Noonan ed. 1970); G. TAYLOR, THE B101.0GICAL TIME Bo~rn ( 1968); UNITED NATIONS, lh:P'T OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAi. AFFAIRS, HUMAN FERTILITY AND NA­ TIONAi. DEVELOPMENT: A CHALl.EN<:E TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, U.N. Doc. ST/ECA/ 138 (1971); UNITED NATIONS, lh:P'T OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS, SOCIAL WEI.FARE AND FAMILY PLANNING, U.N. Doc. ST/ESA/27 (1976); UNITED NATIONS, DEP'T OF Eco­ NOMIC AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS, STATUS OF WOMEN AND FAMILY PLANNING: REPORT OF THE SPECIAi. RAPPORTEUR APPOINTED BY THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCii. UNDER RESOLU­ TION 1326 (XLIV), U.N. Doc. E/CN.6/575/Rev. I (1975); Kutner, Due Process ofAboruon, 53 MINN. L. REV. I (1968); Peterson, Family Planning in Poor Nations, N.Y. Times, Aug. 2, 1976, at 23, col. 2; Prescott, Abortion or the Unwanted Child: A Choice/in a Humanistic Society, THE HUMANIST, Mar.IA pr. 1975, at 11-15; Peterson, Family Planning in Poor Nations, N.Y. Times, Aug. 2, 1976, at 23, col. 2; Text of Pope Paul's Encyclical Reaffirming the Prohibition against Birth Control, id., July 30, 1968, at 20, col. I; id., Oct. 28, 1976, at 14, col. 3 (deaths resulting from riots connected with compulsory sterilization in India).

GO. See J. FI.ETCHER, THE ETHICS OF GENETIC CoNTROI.: ENDING REPRODUCTIVE ROULETTE (1974); !'.RAMSEY, THE ETIIICS OF FETA!. RESEARCH (1975); P. RAMSEY, FABRI­ CATED MAN: THE ETIIICS OF GENETIC CONTROL (I 970); P. RAMSEY, THE PATIENT AS PERSON: EXPLORATION IN MEDICAL ETIIICS ( 1970); GENETICS AND THE FUTURE OF MAN (I. Roslansky ed. 1966); Capron, Legal Considerations Aff('cling Clinical Pharmacological Studies in Children, C1.1NICAI. RESEARCH, Feb. 197'.~. at 141-50; Note, Fetal Experimentation: Moral, Lego.I, and Medical Implications, 26 STAN. L. REV. 1191 (1974).

On the controversy concerning euthanasia, see a comprehensive bibliography: C. TRICHE & D. TRICHE, THE Eun!ANASIA CONTROVERSY, 1812-1974: A BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH SELECT ANNOTATIONS (1975). See also EuTIIANASIA AND THE RIGHT TO DEATH: THE CASE FOR VOLUNTARY EUTHANASIA (A. Downing ed. 1970); GROUP FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF PSYCllIATRY, THE RIGHT TO DIE: DECISION AND DECISION MAKERS ( 1974); E. KLUGE, THE PRACTICE OF DEATH ( 1975); M. KOHL, THE MORALITY OF Kii.i.ING, EUTllANASIA, ABORTION AND TRANSPLANTS (1974); M. MANNES, LAST RIGHTS (1974); G. WILi.IAMS, THE SANCTITY OF LIFE AND THE CRIMINAL LAW ( 1957); Kutner, Due Process of Euthanasia: The Living Will, A Proposal, 44 IND. L.J. 539 ( 1969); Morris, Voluntar» Euthanasia, 45 WASH. L. REV. 239 (1970); Silving, Euthanasia: A Study in Compartuine Criminal Law, 103 U. PA. L. REV. 350 (1954); Williams, Euthanasia and Abortion, 38 U. Cow. L. Rev. 178 (1966).

(i I. Ste E. EAMES & .J. (;00m:, URBAN PovERY IN A CRoss-Cu1.TURAl. CONTEXT (I !J7:l); G. MEIER, STUDIES IN INTERNATIONAL Povr.srv (2d ed. 1970); G. MYRDAL, ASIAN DRAMA: AN 1,NQUIRY INTo THE POVERTY OF NATIONS (l~Hi8); G. l\1YirnAL, THE C11ALLEN<:E OF Wo1<1.D I ~VERTY ( 1970); 1970 REPORT ON TllE WORLD SocIAl. SITUATION, supra note 2~). at 211-19; I J74 REPORT ON THE WoRI.D SOCIA!. SITUATION, .111/m1 note 29, at 202-0G; 0R(;ANIZATION FOR EcoNoM1c Co-OPERATION AND Ih:VELOPMENT, lh:VEl.OPMENT Co-OPERATION: EFFORTS AND Poucn:s OF TllE ]\!J.:MBERS OF THE lh:VE!.OPMENT ASSISTANCE COMMITTEE 52-54 ( 1975) (repon by Maurice .J. Williams) [hereinafter cited as lh:vEt.OPMENT Co-OPERATION]; B. S'.:lfILLER, Tin: EcoNo~ncs OF Povxurv AND D1scRtMINATION (2d ed. l 97!i); A. S110NFIEt.D, I HE ATTACK ON Wom.n Povrnrv (I !HiO); THE CoNCEPT OF Povrnrv: WoRKIN<: PAPERS ON .METHODS OF INVESTH:ATION AND LIFE-STYLES oF T!IE Poon IN DIFFERENT CouNTRIES (P. fownsend ed. 1970); UNITED NATIONS, lh:P'T OF ECONOMIC AND SOCIA!. AFFAIRS, ATTACK ON MAss PoVEiffY AND UNEMPt.onmNT: VIEWS AND lh:coMMENDATIONS OF TllE COMMITTEE FOR lh:v1·:1.opMENT Pt.ANNI NC:, U.N. Doc. ST/ECA/I !i2 ( 1972) [hereinafter cited as ATTACK ON MAss Pov1·:RTY]; U.S. lh:P'T OF HEAI.Tll, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE, Soc1A1. SECURITY AnMINISTRATION, Sor.ru. SECURITY PRo<;RAMS THRouc;11ouT TllE WoRl.I> (I 969) (Research R.eron No. 31); Daniel, Can World Pountv Bt Abolished? 12 WoRI.ll .JusncE '.ll (1970); Sunpso1 ·7·1 I · · · : \ · N · l'lC4 · t '17 , · 1, IP )unen\'lOllS (!f wo-u Poucrtv, Sc1ENTIFIC 1 MUUCAN, O\". · l , ·• .... ·

Even in what is commonly regarded as the most affluent country-the United Statcs­ Pov:riy has not disappeared. For the classic that exposed poverty in the United States and IV.is instrumental in the initiation of the "war on poverty," scr 1'1. llARRIN<'ION, Tin: Onn:R AMERICA: POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES ( J <)()2). In the same vein, Peter Drucker observes:

What impresses the outside world about the United States today is not how our rich lllen live-the world has seen riches before, and on a larger and more ostentatious sc;.'.le. What impresses the outside world is how the poor of this country live.

Up to Poverty" is the proper slogan ....

P. ?RUCKER, 1.ANDMARKs or ToM~IORIHlW I 60-!i I (I ')59). , Concerning the extent and distribution of poverty in the United States, .1tl' 1\1. ARNOLD &

~·· RosENBAUM, Tin: CRIME OF Poveurv (197'.I); A. BATCHEl.llER, THE EcoNoM1cs OF Pov­ !~·~~ (I !'.GG); POVERTY IN AMERICA (L. Ferman, .J. Korn~iluh, & ~· Haber ec,ls. rev .. ed.

), I OVERTY AMiil AI·Ft.UENCE (L. Fishman ed. l 9hh); L. (.At.I.AWAY, I OVI·.RI' IN A~:;:1<icA ( 1973); Pov~xry IN TllE AFFLUENT Socwn· (ll. Meissner ed. l 9GG).

~~· Stt EcoNoM1c, SocIAI. AND Cut.TURAt. RH;!ITS, .111fim note I, at ~)·1-97. h.1. See id. ai.,(j"i-78 64 .

Sn· .. See ATTACK ON MASS POVERTY, .111pm note (ii; 1970 REPORT o~ Tiiie WOR!.ll SOCIAi. UA I ION, 111/J/'(/ note 29, at 200-04; 1974 REl'Olff ON TllE \VoRl.I) SOCIAi. Sn U . .\'l IO~. 111/m1

llote 29, at '.l!J-4 J, (i2-(i'.l, l'.17-·10, 15'1-57, 194-97; N.Y. Times, Nov. Ii, 197(i, at I, rnl. (i.

32 Delimitation of the Problem

Lack of freedom in seeking and changing employment, especially in completely state-controlled economies; Limitations on freedom of association in group shaping and sharing of wealth (e.g., restrictions on laborers' right to organize, purge of "capitalists'rr.'" Denial of private ownership;

Arbitrary deprivations of wealth, especially at times of crisis; Lack of or inadequate protection of the rights of property; Rampant inflation.?" Denial of freedom to accumulate and employ resources for produc­ tive purposes; Disparities in the distribution of wealth;"?

Overconcentration of wealth in a few private hands;

65. Se» Allegations Regarding Infringements of Trade Union Rights, 54 U.N. ESCOR ANNEX (AGENDA ITEM I 8(b)), U.N. Doc. E/5245 (1973). See generally, E. HAAS, HUMAN R1c;HTS AND INTERNATIONAL AcTION: Tim CASE OF FREEDOM OF Assoc1ATION ( 1970); C. JENKS, HUMAN R1c;HTS AND INTERNATIONAi. LABOUR STANDARDS 49-69 (1960).

66. See Chapman, Inflation around the World, SATURDAY REv./WoRLD,.July 27, 1974, at 14; Rolfe, Thi• Crrat l njlation, SATURDAY Rt·:v./WoRI.D, July 27, 1974, at 12; N.Y. Times, July 7, 1974, ~ 4, at I, col. 3 (inflation around the world, including a map of rising world inflation rates).

67. The enormous differential between the world's rich and poor is widening rather than narrowing. In 1970, an individual living in the richest part of the world (defined so as to include one tenth of the world's population) had 13 times more real income than an individual living in the poorest part (defined in a similar way).

REVIEWIN(; THE INTERNATIONAi. 0RllER (RIO): INTERIM REPORT 5 (lune 1975). The RIO project was initialed in response to increasing demands for a New Economic Order by Dr. Aurelio Peccei, Chairman of t he Club of Rome, in February 1974. Professor Jan Tin­ bergen was the project coordinator. See also the group's final report: RIO: RESHAPING THE INTERNATIONAL ORDER 86-88 (1976) (A Report to the Club of Rome) [hereinafter cited as RIO]. Disparities in the distribution of wealth arc manifested between states as well as within

states. See DEVELOPMENT Co-OPERATION, supra note GI, al 55-56, 6I-6:l; ECONOMIC, So­ c1A1., AND Cu1:ruRAI. RIGHTS, .111/m1 note I, at 114-1 G; THE GAP BETWEEN R1cH AND Poon NATIONS (G. Ran is eel. 1972); .J. REES, EQUAl.ITY 28-'.l(i (1971 ); 1974 REPORT ON THE Wour.n Soc1A1. SrruATION, supr« note 29, at 4!i-5:l, G4-70, 80-89, 1 O(i-12, I 2'.1-28, 140-43, 157-60, 175-77; B. WARD, Tim RICH NATIONS AND THE Poem NATIONS (1962); Barra­ clough, Thi· Hanes and th« 11111!1'-No/1, N.Y. REV. Booxs, May 1 :I, 1976, at 31-41; Kravis, A World of Unequal Incomes, 409 ANNALS (i 1 ( l !l73); Kuznets, Hrn110111ic Grouith. and l uromr l ncqualit», 45 AM. EcoN. REV. l (l 955); (;rant, While We Fertilize Gol/Coun!'s, N.Y. Times, Aug. 28, 1974, at '.11, col. I; id., Dec. 12, 1975, ~ 1, al 18, rnl. 3 (city ed.); Hofman, The Ali111a1111'd "Third World" Has Diuisions All Its Own, id., May 2'.), l 97(i, § 4, at 3, col. 4; id., Sept. 2(), l97(i, § I, at l, col. 4.

Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 33

Wasteful use of resources;

Depletion of available and potential resources without adequate re­ gard for future generations;

Massi:e diversion of resources for destructive purposes (for military overkill or for suppression of internal opposition);68

Severe :estrictions on the employment of relevant strategies m production, conservation, distribution, and consumption; Continuing practices of forced labor;69

.6~· "World Military expenditures are now approaching $'.JOO billion a year-nearly $35 nulhon eve · l f d I l · · , ·1 cial re .. ' Y. iou r o. every ay-anc t icy conunue to nse .... I '.e net transfer of finan-

souices f1 om nch to poor countries amounts to about one thirtieth of world military ;~penditures and they are 163 times more than the sum spent on peace and development

r:>ugh the United Nations system." RIO, supra note 67, at 25. S See THE Mil.ITARY BALANCE, published annually by the Institute for Strategic Studies; R. IVARD, WORLD MILITARY AND SOCIAL EXPENDITURES (1976); UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC

ANn So· C . ti ' CIAL ON SEQUENCES OF TllE ARMS RACE AND Of" Mil.ITARY EXPENDITURES (Report of

Rie Secretary-General), U.N. GAOR, U.N. Doc. A/8469/Rev. I (1972); UNITED NATIONS EDU ' C CTION OF THE MILITARY BUDGETS OF STATES PERMANENT MEMBERS OF THE SECURITY

A ouNcn. By 10 PER CENT AND UTILIZATION OF PART OF THE FUNDS T11us SAVED To Paovrnr u~~STANCE To DEVEi.OPING COUNTRIES (Report of the Secretary-Genc~al), U.N. GAOR, u .: Doc. A/9770/Rev. I (1975); WORLD MILITARY EXPENDITURES, pubhshed annually by E nited States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency; Benoit & Lubell, World Dejen1·e l~Pendztures, 3 .J. PEACE RESEARCH !l7 (1966); Epstein, The Disarmament Hoax, WORLD, Apr. Ai: 197", at 24-29. S1•e also N.Y. Times, Mar. I, 1976, at I, col. I ("World's Spending 011 in ms Reported at Record Levels: Study Places Annual Outlay at $:l00 Billion-Fastest Rise f,Develo.ping Lands"); id., Mar. 7, 1976, § 4, at 4, col. I (containing the comparative iglures of per capita I 97:l expenditures in dollars by governments of 128 nations in the 1111 ttary, educational and health fields). A~)n the global arms trade, .11'1' .J. STANLEY & M. PEARTON, THE INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN

W Ms (1972); STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAi. PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE, THE ARMS TRADE rru TI T TH. IE , '.HRD WORLD (1971); STOCKHOLM INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

B E ARMS I RADE WITH THE THIRD WORLD (rev. & abr. ed. 1975); G. THAYER, THE WAR us1NEss· T 1 N '.. HE NTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ARMAMENTS (1969); Anatomy of" the Arms Trade Ews · . . - · ' DE WEEK, Sept. 6, 1976, at 39; Luck, The New Regional Arms Merchants, THE INTERDEPEN-

l 9;T, Jan. 1976, at I, s. See also Vance, Controlling U.S. Ar111s Sales, N.Y. Times, May I;;,

19 6•

at 35, col. 2; Mindless Ar111.1 Sail's, id., Aug. 11, 1976, at '.14, col. I (editorial); id., Oct. C"t'

1975, § l, at l, col. 2 ("U.S. Arms-Sale Rise Stirs Capital Concern") (the rise of Amcri­ ;,;

11 arms sales abroad from $2 billion in 1967 to about $11 billion in the 1974 fiscal year);

·j/u,g. 8, 1976, §I, at l, col. I ("Iranians Plan to Purchase $!0 Billion in U.S. Arms"). on ~1 '1 l~enetrating study of the pervasive impacts of the American military establishment AME

111~nca~1 society, .1ee A. Y ARMOl.INSKY, THE M11.1TARY EsTABl.ISHMENT: !Ts IMPACTS ON

Tu . RICAN SOCIETY ( 1971 ). s,,,, also R. BARNET, THE ECONOMY OF DEATH ( 1969); R. LAPP, ,, ~-WEAPONS CUI.TU RE ( 1968); THE WAR ECONOMY OF TllE UNITED STATFs· RFADINc·s IN "111 I" . . . •. 6g lARy INDUSTRY AND ECONOMY (S. Melman ed. 1971). (1960).See W. KI.OOSTERBOER, INVOLUNTARY LABOUR SINCE THE ABOLITION OF SI.AVERY

34 Delimitation of the Problem Human Rip;hts in Comprehensive Context 35

Expropriation without adequate compensation. 70

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO SKILL Undermining or weakening of rival groups competing for loyal ser­ vice of the individual;

Calculated administration of hate;

Denial or severe restrictions 011 freedom of association;

The family in crisis at a time of rapid social change;74

Practices of involuntary or disguised marriage and sham adop­ tion ;":'

Prohibition of interracial marriages or inteneligious marriages; 71;

Confusion and difficulties associated with the search for alternative modes of affection in lieu of the traditional affection unit-the nu­ clear family;77

Unreasonable limitations on freedom to terminate uncongenial per­ sonal relationships; 78

The requisitioning of talent and skill;

Compulsory assignment of skill training to fit a particular role and reduction of the freedom of job choice;

Alienation from work-intense feelings of meaninglessness because of high degree of automation in modern process of production;71 Restrictions on freedoms of skill groups to organize and function;

Inadequacy in overcoming hardships caused by rapid obsolescence of skills amid accelerating change in science-based technology;72 Lack of exposure to training, in both content and method, appro­ priate to a culture of science and technology; The problem of the brain drain. n

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO AFFECTION

The requisitioning of loyalty in the name of the state; Intense demands for submission to regimentation on behalf of the institutions of power;

Cou11trin, 99 INT'!. LAB. REV. 401 (19G9); N.Y. Times, Nol'. I, 197fi, at 14, col.'.\ (Nigeria's effort to stop an African "brain dr.rin").

74. SI'!' .J. BERNAIW, Tm: FUTURE OF l\L\RRIA(;E (1')72); D. COOl'ER, Tin: DL\TH OF TllE FAMILY (I 97 I); T11E NUCLEAR FA~Hl.Y IN CRISIS: T1n: SEARCH FOR AN ALTERNATIVE (1\1. Cordon ed. I 972); B. Mooru., Pol.lTICAJ. PowER AND SocL\L Trn·:oRY I 60-78 (I 958); Tm: FAMILY IN SEARCH OF A FUTURE: ALTERNATIVE MODELS FOR Mom:1rns (11. Otto ed. I 970); FAMILY IN TRANSITION (A. Skolnick &J. Skolnick eds. 1971); B. YORBURC:, Tm: CHANC:IN(; FAMILY: A Socrot.ocroxr. PERSPECTIVE (197:l); Goocle, Famil» ]hl()rp;a11iwtio11, in CONTEM­ PORARY SocIAI. PROBLEMS 479-522 (2d ed. R. Merton & R. Nisbet eds. l!Hi(i); Keller,]){)('.\ th» Fr1111il1· Hao» (/ Future? in INTIMACY, FAMILY, AND SOCIETY I I 4-28 (A. Skolnick & .J. Skolnick eds. 1974); l Icndin, Th» Ties Don't 1Ji11d, N.Y. Times. Aug. 2(i, l!J7(i, at 'l:I, col. I. s{'(' also Crosby, Th» Drat], o/ t/11, Fr1111il)'-Rl'1Jisiln/, Tm: llUMANIST, May/Ju11e 1975, at 12-14; Mace, In Dtji-11.11' ofth« Nurlrar Famil», id., at 27-2!); Pickett, The //111nirr((/ F11111il)': A11 E111b"1tlerl l ustitution, ul., at 5-8; Whitehursi, Altenmtio» Li/i--Sty!t.1, id., at 2:1-2(i. .

75. SI'!' C. GREI·:NIDCE, .111/na notr- 15, at 94-116;.J. Cu1.1.1c~, lh:1n BoNDAca·: IN MALAYA (1958). Stt grnrrall» M. Wot.r, WOMAN AND 'rru: FAMILY IN RURAi. TAIWAN (1972).

7G. 51'1' S. ANANT, Tm: CHANGING CONCEPT OF CASTE IN INlllA 104-18 (1972); G. CAR­ TER, Trn: Por.rrros OF INEQUAl.ITY: SOUTH AFRICA SINCE 1948, at 7fi-8 l (rev. ed. I 9fi2); L. DUMONT, Hoxto HIERARCHICUS: AN ESSAY ON TllE CASTE SYSTEM 109-2~) (1\1. Sai11sbury trans. 1970); R. SICKELS, RACE, MARRIACa·: AND Tin: LAW 10-91 (1972); L. Tl!OMl'SON, Po1.1T1cs IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA :i2 (I !Hi(i).

Sr'f' ,l!J'lir'1'fr!ly N.Y. Times, June 8, l97(i, at 19, col. I (ajoint Rom.m Catholic-Anglican report on mixed marriages urgi11g relaxation of the requirements for rccognitio11 of such marriages).

77. S1'1' M. CARDEN, ONElllA: FR0~1 UTOPIAN Co~!MUNITY To MODERN CORPORATION (19fi9); W. lh:Dc1·:PET11 & D. STocK, Tin: /u:rERNAT1v1-:s: CoM~tUNA1. L1FE IN Nnv AMERICA ( 1970); R. KANTER, COMMITMENT AND Co~!~!UNITY: COM\!UNES AND UTOPIAS IN Soc101.0G­ ICAI. PERSPECTIVE ( 1972); R. KANTER, COMMUNES: CREATINc; AND MANAGING THE Co1.1.Ec­ rrv» LIFE (197'.l); C. No1rnHOFF, Tin: CoMMUNIST1c Socn:Tn:s OF THE UNITED STATES 09fi5); B. ZABLOCKI, Tw:Jonu1.CoMMUNITY (l!J71); N.Y. Times, Sept. 2, 197(i, at 2fi, col. l ("Cohabitation and the Courts: The Stigma Begins to Fade").

78. Sr« N.Y. Times, May fi, 1975, at 44, col. I C'Divorce around the World: Even When Easy, It Carries a Stigma").

70. Sl'I' Weston, lntrrnotioual Law and the Dcpriuation 11/Fortip;11 Wealth: A Frametoorhfor Futurr Inquiry, in 2 THE FUTURE OF TllE INTERNATIONAi. LECAI. ORDER '.1fi-l 82 (R. Falk & c. Black eds. 1970). For further references, see chapter 14 iujra, at note l:l.

71 See R. BLAUNER, Al.IENATION AND FREEDOM: THE FACTORY WORKER AND His IN­ DUST.RY ( 1964); D. JENKINS, JoB Powi:n: BLUE AND WHITE Col.I.AR DEMOCR,~(;Y '.16-61 (I st ed. 197'.1); J. LOl'REATO & L. HAZELRIGG, Ct.Ass, CONFl.ICT, AND Mo111LITY: I 11E0Rn:s AND STUDIES 0;. Ci.Ass STtUJCTURE '.10:l-:l8 (1972); B. MuRcHt.AND, Tm: AGE OF ALIENATION 14-23 (197 l); R. SCHACHT, ALIENATION l (i8-7'.1 (1970); MAN ACAINST WORK (L. Zimpel ed. 1974).

72. See AUTOMATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE (.J. Dunlop ed. 1962); G. FRIED­ MANN, THE ANATOMY OF WORK: LAllOR, LEISURE, AND THE IMPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION (W. Rawson trans. 1961); L. GOODMAN, MAN AND AUTOMATION (1957); INTERNATIONAL LABOR OFFICE, AUTOMATION AND NoN-MANUAI. WORKERS (1967); A. JAFFE & .J. FROOMKIN, TECHNOLOGY AND Jons: AUTOMATION IN PERSPECTIVE (1968); R. MACMILLAN, AUTOMA­

TION: FRIEND OR FoE? ( 1956); F. MANN & R. HOFFMAN, AUTOMATION AND TllE WORKER (I 960); F. 1'01.1.ocK, AUTOMATION: A STUDY OF hs ECONOMIC AND SocIAI. CONSEQUENCES (W. Henderson & W. Chaloner trans. 1957); C. S11.11ERMAN, Tm·: MYTHS OF AuTOMAT~ON (1966); C. WALKER, TEc11No1.oc:Y, INDUSTRY, AND MAN: Tm: Acac OF Acc1·:1.ERATION (I 9b8); Hoffer Automation Is llae to 1.ihernle Us, in T1·:C11No1.oc;y AND Soc1A1. CllANca: 64-74 (W. Moore ~cl. 1972); Penucci, Worf! in !ill' Cybanl'tic Stall!, in Tm: TRIPLE REVOLUTION EMERc;­ ING 174-94 (2d ed. R. Perrucci & M. Pilisuk eds. I 97 l); Raskin, Pattf'rn fin Tomorrow's h11/11.1/11•? in TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAi. CHANGE 54-G'.1 (W. Moore ed. 1972).

7'.1. ·sl'I' Tm: BRAIN DRAIN (W. Adams ed. I 968); Tin: BRAIN DRAIN AND TAXATION: THEORY AND EMPIRICAi. ANALYSIS CJ. Bhagwati ed. 1975); ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND Cu1.­ TURAI. R1c:11Ts, .111/n" note I, at 12 I -22; Kannappan, The Bmin Dmin anrl Devf'lof1i11p; Coun­ trif's, 98 INT'!. LAB. REV. I (1968); Watanabe, Tht JJmin Dminfi·om Dl'veloping lo Dl'vdoperl

36 Delimitation of the Problem Human Rights in Comprehensive Context 37

DEPRIVATIONS RELATING TO RECTITUDE

Restrictions on formation of association for rectitude purposes; Warfare over religious conflicts.r" Coercion to worship and compulsory conversion;87 Imposition of religious or atheistic instruction; Arbitrary restrictions on modalities of worship, places of worship, and the performance of rites; Caprice in recognizing or rejecting conscientious objection to mili­ tary service. 88

Social ostracism by tactics of presuming "guilt by association";79 Frustration (stifling) of congenial personal relationships, by ma­ nipulating fear and anxiety in a pervasive atmosphere of mutual suspicion sustained by a network of the secret police and informers.

80

The politicization of rectitude;81 Widespread tactics of ostentatious conformity in evading individual responsibility of conscience; Denial of freedom to worship;82 Adoption of atheism as a national policy;8:i Intolerance and persecution of heretics or nonbelievers;

Intolerance and persecution of religious minorities;84 Discrimination regarding participation in value processes on reli­ gious grounds;85

CONDITIONS AFFECTING DEPRIVATIONS AND NONFULFILLMENT

79. Ste chapter 12 injra, at note '.\3 and accompanyinµ; text. 80. See genrmlly c. FRIEDRICH & z. BRZEZINSKI, supra note 22, at 239-89; J. HAZARD,

THE SOVIET SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT l'.~6-52 (:1d ed. 1964); s. NEUMANN, supra note :11, at 142-204; A. SoLZllENITSYN, Tm: GUI.A(; ARClllPELA(;O, 1918-1956 er. Whitney trans. 1974); A. SOLZHENITSYN, Tm: (;uLAG ARClllPELAGO, Two (1975).

81. Sl'I' N.Y. Times, Auµ;. 28, 1976, at 2, col. 3 ("Church-State Conflict Troubles Latin

Lands"). 82. See Jancar, Religious Dissent in th» So11il'I Union, in DISSENT IN THE USSR: Pol.lTICS,

lm.ot.oc:v, AND PEOPLE 191 (R. Tokes ed. 1975); Reddaway, Freedom of"WorshijJ mu/ the Law, in IN QUEST oFJusnn:: PROTEST AND DISSENT IN TllE Sovncr UNION TODAY 62 (A. Brum­ bcrµ; ed. 1970); Religions in the Soui«! Union ( 1960-71 ), in THE FoURTH WoRLD: VICTIMS OF GROUP OPPRESSION 218-68 (B. Whitaker ed. 1972).

83. This is characteristic of communist societies. See J. BENNETT, CHRISTIANITY AND COMMUNISM TODAY (rev. ed. 1970); R. BUSH, RELICION IN COMMUNIST CHINA (1970); H. CHAMBRE, CHRISTIANITY AND COMMUNISM (R. Trevett trans. 1960); M. D'ARCY, COM­ MUNISM AND CHRISTIANITY (1957); A. GAI:rER, T11E RED Boox OF THE PERSECUTED CHURCH (2d ed. 1957); G. MAcE01N, Tm: COMMUNIST WAR ON RELIGION (1951); D. MACINNIS, REI.IGJOUS POI.ICY AND PRACTICE IN COMMUNIST CHINA (1972).

84. At the fifth assembly of the World Council of Churches held in Dec. 1975, in Nairobi, Kenya, the endurinµ; problem of religious persecution was "the most nettlesome issue." Alleµ;ations of religious persecution came from every part of the world, ranµ;inµ; from "restrictions on preaching to outriµ;ht physical punishment of believers," and affect­ inµ; Protestants, Catholics and Jews. N. Y. Times, Dec. I '.1, 197 5, at 13, col. :o.

Set' chapter 11 injra, at notes 24-38 and accompanyinµ; text; N .Y. Times, Dec. 22, 1975, at 3, col. I (orµ;anized religion branded by Yuµ;oslav Communist leaders as "a danµ;erous domestic enemy"). See also Religious Persrrulion in El Salvador: Hearings be/lire the Subcomm. on l nternational Orgrmization.1 of the House Comm. 011 flltenwlimwl Relations, 95th Coug., I st

Sess. ( 1977). 85. See chapter 11 infi·a, at notes 1-47 and accompanying text.

The conditions which have resulted in these great disparities between the rising common demands of people for human dignity values and the degree of achievement of these values are both environmental and pre­ dispositional. The relevance of the environmental factors derives from the limitations which such factors impose upon peoples' achievements, i~-respective of their predispositions. The relevance of predispositional ~actor~ derives from the maximization postulate-that human beings act m social process in such a way as to maximize all basic values, conscious

86. It is a dismal truth that probably half or more of the wars now being fought around the world are either openly religious conflicts or involved with rcliµ;ious dis­ putes. And, since virtually all formerly organized creeds arc monotheistic, this means that at this very instant men arc killing' other men in the name of an identical, if variously named, God.

Sulzberger, Death in the Name o] God, N.Y. Times, Jan. 24, 1976, at 27, col. 2. Examples include: the conflict between Christians and Moslems in Lebanon, the conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the conflict bc­ t"'.een Tut.key and Greece on Cyprus, intermittent civil conflicts involving Christian tribesmen m Burma, occasional outbursts between largely Hindu India and Moslem Paki­ stan, the guerrilla campaign of Moslems in the southern Philippines seeking freedom from Catholic Manila's control.

See R. Hui.r., Tm: IRISH TRIANGLE: CONFLICT IN NORTHERN IRELAND ( 1976); c. O'BRIEN, STATES OF IRELAND (1972); D. SMITH, RELIGION, PoLITICS, AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN THF THIRD WORLD 170-93 (1971); Jackson, The Two lrrlands: The Problem of" the Doub/; Mznont_y-A /)11()/ Siudy in Inter-Group Tensions, in THE FOURTH WORLD: VICTIMS OF GROUP OPPRESSION 187-216 (B. Whitaker ed. 1973). See also Markham, Lebanon: The Insane War, N.Y. Times, Aug. 15, 1976, § 6 (Magazine), at 6-7 et srq.; Weinraub, The Violence in Vis/er Never Ends, id., July 25, 1976, § 4, at 3, col. '.1; id., Sept. 11, 1975, at I, col. 3 (the Moslcms rebel in the southern Philippines).

87. See chapter 11 infra, at note 8 and accompanyinµ; text; N.Y. Times, Sept. 18, 1974, at 12, col. I (charges of compulsory conversion to Islam in Malaysia).

88. See COUNCIL OF EUROPE, CONSULTATIVE AssEMIILY, T11E RIGHT TO CoNSCIENTIOUS O!IJECTION (1967); A CONFLICT OF LOYALTIES: THE CASE FOR SELECTIVE CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTION o. Finn ~d. 1968); w. GAYLIN, IN THE SERVICE OF THEIR COUNTRY: WAR