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Chapter – I
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the history, education is considered as an important
instrument for development in all spears of human and social living.
Education, particularly quality education in any given society reflects the
quality of living of its people. Indian education has undergone many
changes due to several socio-political considerations to meet the emerging
needs of the society particularly during the pre and post-independence
period. It is strange to observe that the changes brought into Indian
education system have failed to respond to its societal needs causing an
unprecedented dissatisfaction regarding the relevance of education among
the cross section of its people. Thus, achieving education for all with
quality has emerged as a need and challenge before educational planners
and practitioners in India.
National Curriculum Framework-2005 (NCF-NCERT) was an
attempt at the national level to provide a roadmap for the quality school
education. The constructivist approach that the national curriculum
framework envisages the quality concerns in school education. The
baseline philosophy of this constructivist approach was to enable each and
every child not only to facilitate them to think but also build a structure of
knowledge. This endeavour will ultimately translate one‟s vision of
creating a knowledge society a reality.
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The quality concerns in school education demand a change in the
teaching activity of the teachers. The change in teaching requires a
paradigm shift from the traditional methods of teaching to the innovative
strategies including the integration of technology, etc. The shift from
traditional methods to new innovations in teaching strategies will
definitely result in achieving quality in education. The advent of
constructivist approach in teaching is a new development in our Indian
classroom context. Though there is lot of material available which
delineates about the constructivist approach as an ef fective teaching
learning strategy. However, not many studies were conducted so far in
this country, how best the constructivism in teaching by the classroom
teacher facilitates effective and accelerated learning among the students.
Keeping this in view, the present researcher made an attempt to observe
transacting the content of social science in a constructivist approach and
its corresponding impact on the learning of the students. The emerging
results of such a study will definitely facilitate the educational planners in
general and more particularly the classroom teachers at secondary level to
use this approach extensively in order to achieve quality in education.
Accordingly, the curriculum planners and the classroom teachers will
have a paradigm shift in their domain of academic activity.
1.1.0. Social Science
The social science encompasses diverse concerns of society and
includes a wide range of content drawn from the disciplines of history,
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geography, political science, economics and sociology. The selection and
organization of material into a meaningful social science curriculum,
enabling students to develop a critical understanding of society, is therefore
a challenging task. The possibilities of including new dimensions and
concerns are having immense impact especially in view of the students‟
own life experiences.
It is important to reiterate the significance of the social sciences by
not only highlighting its increasing relevance for a job in the rapidly
expanding service sector but also by pointing to its indispensability in
laying the foundations for an analytical and creative mindset among the
educates / students.
It is often presumed that the content pertaining to the human sciences
(history, geography, political science, economics, etc) cannot be labeled
as „scientific‟ is the contention of a particular section of people. But it is
necessary to recognize that the social sciences lend themselves to scientific
inquiry just as much as the natural and physical sciences do . However, it
is often observed that the ways in which the methods employed by social
sciences are distinct to those of the natural and physical sciences
(NCF-2005 Position Paper on Teaching of Social Sciences).
The social sciences carry a normative responsibility to create and
widen the popular base for human values namely freedom, trust, mutual
respect, respect for diversity, etc. Thus social science teaching basically
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should be aimed at imbibing in a child a moral and mental strength so as
to provide her with the ability to think independently and deal with the
social forces that threaten these values without losing her individuality.
Social science teaching can achieve this by promoting children ‟s ability to
take initiative to critically reflect on social issues that have a bearing on
the creative coexistence between individual good and collective good.
Critical reflection pre-supposes a comprehensive curriculum in which
both teachers and children – participate in generating the knowledge
without any latent and manifest forces of coercion. It is through this non-
coercive and participatory mode that children and teachers stand the best
chance of making teaching and learning interesting as well as enjoyable.
1.1.1. Approaches to Teaching - Pedagogy and Resources
Social science teaching needs to be revitalized towards helping the
learner to acquire knowledge and skills in an interactive environment.
The teaching of social sciences must adopt methods that promote
creativity, aesthetic sensibility and critical perspectives. Further, it should
enable children to draw relationship between past and present to
understand changes taking place in society. Problem-solving, dramatization
and role-play are some hitherto under explored strategies that could be
employed. Teaching should utilize resources like audio-visual materials,
including photographs, charts, maps and replicas of archaeological
materials reflecting various cultures, so as to make the teaching more
realistic and thought provoking.
5
In order to make the process of learning participative, there is a
need to shift from mere imparting of information to debate and discussion
strategies. This approach of learning will keep both the learner and the
teacher alive in the class and make them to be close to the social realities.
Concepts should be clarified to the students through the live
experiences of individuals and communities. It has often been observed
that cultural, social and class differences generate their own biases,
prejudices and attributes in classroom contexts. The approach to teaching
therefore needs to be open-ended. Teachers should discuss different
dimensions of social reality in the class and work towards creating self-
awareness among the learners.
1.1.2. Background
Different curricula have different approaches to the organization of
learning experiences in the social sciences. Although the 1975 national
school curriculum frame argued for identifying essential units in each of the
subjects and then unifying them into an integrated syllabus. The social
science was taught as separate subjects and the NCERT prepared three
separate textbooks for classes VI to X (The Curriculum for the Ten-Year
School: A Framework, 1975). However for the examination purpose, the
three subjects were combined under one paper called social science. The
1988 curricular review introduced no major changes in the syllabi for the
upper primary stage, although it did explicitly stated the importance of
the concepts included in the curriculum. Hence, special care should be
6
taken in designing the curriculum in social sciences so as not to overlook
any of the core components (National Curriculum for Elementary and
Secondary Education: A Framework, 1988). At the secondary stage, it had
four books. The National Curriculum Framework for School Education-2000
discussed the need for the social science curriculum to be comprehensive
but not loaded with information. In addition it detailed the need for ideas
to be interrelated through the selection of particular themes or issues,
stating “these themes may be drawn from geography, history, civics,
economics and sociology in a balanced manner and suitably graded simple
to complex and immediate to remote” (NCFSE, 2000). The current social
science textbooks have made an attempt to establish the interrelatedness
among subject areas wherever possible. Accordingly, there is only one
textbook for social science for each class (Classes VI to X).
1.1.3. Prevailing Perceptions of the Social Sciences
The popular perception of social science is that it is a non-utility
subject. As a result low self-esteem governs the classroom-transaction
process with both teachers and students feeling disinterested in
comprehending its contents. From the initial stages of schooling, it is
often suggested to students that the natural sciences are superior to the
social sciences, and are the domain of „bright‟ students. Therefore, there
is a need to emphasize that the social sciences are essential to provide
social, cultural and analytical skills required to adjust to an increasingly
interdependent world and to deal with political and economic realities.
7
There is a widespread belief that social science merely transmits
information and thereby it centered on the text which is required to be
memorized for examinations. The content of these textbooks are considered
to be unconnected to daily realities. In addition social science is viewed
as providing unnecessary details about the past. It is also felt that the
examination paper rewards the memorization of these superfluous „facts‟
with the children‟s conceptual understanding being largely ignored. Any
effort to address the information overload in the social sciences will
simultaneously have to review the current examination system.
The social science curriculum has hitherto emphasized on
developmental issues. These are important but not sufficient to understand
the normative dimension like issues of equality, justice, and dignity in
society and polity. Teaching of the social science has thus been linked up
to the role of an individual in contributing to this „development‟. In view
of this gap, there is a need to achieve a shift in focus from utilitarianism
to egalitarianism that would address the normative concerns as mentioned.
There is an urgent need to restore self-esteem to the social sciences by
having themselves to address social and political issues in such a way as
to awaken in the students a real concern for social justice. Courses in
history have often ignored many sections of the society and many regions
of India, and it needs to be corrected. The study of history should enable
the learner to understand the past, which will make them to appreciate the
present and facilitate them to look at the future with a scientific view.
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1.1.4. Teaching the Social Sciences
Studying the social sciences at all levels of acquisition is vital for
many reasons. It enables the children
to understand the society in which they live to learn, how the society
is structured, managed, governed and also about the forces seeking to
transform and redirect society in various ways,
to appreciate the values enshrined in the Indian constitution such as
justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The unity and integrity of the
nation and the building of a socialist, secular and democratic society,
to grow up as active, responsible and reflective members of the society,
to learn to respect differences of opinion, lifestyle and cultural practices,
to question and examine received ideas, institutions and practices,
to acquire pleasure in reading by providing them with enjoyable reading
material, and
to undertake activities that will help them develop social and life skills
and make them understand that these skills are important for social
interaction.
In textbooks and in the classroom interaction, the context, language
and images should be comprehensible, gender-sensitive and critical of
social hierarchies and inequalities of all kinds prevailing in the society.
9
1.1.5. Secondary Stage Social Science
The objectives of teaching the social science at the secondary stage
are to develop among the learner analytical and conceptual skills to
enable him/her to
understand the process of economic and social change and development
with examples from modern and contemporary India and other parts of
the world,
critically examine social and economic issues and challenges like
poverty, child-labour, destitution, illiteracy and various other dimensions
of inequality,
understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a democratic
and secular society,
understand the roles and responsibili ties of the state in the fulfillment
of constitutional obligations,
understand the processes of change and development in India in
relation to the world economy and polity, and
appreciate the rights of local community in relation to their environment ,
the judicious utilization of resources as well as the need for the
conservation of the natural environment.
At the secondary stage, the social science comprises elements of
history, geography, political science and economics. The main focus will
10
be on contemporary India. Learner will be initiated in to a deeper
understanding of the social and economic challenges facing the nation. In
keeping with epistemic shift proposed, contemporary India will be
discussed from the multiple perspectives including the perspective of the
adivasi, dalit and other neglected populations and efforts should be made
to relate the content as much as possible to the children ‟s everyday lives.
1.1.6. Social Science Curriculum for Class IX
After completion of elementary education, the learner move to
secondary stage of schooling. This is a stage wherein the students will be
exposed to new dimensions of knowledge. The social sciences as a
subject will be taught with a different orientation. At this stage the
student by virtue of studying social sciences is expected to gain
comprehensive knowledge about the socio-cultural environment in which
she lives. The study of social science is vital for the learners to develop
an appreciation of the importance of history, heritage, culture, socio-
economic conditions and geographical environment of their nation. It
provides opportunities that help learners to become conscious citizens
and enable them to take social and economic decisions and inspire others
to perform similar roles. Civic attributes and values are also developed in
the learners. Hence, it was necessitated for the present researcher to
select IX class for the present study.
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1.1.7. Meaning of Social Science
Many people comment on the importance of social sciences vaguely,
without understanding the place of social sciences in one‟s own life and also
in the social context in modern times and how it will influence our future.
Science: The term „science‟ means a systematic study of any
phenomenon. According to Fairchild‟s Dictionary of Sociology.
“Science is a kind of human activity directed towards the systematic
statement of the probability of the hypothetic or actual recurrence of
phenomenon which is and are regarded as identical”.
Beisanz and Biesanz say, “Science goes with the method and not
with the subject matter”.
This means if the method of study is systematic and scientific then
whatever subject it might be it can be called a science.
The social sciences may thus be defined as those mental or cultural
sciences which deal with the activities of the individual as a member of a group.
Other scholars have defined the social sciences as
Social Sciences are a body of knowledge and thought pertaining to
human affairs as distinguished from sticks, stones, stars and physical
objects” – Charles Beard.
Social sciences, scholarly scientific study of human relationships
through detailed, systematic and logical syllabi in the constituent
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subjects, e.g. economics, psychology, sociology, social administration,
etc” – International Dictionary of Education (Page & Thomas, 1979).
The social sciences which deal with the human behaviour in its social
and cultural aspects include sociology, social and cultural anthropology,
social psychology, social and cultural geography, and those areas of
education that deal with the social context of learning and the relation
of the school to the social order” – The New Encyclopedia Britannica.
It is evident from all these definitions that the social sciences are
those sciences which study social and cultural phenomena of mankind in
a scientific manner.
1.1.8. Development of Social Sciences
On perusal of the historical development of social sciences as a
discipline of knowledge, one can phase into two distinct eras
(i) Older Social Sciences
Perhaps the earliest of the social sciences is politics or political science.
This was the chief concern of the Ancient Greeks.
On a somewhat lower plane, in the purview of the Greeks, stood the second
of the social sciences, economics. When in the 16th
century, the problems
of the requisition of wealth shifted from that of the individual salvation
to national strength and power, the way was advanced for the advent
of modern economics. Wattenille suggested the phrase political economy
and Adam Smith agreed to it. Today we speak of social i.e., economics.
13
The third of the older disciplines that one can trace back to the Greeks is
history. Greek scholars Herotodus and Thycidides were deeply interested
in it. The work of Herotodus history was close to the area of literature,
than to any other science. The work of Thycidides was history with
deep interest in state. In the 19th
century, history not only became for
more rigorous in its scientific method but it has extended its scope to
the inclusion of the manifold phenomena of human life, individual and
mass phenomena as well as those of formal political organizations.
The fourth of the older social sciences is jurisprudence. Even in primitive
societies, there were certain customs which hardened into the rigid
coercive relations that one call it law. The Romans primarily cultivated
this science of jurisprudence. Modern jurisprudence abandoning its
earlier claim to complete independence has been definitely recognized
as one of the social sciences.
(ii) New Social Sciences
The first of newer social sciences is anthropology - the study of man
and his works
The second of the newer social sciences is penology. Earlier penology
or criminal law was barbaric. Modern penology has come into intimate
relations with economic and social conditions in general. Now penology
as a social pathology is contributing in full measure to the understanding
of a normal social life.
14
The third of the newer social sciences is sociology. The French
philosopher Auguste Comte developed it in 1838. During the 1830‟s
he was engaged in the theoretical study of classification of knowledge
and while doing so he found that although there had then existed a
number of social sciences which situated society in one way or the
other. Yet none of them actually focused on and directly dealt with the
heart or the central point of society - the humans‟ relations. Realizing
this lacuna, he gave birth to sociology. Originally he named it social
physics, as he was keen to make it a science of society modeled on the
model of physics which is exact and based on cause and effect. He
thought of its two parts - social statics and social dynamics. In 1838,
he changed the name of his newly created social physics to sociology -
the scientific study of society. With the passage of time sociology
gained more prominence as a vital aspect of knowledge.
The intelligentsia of these academic circles strived to explore into the
minute details of social science and relate such outcomes for the
individual and social development. The social scientists who intend to
study the social sciences developed and used different approaches.
Each approach has contributed its uniqueness in understanding the
social phenomenon. This enabled the social scientists over a period of
time to understand and relate the social milieu for enrichment of
individual as well as social life. Therefore, it is pertinent in the present
context to look at the different approaches used by the social scientists.
Thus political science, economics, history, jurisprudence, anthropology,
penology and sociology are treated as pure social sciences.
15
1.1.9. Scope of Social Sciences
All the social sciences are ultimately concerned with the rational
understanding of society. However each focuses on the specific aspect of
the social phenomena being studied by it. The following recent definitions
of the social sciences provide ample idea of each one‟s scope
Political Science
“………study of the principles, methods and aims of governments”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Economics
“………study of the nature, production, consumption, distribution and
exchange of wealth”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Jurisprudence
“………study of the principles and knowledge of law”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Sociology
“………study of the social behaviour and social action of mankind,
examination of social systems and organization”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Sociology is now considered to be the most developed, comprehensive,
methodologically perfect and highly advanced social science. It is treated
as the “Mother of all Social Sciences” or the “Queen of all the Social
Sciences”. It has the largest number of social concepts and theories to
16
explain the entire human society. It has functional relationship with all
the other social sciences. One who does not know sociology cannot
understand any other social sciences properly. Even, the following branches
of knowledge are also having the close inter-relation with sociology.
Ethics
“………branch of philosophy concerned with morals and the
distinction between good and bad”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Philosophy
“………study of the forms of thought and arguments and grounds of
knowledge in other subjects”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Education
“………the total process of developing human ability and behaviour,
social process in which one achieves social competence and individual
growth”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)
“………organized and sustained instruction designed to communicate
a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all
the activities of life”. – UNESCO
Social Biology
“………serious study of living things both plants and living creatures”.
– International Dictionary of Education (1979)
17
Geography
“………study of the science and characteristics of the earthy surface
and its inhabitations”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)
Linguistics
“………study of language in its widest sense rather than simply as a means
of communication”. – International Dictionary of Education (1979)
1.1.10. Importance of Social Sciences
The study of social sciences is of great importance as they enlighten
the learners about the global human society, their national society and
culture. Further, it also delineates the natural relationships or linkages –
in the past as well as in the present and also help them in knowing the
futuristic trends. This knowledge helps them in understanding the various
problems and issues intellectually in a dispassionate and critical manner .
The study of social science enables the learners to know, understand,
appreciate and internalize functional human and social values and develop
proper and progressive attitudes.
1.1.11. Five Main Developments in the Approach of Social Science
Social Surveys / Social Research Tradition: Social surveys done by
Charles Booth in England, surveys done by the Chicago School in
USA and social surveys done by Fredrick Leplay in Germany.
Theoretical Social Science Approach: The notion of natural science
being theoretical influenced at least two social scientists – the French
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social anthropologist and sociologist Emile Durkheim and the Italian
sociologist Vilfredo Pareto. While Durkheim laid stress on „social
facts‟, Pareto laid stress on meta-theoretical insights and specific
theories in social sciences.
The German School of Thought Introduced a Different Approach: That
of Vertehen i.e., empathy and understanding, the great German
economist, political scientist and sociologist Max Weber introduced
the „hermerenic‟ or phenomenological approach.
All the above three scholars were most closely associated with
sociology and its history. Economics soon began to go its own way
Max Weber also gave another approach to make distinction between
knowledge and values prescription and description. This was explosive at
that time and it still continues to be that although political theory, moral
philosophy and jurisprudence have gone their ways. The study of social
philosophy has shifted from prescriptive to the analytical approach.
In addition to the above approaches, the present day social
scientists are also making use of the following methodological orientation
to understand the minute details of the social process
Empirical orientation of social science
Descriptive study of social phenomena
Use of sophisticated techniques
Consistent attempts at developing social theories
Developing social theories with political substance and intent
19
1.1.12. Aims of Social Science
An awareness of their land, people, resources, social and cultural
heritage and religious harmony
Creative ability to solve problems through acquisition of required
qualities of life such as the sense of right and wrong, justice, civic
rights and responsibilities, self-employment, healthy life pattern,
environmental awareness and personal accountability in the context of
global fraternity, human rights and democratic feeling.
1.1.13. Role of Social Scientists in India
Social scientists in the western countries have conducted many
researches and through them contributed most of the theoretical concepts,
hypotheses, theories and paradigms in the social sciences . Therefore,
they have been influencing and dominating the minds, researches and
writings in other countries including India for the last 150 years or so.
The pioneering Indian Sociologists have pointed out in their writings that
many of the concepts, theories and research paradigms of the western
(primarily American, British and German) social scientists are actually
unsuitable for a proper study of the Indian society.
Thus, for example, several western social scientists (like Talcott
Parsons) treat individual to be a free person who can take all responsibilities
and decisions by himself. But in the Indian society, an individual is not
free. He/she is placed in the social and cultural web of relationships,
20
traditions, duties, responsibilities and norms. Prof. Saran has mentioned
that the concepts of swadharma still appeals, guides and motivate the
impulses of many individuals in the Indian society.
Therefore, the western social science perspective and analytical
paradigm of the individual and society relationship do not actually apply
to the Indian society and culture. Many such examples are there still
unfortunately most of the Indian sociologists and other social scientists
have been uncritically accepting, adopting and using those foreign concepts ,
theories and analytical frames or paradigms. The same is reiterated by
Prof. Yogendra Singh, Emeritus Professor of Sociology of the Jawahar
Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, had voiced this very concern many
years ago in his paper “The Role of Social Science in India”.
The world renowned American sociologist and futurologist Alvin
Toffler in his revolutionary book “Future Shock (1970)” and many
subsequent writings has very emphatically stressed that social scientists
must be futuristic also in their perspective. They must anticipate the
trends of change and what kind of future societies – global and national
are going to be.
Globalization, global threats of religious fundamentalism, terrorism,
widening poverty, unemployment, sense of insecurity and natural hazards,
environmental pollution and moral crisis are forcing all social scientists
to focus their attention on these emergent problems of our planet Earth.
21
All those teachers who will be teaching as well as those who are
now teaching social sciences must know and understand all these aspects
of the social sciences and the emerging challenges facing social sciences.
This scenario will demand for new and innovative teaching
strategies to be followed by our school teachers to make the study of
social science more realistic and life enriching one.
In view of perplexing situation in teaching social science due to its
wider canvas of the subject matter and its relevance to emerging socio-
political concerns, the educational planners and practitioners were
compelled to search for new approaches in teaching social science at
school level. In this direction NCF-2005 mooted the idea of constructivism
and its application to classroom teaching. Accordingly, the textbooks in
social sciences were developed, teachers were given orientation to teach
the content through constructivist approach. Hence, it is felt appropriate
to study the effectiveness of constructivist approach in teaching social
science at secondary level.
Constructivism though emerged as most needed approach in
teaching it is pertinent to note that the constructivism as a teaching
strategy emerged itself out of the development of various theories of
learning. Therefore, it is appropriate to study the relevant theories of
learning so as to locate the base line philosophy of constructivism.
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1.2.0. Various Theories of Learning
Before looking into the various theories of learning, it is pertinent
to know what a theory is. In simple parlance, a theory provides a general
explanation for observations made over a period of time. A theory explains
and predicts behavior and a theory can never be established beyond all
doubt. A theory may be modified and theories seldom have to be thrown
out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely
accepted for a long time and later disproved.
1.3.0. Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism – The Basics
Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses
on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes au tomatic.
Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes
in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening
inside the learner‟s mind.
Constructivism: Based on the premises that one will construct his / her
own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema.
Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in
ambiguous situations.
1.3.1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle,
whose essay “Memory” focused on associations being made between
23
events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed
Aristotle‟s thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain
(1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).
The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt
behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It
views the mind as a “black box” in the sense that response to stimulus can
be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought
processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the development of
the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
1.3.2. Cognitivism
Behaviorism denies or ignores mental activity as the basis for
learning. Learning for behaviorists is determined by external environmental
structures that lead to reinforcement of behavior, rather than to mental
processing or conscious thought on the part of the learner. Cognitivists,
though, insist that there are mental processes “internal and conscious
representations of the world” that are essential for human learning.
Fontana (1981) summarizes the cognitive approach as follows:
“The cognitive approach holds that if one is to understand learning
one cannot confine oneself to observable behavior, but must also concern
oneself with the learner‟s ability/mentally to reorganize his psychological
field in response to his own experiences. This latter approach therefore
lays stress not only on the environment, but upon the way in which the
24
individual interprets and tries to make sense of the environment. It sees
the individual not as the mechanical product of his environment, but as an
active agent in the learning process, deliberately trying to process and
categorize the stream of information fed into him by the external world.”
Thus, the search for rules, principles, or relationships in processing
new information, and the search for meaning and consistency in reconciling
new information with previous knowledge, is key concepts in cognitive
psychology. Cognitive psychology is concerned with identifying and
describing mental processes. In some ways, basic mental processes are
often considered genetic or hard-wired but can be programmed or modified
by external factors, such as experience.
Cognitive approaches to learning cover a very wide range. On the
one hand, attempts have been made through areas such as artificial
intelligence to provide mechanical, electronic, and physical representations
of mental processes, reflecting very much as objectivist epistemological
position. On the other hand, teachers who place a strong emphasis on
learners‟ developing personal meaning through reflection, analysis, and
construction of knowledge through conscious mental processing would
indicate much more of a constructivist epistemological position. Cognitive
approaches to learning “with their focus on abstraction, generalization,
and creative thinking” seem to fit much better in higher education.
25
1.3.3. Concept and Perspectives of Constructivism
A sound theory of education ultimately rest upon a sound philosophy.
The theory and practice of education reflect the philosophical tenants of a
philosophy with which the system of education is conceived. As education
being ever progressive system and aim at meeting the learners and societal
needs always the system is subjected to scrutiny not only to ensure its
relevance but also see that it develops along with other subsystems of the
society. Accordingly the educational thinkers and planners put forth their
efforts and wisdom in modifying the existing practices and to add new
strategies to make education relevant to the life. A cursory look at the
changes taken place in education during the modern period enable us to
identify few significant events which were emphasized. They are
behaviorism, Cognitivism and constructivism. When we review the
theoretical bases of these approaches one will come across a contending
views for example, behaviorism focused more on the learner as an end
product of behavioural modification. Education instead of leading the
learning process, it should also focus on the source of the knowledge and
its acquisition process etc. Further the cognitivist approach ultimately
aimed at individual learners‟ acquisition of knowledge instead of
enabling them to know about the nature of the knowledge, the source of
knowledge and validity of the knowledge. This approach in education
emphasized more upon stuffing the mind of the child with some information
without making them how to make use that knowledge for life situations.
26
The cognitivist orientation to education ultimately resulted in making the
individual like a Robot instead of making them a complete being.
In such a perplexing situation the educational planners in the
country opted for constructivist approach in education. In this process ,
over a period of time, lot of intellectual discourses took place across the
country and ultimately realized that the constructivist approach is a
panacea to many of the ills that the present day Indian Education is suffering
with. The purpose of education today is not just to make the student well
informed but it is the responsibility of the system to prepare the individual
to face the challenges of the 21st
century more particularly in the context
of LPG. This can be attended to a greater extent by way of making the
individual learner to think and to construct the images of reality in the
context of their own abilities and socio-cultural backdrop. This approach
ultimately focused on the popular concept of “Individualized” education.
Therefore, it is necessitated to look into the historical backdrop of
constructivism along with its philosophical bases and their implications
to education.
Constructivism though a recent focal point of discussion in education
in our country, it has a long history beginning from early Greek thought
and has its traces in our ancient Indian Philosophy. However keeping in
view the scope of the study it is restricted to the recent definitions and
expressions of constructivism so as to understand its educational implications
more particularly their relevance in the Indian context.
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The review of available literature on constructivism indicates that
there are multiple perspectives on this concept. In educational context it
is not fair to accept any one perspective leaving others views on
constructivism. However an attempt has been made here to identify some
of the important and relevant definitions in the context of education.
Constructivism can be defined as that philosophical positions
which holds that any so called reality is, in the most immediate and
concrete sense, the mental construction of those who believe they have
discovered and investigated it. Constructivism is a wholistic – realistic
philosophy. It is an epistemology, a learning or meaning making theory
by itself. Further it also explains the nature of knowledge and how
human beings learn. The tenants of constructivist philosophy include the
need to situate learning and problem solving in real life context where the
environment is very rich in information (Mathew‟s 2002).
The constructivist perspectives be summarized deriving from a
philosophical position that the human being have no access to objective
reality, that is a reality independent of one‟s way of knowing. In
constructivism experience is the Central Point around which learning and
knowledge are generally interpreted (Simon 1995).
Jonassen (1991) observed “The mind is instrumental and essential
in interpreting events, objects and perspectives on the bases that is personal
and individualized”. It is construed from the above expressions that
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constructivism is a philosophy of learning and knowledge founded on the
premise that by reflecting on one‟s own experiences and construct their
own understanding of the World in which they live in. In such a context
one generates their own rules and mental models which they use to make
sense to their own experience. Learning therefore is simply the process
of adjusting one‟s own mental model to accommodate some new experiences.
The fundamental distinction in constructivism is that while
behaviourist view, knowledge as something that happens in response to
some external factors and cognitivist view knowledge as abstract and
symbolic representation inside the learners head, constructivist view
knowledge as constructed internally by each individual. Here the view of
knowledge differs from the “Knowledge as given and absolute” as
perceived by behaviourist. Constructivist focuses on knowledge
construction but not on “Knowledge Reproduction”.
1.3.4. Constructivism
Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the
predominant Behavioural Psychology in the 1970‟s, Constructivist Learning
Psychology has been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990 ‟s.
Constructivism can be seen as a philosophy as well as a set of
instructional practices. As a philosophy, constructivism suggests that
although there is a real world out there, there is no meaning inherent in it.
Thus, meaning is imposed by people and cultures. As a set of instructional
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practices, constructivism favors processes over end products; guided
discovery over expository learning; authentic, embedded learning situations
over abstracted, artificial ones; portfolio assessments over multiple-choice
exams, and so on. This distinction may suggest that one can be a constructivist
in philosophy without always using constructivist teaching methods.
Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on
the premise that cognition (learning) is the result of mental construction.
Knowledge is not received from outside, but by reflecting on our
experiences, by fitting new information together with what we already
know we construct knowledge in our head. Thus, we construct our own
understanding of the world we live in. Learning is the process of adjusting
our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Constructivist
theorists support that people learn best when they actively construct their
own understanding.
In the Constructivist theory the emphasis is placed on the learner
rather than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and
events and thereby gains an understanding of the features held by such
objects or events. The learners individually discover and transform
complex information constructing their own conceptualizations and
solutions to problems. In constructivist thinking learning is also affected
by the context, beliefs and attitudes of the learner.
There are two major stands of the constructivist perspective Cognitive
constructivism and Social constructivism; although different in emphasis
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they share the same basic assumption about learning. Jonassen (1994)
proposed that there are eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist
learning environments. These eight characteristics would be supported by
both social and cognitive constructivists
1) Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations
of reality.
2) Multiple representations avoid over simplification and represent the
complexity of the real world.
3) Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction
instead of knowledge reproduction.
4) Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a
meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context.
5) Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments
such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined
sequences of instruction.
6) Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection
on experience.
7) Constructivist learning environments enable context and content
dependent knowledge construction.
8) Constructivist learning environments support collaborative construction
of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among
learners for recognition.
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1.4.0. Principles of Learning
What are the guiding principles of constructivist thinking that one
must keep in mind when one consider his role as an educator. The
principle of constructivism is based on the belief that learning consists of
individuals‟ constructed meanings and then indicates how they influence
the process of education.
1) Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input
and constructs meaning out of it. The more traditional formulation of
this idea involves the terminology of the active learner (Dewey‟s
term) stressing that the learner needs to do something; that learning is
not the passive acceptance of knowledge which exists “out there” but
that learning involves the learners engaging with the world.
2) Pupils learn to learn as they learn: Learning consists both of
constructing meaning and constructing systems of meaning. For
example, if one learns the chronology of dates of a series of historical
events, simultaneously learning the meaning of a chronology. Each
meaning one construct makes better able to give meaning to other
sensations which can fit a similar pattern.
3) The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental : It happens in
the mind. Physical actions, hands-on experience may be necessary for
learning, especially for children, but it is not sufficient, one needs to
provide activities which engage the mind as well as the hands (Dewey
called this reflective activity).
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4) Learning involves language: The language one use influences learning.
On the empirical level, researchers have noted that people talk to
themselves as they learn. On a more general level, there is a collection
of arguments, presented most forcefully by Vygotsky, that language
and learning are inextricably intertwined. This point was clearly
emphasized in Elaine Gurain‟s reference to the need to honor native
language in developing North American exhibits. The desire to have
material and programs in their own language was an important
request by many members of various Native American communities.
5) Learning is a social activity: Our learning is intimately associated
with our connection with other human beings, our teachers, our peers,
our family as well as casual acquaintances, including the people
before us or next to us at the exhibit. One is more likely to be
successful in his efforts to educate if he recognizes this principle
rather than try to avoid it. Much of traditional education, as Dewey
pointed out, is directed towards isolating the learner from all social
interaction, and towards seeing education as a one-on-one
relationship between the learner and the objective material to be
learned. In contrast, progressive education (to continue to use
Dewey‟s formulation) recognizes the social aspect of learning and
uses conversation, interaction with others, and the application of
knowledge as an integral aspect of learning.
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6) Learning is contextual: One do not learn isolated facts and theories in
some abstract ethereal land of the mind separate from the rest of
lives; One learn in relationship to what else one know, what one
believe, prejudices and fears. On reflection, it becomes clear that this
point is actually a corollary of the idea that learning is active and
social. One cannot divorce learning from the lives.
7) One needs knowledge to learn: It is not possible to assimilate new
knowledge without having some structure developed from previous
knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we can learn.
Therefore any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the
learner must provide a path into the subject for the learner based on
that learner‟s previous knowledge.
8) It takes time to learn: Learning is not instantaneous. For significant
learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them out, play with
them and use them. This cannot happen in the 5-10 minutes usually
spent in a gallery (and certainly not in the few seconds usually spent
contemplating a single museum object). If you reflect on anything
you have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated
exposure and thought. Even, or especially, moments of profound
insight, can be traced back to longer periods of preparation.
9) Motivation is a key component in learning : Not only is it the case that
motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning. This idea of
motivation as described here is broadly conceived to include an
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understanding of ways in which the knowledge can be used. Unless
we know “the reasons why”, we may not be very involved in using
the knowledge that may be instilled in us. Even by the most severe
and direct teaching.
1.4.1. Constructivist Portrait of a Teacher
Constructivist teacher creates a context for learning, in which
students become engaged in activities which are interested to them and
facilitates learning. In the constructivist context the teacher is not
passive rather watch children and their activities explore and discover
new contexts. Further teacher also guide the students as they approach
problems and encourage them to work in groups to think about issues
and questions. Teachers thus facilitate cognitive growth and learning as
do peers and other members of the Child‟s Community. This stand by the
teacher provides the learners ever broadening tools to keep learning with
a planned classroom environment there by the students learn how to
learn. Ultimately the purpose of a constructivist teacher just opposite to
that of a traditional teacher is to make the students think for themselves
and not to wait for the teacher to tell them what to think.
It is obvious that a constructivist teacher must have positive
expectations. It implies that the teacher should believe that each student
can learn and be successful. It is often observed that the students usually
learn as much as teacher expect. Teachers who set high expectations for
35
their student will receive higher achievements from their students. The
main aspiration as a teacher is to help students to meet their fullest
potential by creating a congenial environment. Where in their students
feel safe, comfortable in taking risks with new learning and presents
them with opportunities to share their thoughts and ideas. In a constructivist
context the teacher should train and encourage the students to discover
principles by themselves. Further the teacher should also provide an
opportunity to their students to have a dialogue among themselves, their
peer and with their teachers. The main task of a teacher should be to
present the information in the classroom to be learnt by the student that
matches or close to the students‟ current level of learning. To make
constructivist teaching effective for better learning the curriculum should
be organized in a spiral manner so that the students continuously build
upon what they have already learned. Further the teachers should also
try to modify their teaching strategies so as to make them compatible to
the students‟ responses and to encourage the students to analyze, interpret
and predict information in the course of their learning.
1.5.0. Significance of the Study
Schools are expected to transmit knowledge to younger generations.
They are however, also criticized for providing so called inert knowledge.
The traditional classroom sometimes resembles one-person-show with
often uninvolved audience. Classes are usually dominated by the teachers,
whose instructions are often rely on textbooks for the content of the
36
course. The teachers seek to transfer their thought and meanings to the
passive students. There is little room for student initiated questions,
independent thought or interaction between the teacher and the students
or among the students. The goal of the learners is to regurgitate the
accepted explanation expostulated by the teacher. To improvise the
interaction, various strategies like discovery learning, joyful learning and
experimental learning were introduced.
The experimental learning is valuable and has shown to improve
motivation for learning, but it does not guarantee the construction of
knowledge that is required in the real world. Hence it requires a shift
from teachers-centered education to learners-centered education and now
it is towards learning-centered education. Here the emphasis is on the
process of learning rather than the individual, one proposed solution to
such a paradigm shift in teaching is „constructivism‟.
In constructivist approach, child constructs his own ideas from the
constructivist perspective, as Piaget stressed, knowing is an adaptive
activity. This means that one should think of knowledge as a kind of
compendium of concepts and actions that one has found to be successful
given the purpose one has in the mind. The importance lies in the fact
that mere book reading and rote memorization do not lead to meaningful
learning. The idea that we construct in our cognition and its application is
the true learning. This constructivist approach is said to improve the
students‟ achievement and certain cognitive skills.
37
1.6.0. Need of the Study
In the passing era, needs and desires of people and society are
changing. The old and traditional approaches are not enough for one‟s
new needs, so it is necessary that one should adopt some new paradigm to
teach and learn.
Since the late 1980‟s, there has been increased interest in non-
traditional teaching and learning paradigm, one such paradigm views
learning as an active construction of concepts and teaching as a supporting
role for this construction. This cognitive perspective of learning is called
„constructivism‟. Every child is a potential learner, it is the duty of
teacher that he provides them opportunities to learn more effectively.
Children are not blank slates. They have their own views and
concepts regarding everything. In constructivism, students construct
his/her knowledge based on his/her prior knowledge. They remain active
throughout the learning and follow pluralistic approach, and sharing of
thoughts. Teachers adapt the transformation approach.
This theory is being popular in European countries, but now the
efforts of adopting use of constructivism in teaching are made by
educational policies and National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005
throws light on constructivism. All children are naturally motivated and
capable of learning. They can construct their own knowledge. NCF has
suggested that curriculum should be reorganized in constructivist manner
38
and school administration and teacher should adopt it as soon as possible
according to the need of the country and the society. So it is appropriate
time to focus on re-engineering the educational technology and to
anticipate the need of the day that would decide the tools of tomorrow.
Hence, the researcher has taken up the present study.
1.7.0. Statement of the Problem
The present investigation was undertaken with an objective that the
findings will help to highlight the importance of constructivist approach
in classroom teaching, especially in social science. Wherein the attempts
for strengthening its teaching-learning process, constructivist approach
can be viewed as indispensable necessity.
The problem undertaken for the present study was stated as
“Constructivism and its Approach of Teaching Social Science at
Secondary Level – A Critical Survey in Telangana Region”
1.8.0. Operational Definitions of the Terms Used
The terms used are operationally defined as follows
Constructivism: Constructivist learning is based on students active
participation where they are „constructing‟ their own knowledge by
testing ideas and approaches based on their prior knowledge and
experience, applying these to new situations and integrating the new
knowledge gained with pre-existing intellectual constructs.
39
Constructivist Teaching: Teachers provide an environment in which students
are actively engaged in their own learning, and build their own knowledge
structures by investigating and discovering (Marlowe & Page, 1998).
Social Sciences: Social science is, in its broadest sense, the study of
society and the manner in which people behave and influence the world
around us. Further, it is the branch of science that studies society and the
relationships of individual within a society.
Social Studies: Is the title for the school subject that provides for a
systematic study of the social sciences in a coordinated, integrated fashion
Geography: The study of people and places, the natural environment,
and the capacity of the earth to support life
History: The systematic research, analysis, and interpretation of the past.
Civics (Political Science): The study of the origin, development, and
operation of political systems and public policy
Anthropology: The study of people to find out about their physical,
social, and cultural development
Sociology: The study of society and social behavior by examining
groups and social institutions such as the family, government,
religion, business, or school
Economics: The study of the production, distribution and
consumption of goods and services
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Key Differentiators between Social Studies and Social Science
Social studies is the study of all phases of societies whereas social
science is the inference of those studies with the intention of solving
problems within a society, which may lead to the ultimate
development of the society as a whole.
Social studies is the incorporated study of social science and
humanities to endorse efficient citizenry.
Secondary Education
Secondary school education comprises of four years duration, two
years of lower secondary and two years of senior secondary school
education. In most of the states, the lower secondary starts at the age of
14 years and ends at the 17th
year of the child. Admission requirement is
the completion of upper primary school education. Instruction is more
organized along subject-specifics. At the secondary level, a student has a
choice for particular subjects/vocations.
1.9.0. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The present study has been taken up with the following objectives
1) To study the place of constructivist approach in teaching social
science at secondary level.
2) To study the relationship, if there is any, between the various
demographic factors of the teachers and the students of social science
using constructivist approach in their teaching-learning respectively.
41
3) To study the perception of social science teachers on the use of
constructivism in their subject of teaching.
4) To study the extent of classroom management on the perception of
teachers in using constructivist approach in teaching social sciences at
secondary level.
5) To study the extent, the use of constructivist approach by the teachers
in their teaching learning activities at secondary level.
6) To study the extent of constructivist approach followed by the teachers
in assessing the performance of their students.
7) To assess the perceptions of secondary school students on the use of
constructivist approach in social science teaching and their learning.
8) To study the perceptions of secondary school students about the
teaching-learning materials used by their teachers while teaching
social sciences by following constructivist approach.
1.10.0. HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY
1) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
male and female secondary school teachers with respect to classroom
management in the context of constructivist approach.
2) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
secondary school senior teachers and junior teachers with respect to
classroom management in constructivist approach.
42
3) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
government and private secondary school teachers teaching social
sciences with respect to classroom management in constructivist
environment.
4) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
rural and urban secondary school teachers teaching social sciences
with respect to classroom management in constructivist classroom.
5) There is no statistically significant difference among secondary
school teachers who participated in orientation programme and
secondary school teachers who did not participate in orientation
programme with respect to classroom management where constructivist
approach is followed.
6) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe social
science teachers with respect to classroom management in
constructivist classroom.
7) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
male and female secondary school teachers with respect to their
teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.
8) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
secondary school senior teachers and junior teachers with respect to
teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.
43
9) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
government and private secondary school teachers teaching social
sciences with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist
classroom.
10) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
rural and urban secondary school teachers teaching social sciences
with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist classroom.
11) There is no statistically significant difference among secondary
school teachers who participated in orientation programme and
secondary school teachers who did not participate in orientation
programme with respect to teaching learning activities in constructivist
classroom.
12) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe social
science teachers with respect to teaching learning activities in
constructivist classroom.
13) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
male and female secondary school teachers with respect to student
assessment in constructivist classroom.
14) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
secondary school senior teachers and junior teachers with respect to
assessment in constructivist context.
44
15) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
government and private secondary school teachers teaching social
sciences with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.
16) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
rural and urban secondary school teachers teaching social sciences
with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.
17) There is no statistically significant difference among secondary
school teachers who participated in orientation programme and
secondary school teachers who did not participate in orientation
programme with respect to assessment in constructivist classroom.
18) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste and scheduled tribe social
science teachers with respect to assessment in constructivist approach.
19) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
male and female secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching / learning.
20) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
government and private secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching / learning.
21) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
rural and urban secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching / learning.
45
22) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe social
science students with respect to constructivist social science teaching
/ learning.
23) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
male and female secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching material .
24) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
government and private secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching material .
25) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
rural and urban secondary school students with respect to
constructivist social science teaching material.
26) There is no statistically significant difference in the perception of
other caste, backward caste, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe social
science students with respect to constructivist social science teaching
material.
46
1.11.0. Delimitations of the Study
As stated earlier, the present research was aimed at to investigate
the impact of constructivist approach on teaching social sciences. Hence,
this study too had certain constraints of space, time and resources as may
be the case in any such similar studies.
1) The area of investigation was restricted to study the perceptions of
teachers of social sciences only in the Telangana region of Andhra
Pradesh.
2) Owing to paucity of time, the study was confined to the cognitive
constructivism in teaching social sciences at the secondary level in
the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.
3) The study is confined only to the secondary schools following the
CBSE curriculum.
4) The perceptions of teachers teaching social sciences alone were taken
into consideration.
5) The perceptions of students studying in the CBSE secondary schools
only were considered for the present investigation.
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Chapter – II
Introduction
One of the most indispensable parts of any research work is
reviewing the literature. This implies synthesizing and going into the
works or researches that have already been carried in the field over a
period of time. This helps an investigator in many ways like knowing
quantum of work done, knowing how to tackle the problem on hand and
avoiding the risk involved in duplication. Besides, it gives an
understanding of the problem related to the field, essentially, review
economizes time and resources of the investigator.
In order to prepare a base for defining the problem precisely, for
making interpretation of data meaningfully and for making comparisons
among similar studies, the investigator reviewed the available literature
extensively. The review provides an insight into various dimensions of
the problem and related issues at different stages. In this attempt, the
investigator was selective and reviewed researches, which have direct
bearing on the present study.
The prime purpose of the following paragraphs is to provide a
comprehensive and explicit picture of the related studies and show how
the present study contributes in extending the outcome of constructivism
equip the teachers in teaching social sciences at the secondary level.
Further, it also helps to identify the gaps, if any, in the research and
serves as a backdrop to interpret the results of the study.